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91-562: In the mid-1980s, Lithuania's Communist Party leadership hesitated to embrace Gorbachev's perestroika and glasnost . The death of Petras Griškevičius , first secretary of the Communist Party of Lithuania , in 1987 was merely followed by the appointment of another rigid communist, Ringaudas Songaila . However, encouraged by the rhetoric of Mikhail Gorbachev , noting the strengthening position of Solidarity in Poland and encouraged by

182-521: A "dual pricing" system leading to the steady phasing out of state-dictated prices. Greater latitude was given to managers of state-owned factories, while capital was made available to them through a reformed banking system and through fiscal policies (in contrast to the fiscal anarchy and fall in revenue experienced by the Soviet government during perestroika ). Perestroika was expected to lead to results such as market pricing and privately sold produce, but

273-571: A collection of 2 million signatures to demand withdrawal of the Red Army from Lithuania. The Communist Party of Lithuania was deliberating the possibility of splitting off from the Communist Party of the Soviet Union . On 8 August 1989, Estonians attempted to amend election laws to limit voting rights of new immigrants (mostly Russian workers). This provoked mass strikes and protests by Russian workers. Moscow gained an opportunity to present

364-846: A commission of the Supreme Soviet of the Lithuanian SSR announced that the occupation in 1940 was a direct result of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact and therefore illegal. It was the first time that an official Soviet body challenged the legitimacy of the Soviet rule. In the light of glasnost and perestroika , street demonstrations had been increasingly growing in popularity and support. On 23 August 1986, Black Ribbon Day demonstrations were held in 21 western cities including New York , Ottawa , London , Stockholm , Seattle , Los Angeles , Perth , and Washington, DC to bring worldwide attention to human rights violations by

455-550: A copy. One effect was the abrupt demand for Russian dictionaries in order to understand the content of Gorbachev's report. In an interview with Mieczyslaw Rakowski he states the success of perestroika was impossible without glasnost . During the 1980s and 1990s the United States President George H. W. Bush pledged solidarity with Gorbachev, but never brought his administration into supporting Gorbachev's reform. In fact, "no bailout for Gorbachev"

546-518: A court (at the time all three Baltic states had amended their constitutions giving their Supreme Soviets the right to veto national laws) and the right to promote their national languages to the level of the official state language (at the same time the project emphasised the leading role of the Russian language). The project also included laws banning "nationalist and chauvinist organisations", which could be used to persecute pro-independence groups in

637-448: A moral, and not just political question: reclaiming independence would be restoration of historical justice and liquidation of Stalinism. It was an emotional event, strengthening the determination to seek independence. The protest highlighted that the pro-independence movements, established just a year before, became more assertive and radical: they shifted from demanding greater freedom from Moscow to full independence. In December 1989,

728-535: A number of local gatherings and protests took place. In Vilnius, about 5,000 people gathered in the Cathedral Square , holding candles and singing national songs, including Tautiška giesmė . Elsewhere, priests held masses or rang church bells. Leaders of the Estonian and Latvian Popular Fronts gathered on the border between their two republics for a symbolic funeral ceremony, in which a giant black cross

819-470: A part in the difficulty of controlling the pace of restructuring, especially once the new Russian Communist Party was formed and posed a challenge to the primacy of the CPSU . Gorbachev described this process as a " parade of sovereignties " and identified it as the factor that most undermined the gradualism of restructuring and the preservation of the Soviet Union. One of the final important measures taken on

910-445: A potentially large domestic market. The foreign partner supplied capital, technology, entrepreneurial expertise, and in many cases, products and services of world competitive quality. Gorbachev's economic changes did not do much to restart the country's sluggish economy in the late 1980s. The reforms decentralized things to some extent, although price controls remained, as did the ruble's inconvertibility and most government controls over

1001-494: A sensible thing to do—easing Russia's difficult transition from totalitarianism to democracy. What I had in mind in the first place, was the participation [of the West] in conversion of defense industries, the modernization of light and food industries, and Russia's inclusion on an equal-member footing in the frameworks of the international economic relations... [U]nlike some democrats, I did not expect "manna from Heaven," but counted on

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1092-516: A significant audience in the Baltics. Sharp criticism of Baltic Communist Parties was interpreted as signalling that Moscow would attempt to replace their leadership. However, almost immediately after the broadcast, the tone in Moscow began to soften and the Soviet authorities failed to follow up on any of their threats. Eventually, according to historian Alfred Erich Senn , the pronouncement became

1183-631: A source of embarrassment. President of the United States George H. W. Bush and chancellor of West Germany Helmut Kohl urged peaceful reforms and criticised the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. On 31 August, the Baltic activists issued a joint declaration to Javier Pérez de Cuéllar , Secretary-General of the United Nations . They claimed to be under threat of aggression and asked for an international commission to be sent to monitor

1274-590: A speech in Leningrad in which he admitted the slowing of economic development, and inadequate living standards. The program was furthered at the 27th Congress of the Communist Party in Gorbachev's report to the congress, in which he spoke about " perestroika ", " uskoreniye " (acceleration), "human factor", " glasnost " (transparency), and "expansion of the khozraschyot " (accounting). During

1365-485: Is that Soviet Union faced strong secession threats from its ethnic regions and a primacy challenge by the RSFSR . Gorbachev's extension of regional autonomy removed the suppression from existing ethnic-regional tension, while Deng's reforms did not alter the tight grip of the central government on any of their autonomous regions. The Soviet Union's dual nature, part supranational union of republics and part unitary state, played

1456-557: Is unclear when and by whom the idea of a human chain was advanced. It appears that the idea was proposed during a trilateral meeting in Pärnu on 15 July. An official agreement between the Baltic activists was signed in Cēsis on 12 August. Local Communist Party authorities approved the protest. At the same time several different petitions, denouncing Soviet occupation, were gathering hundreds of thousands of signatures. The organisers mapped out

1547-540: The Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union published a project of new policy regarding the union republics in Pravda . However, this project offered few new ideas: it preserved Moscow's leadership not only in foreign policy and defense, but also in economy, science, and culture. The project made a few cautious concessions: it proposed the republics have the right to challenge national laws in

1638-595: The Congress of People's Deputies accepted and Mikhail Gorbachev signed the report by Yakovlev's commission condemning the secret protocols of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. In February 1990, the first free democratic elections to the Supreme Soviets took place in all three Baltic states and pro-independence candidates won majorities. On 11 March 1990, within seven months of the Baltic Way, Lithuania became

1729-704: The Democratic Labour Party (DLP; the former Communist Party of Lithuania) was victorious in the Seimas elections of that year . Many of the group, including Landsbergis, formed the core of the Homeland Union , now the largest centre-right party in Lithuania. Perestroika Perestroika ( / ˌ p ɛr ə ˈ s t r ɔɪ k ə / PERR -ə- STROY -kə ; Russian: перестройка , IPA: [pʲɪrʲɪˈstrojkə] )

1820-701: The Twenty-Seventh Party Congress in February 1986 required more than discrediting the " Old Guard ", those with a Marxist-Leninist political orientation. He changed his strategy from trying to work through the CPSU as it existed and instead embraced a degree of political liberalization. In January 1987, he appealed over the heads of the party to the people and called for democratization. Earlier members of local soviets were appointed by local Communist Party branches, now they were to be elected by

1911-519: The United States needed help with Germany's reunification , Gorbachev proved to be instrumental in bringing solutions to the "German problem" and Bush acknowledged that "Gorbachev was moving the USSR in the right direction". Bush, in his own words, even gave praise to Gorbachev "to salute the man" in acknowledgment of the Soviet leader's role as "the architect of perestroika ... [who had] conducted

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2002-486: The "ideas" of late Lenin . A group of true, not imaginary reformers developed (of course, orally) the following plan: to strike with the authority of Lenin at Stalin , at Stalinism . And then, if successful, – to strike with Plekhanov and Social Democracy – at Lenin, and then – with liberalism and "moral socialism" – at revolutionarism in general... The Soviet totalitarian regime could be destroyed only through glasnost and totalitarian party discipline, while hiding behind

2093-600: The 1990s. Gorbachev's reforms were gradualist and maintained many of the macroeconomic aspects of the planned economy (including price controls, inconvertibility of the ruble, exclusion of private property ownership, and the government monopoly over most means of production). Reform was largely focused on industry and on cooperatives, and a limited role was given to the development of foreign investment and international trade. Factory managers were expected to meet state demands for goods, but to find their own funding. Perestroika reforms went far enough to create new bottlenecks in

2184-449: The 40 districts in which they ran. In February 1989 Sąjūdis declared that Lithuania had been forcibly annexed by the Soviet Union and that the group's ultimate goal was the restoration of Lithuanian independence. Lithuanian sovereignty was proclaimed in May 1989, and Lithuania's incorporation into the Soviet Union was declared illegal. On 23 August 1989, the 50th anniversary of the signing of

2275-417: The Baltic activists to publicise the Soviet rule and position the question of Baltic independence not only as a political matter, but also as a moral issue. The Soviet authorities responded to the event with intense rhetoric, but failed to take any constructive actions that could bridge the widening gap between the Baltic republics and the rest of the Soviet Union. Seven months after the protest Lithuania became

2366-464: The Baltic republics. In December the Communist Party of Lithuania seceded from the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and agreed to give up its monopoly on power. In February 1990 Sąjūdis representatives (or candidates that were supported by the movement) won an absolute majority (101 seats out of 141) in the Supreme Council of the Lithuanian SSR . Vytautas Landsbergis was elected chairman of

2457-574: The Baltic states to the USSR, even though the protocol texts had been used as evidence during the Nuremberg Trials and had been published worldwide by Western scholars. Soviet propaganda also maintained that there was no occupation and that all three Baltic states had voluntarily joined the Union – the People's Parliaments had expressed people's will when they petitioned the Supreme Soviet of

2548-599: The Baltics, and a proposal to replace the Treaty on the Creation of the USSR of 1922 with a new unifying agreement, which would be part of the Soviet constitution. On 18 August, Pravda published an extensive interview with Alexander Nikolaevich Yakovlev , chairman of a 26-member commission set up by the Congress of People's Deputies to investigate the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact and its secret protocols. During

2639-542: The Nazi–Soviet Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact , a 600-kilometre, two-million-strong human chain reaching from Tallinn to Vilnius focused international attention on the aspirations of the Baltic nations. This demonstration and the coordinated efforts of the three nations became known as the Baltic Way . Days after the rally, the federal Supreme Soviet soon made public its admission of the forced accession of

2730-651: The Pope and the U.S. Government, Baltic independence activists began to hold public demonstrations in Riga , Tallinn , and Vilnius . At a meeting at the Lithuanian Academy of Sciences on 3 June 1988, communist and non-communist intellectuals formed Sąjūdis Initiative Group (Lithuanian: Sąjūdžio iniciatyvinė grupė ) to organise a movement to support Gorbachev's program of glasnost, democratisation, and perestroika. The group composed of 35 members, mostly artists. 17 of

2821-637: The Soviet Joint Venture Law, which went into effect in June 1987, limited foreign shares of a Soviet venture to 49 percent and required that Soviet citizens occupy the positions of chairman and general manager. After potential Western partners complained, the government revised the regulations to allow majority foreign ownership and control. Under the terms of the Joint Venture Law, the Soviet partner supplied labor, infrastructure, and

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2912-463: The Soviet Union to be admitted into the Union. The Baltic states claimed that they were forcefully and illegally incorporated into the Soviet Union. Popular opinion was that the secret protocols proved that the occupation was illegal. Such an interpretation of the Pact had major implications for the Baltics' public policy. If Baltic diplomats could link the Pact and the occupation, they could claim that

3003-582: The Soviet Union were instructed about Sąjūdis goals. About 100,000 people in Vingis Park greeted the delegates when they came back in July. Another massive event took place on 23 August 1988, when about 250,000 people gathered to protest against the Molotov–Ribbentrop pact and its secret protocol. On 19 June 1988, the first issue of samizdat newspaper "Sąjūdis News" (Lithuanian: Sąjūdžio žinios )

3094-511: The Soviet Union , Gorbachev presented his "basic theses", which laid the political foundation of economic reform for the remainder of the existence of the Soviet Union. In July 1987, the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union passed the Law on State Enterprise. The law stipulated that state enterprises were free to determine output levels based on demand from consumers and other enterprises. Enterprises had to fulfil state orders, but they could dispose of

3185-471: The Soviet Union military assistance in case it decided to use force and break up the demonstration. On 15 August 1989, in response to worker strikes in Estonia, Pravda , the official daily newspaper of the Soviet Union, published sharp criticism of "hysteria" driven by "extremist elements" pursuing selfish "narrow nationalist positions" against the greater benefit of the entire Soviet Union. On 17 August,

3276-410: The Soviet Union on its irreversible, but immensely complicated road to democracy....[T]he sooner, the more quickly, and the more peacefully the Soviet Union begins to move along the road toward genuine political pluralism, respect for the rights of nations to their own integrity and to a working—that is a market—economy, the better it will be, not just for Czechs and Slovaks, but for the whole world. When

3367-480: The Soviet Union's foreign economic sector with measures that Soviet economists considered bold at that time. His program virtually eliminated the monopoly that the Ministry of Foreign Trade had once held on most trade operations. It permitted the ministries of the various industrial and agricultural branches to conduct foreign trade in sectors under their responsibility, rather than having to operate indirectly through

3458-559: The Soviet Union. In 1987, Black Ribbon Day protests were held in 36 cities including Vilnius , Lithuania. Protests against the Molotov Ribbentrop Pact were also held in Tallinn and Riga in 1987. In 1988, for the first time, such protests were sanctioned by the Soviet authorities and did not end in arrests. The activists planned an especially large protest for the 50th anniversary of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact in 1989. It

3549-490: The Soviet economy but arguably did not go far enough to effectively streamline it. Chinese economic reform was, by contrast, a bottom-up attempt at reform, focusing on light industry and agriculture (namely allowing peasants to sell produce grown on private holdings at market prices). Economic reforms were fostered through the development of " Special Economic Zones ", designed for export and to attract foreign investment, municipally managed Township and Village Enterprises and

3640-409: The Soviet rule in the republics had no legal basis and therefore all Soviet laws had been null and void since 1940. Such a position would automatically terminate the debate over reforming Baltic sovereignty or establishing autonomy within the Soviet Union – the states would have never belonged de jure to the union in the first place. This would open the possibility of restoring legal continuity of

3731-529: The Supreme Council. This led to the declaration of the restoration of independence on 11 March 1990, with Landsbergis becoming the first leader of a restored Lithuania. Today, Sąjūdis is still active in Lithuania , but it has lost almost all its influence. With independence gained, reform communists and Vilnius liberal intellectuals left Sąjūdis about a month later. One of the reasons of this event,

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3822-427: The Union dissolved before advanced stages were reached. Another fundamental difference is that where perestroika was accompanied by greater political freedoms under Gorbachev's glasnost policies, Chinese economic reform has been accompanied by continued authoritarian rule and a suppression of political dissidents , most notably at Tiananmen Square . Gorbachev acknowledged this difference but maintained that it

3913-534: The West's lack of aid, for example; the "in-house Gorbi-skeptics" advocacy, the expert community's consensus about the undesirability of rushing U.S. aid to Gorbachev, strong opposition to any bailout at many levels including foreign-policy conservatives, the U.S. Congress, and the American public at large. The West seemed to miss an opportunity to gain significant influence over the Soviet government. The Soviets aided in

4004-752: The Western statesmen to use their common sense. President George H.W. Bush continued to dodge helping the Russians and the President of Czechoslovakia , Václav Havel , laid bare the linkage for the Americans in his address to a joint session of Congress on 21 February 1990: ... I often hear the question: How can the United States of America help us today? My reply is as paradoxical as the whole of my life has been: You can help us most of all if you help

4095-412: The affairs of the Soviet Union with great restraint as Poland and Czechoslovakia and GDR... and other countries [that had] achieved their independence", and who was "under extraordinary pressure at home, particularly on the economy." Baltic Way The Baltic Way ( Lithuanian : Baltijos kelias ; Latvian : Baltijas ceļš ; Estonian : Balti kett ) or Baltic Chain (also "Chain of Freedom" )

4186-490: The bureaucracy of trade ministry organizations. In addition, regional and local organizations and individual state enterprises were permitted to conduct foreign trade. This change was an attempt to redress a major imperfection in the Soviet foreign trade regime: the lack of contact between Soviet end users and suppliers and their foreign partners. Alexander Yakovlev was considered to be the intellectual force behind Gorbachev's reform program of glasnost and perestroika . In

4277-408: The bus rides. On the day of the event, special radio broadcasts helped to coordinate the effort. Estonia declared a public holiday. The Baltic pro-independence movements issued a joint declaration to the world and European community in the name of the protest. The declaration condemned the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, calling it a criminal act, and urged declaration that the pact was "null and void from

4368-492: The chain physically possible, an attendance of approximately 200,000 people was required in each state. Video footage taken from airplanes and helicopters showed an almost continuous line of people across the countryside. "Matters have gone far. There is a serious threat to the fate of the Baltic peoples . People should know the abyss into which they are being pushed by their nationalistic leaders. Should they achieve their goals,

4459-420: The chain, designating specific locations to specific cities and towns to make sure that the chain would be uninterrupted. Free bus rides were provided for those who did not have other transportation. Preparations spread across the country, energising the previously uninvolved rural population. Some employers did not allow workers to take the day off from work (23 August fell on a Wednesday), while others sponsored

4550-544: The concept of class struggle , priority of universal human interests over the interests of any class, increasing interdependence of the world, and mutual security based on political rather than military instruments. The doctrine constituted a significant shift from the previous principles of the Soviet foreign politics . This marked the end of the Cold War . Gorbachev had concluded that implementing his reforms outlined at

4641-484: The constituent republics. Gorbachev first used the term in a speech during his visit to Tolyatti in 1986. Perestroika lasted from 1985 until 1991, and is often argued to be a significant cause of the collapse of the Eastern Bloc and the dissolution of the Soviet Union . With respect to the foreign policy Gorbachev promoted " new political thinking ": de-ideologization of international politics, abandoning

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4732-543: The continuation of the movement was a report from the central committee meeting of the CPSU titled "On Reorganization and the Party's Personnel Policy". Gorbachev emphasized the need of a faster political personnel turnover and of a policy of democratization that opened the political elections to multiple candidates and to non-party members. This report was in such high demand in Prague and Berlin that many people could not get

4823-552: The environment, the halt to construction on a third nuclear reactor at the Ignalina nuclear power plant , and disclosure of the secret protocols of the Nazi-Soviet Non-aggression Pact, signed in 1939. Sąjūdis used mass meetings to advance its goals. At first, Communist Party leaders shunned these meetings, but by mid-1988 their participation became a political necessity. A Sąjūdis rally on 24 June 1988,

4914-436: The events as an "inter-ethnic conflict" – it could then position itself as "peacemaker" restoring order in a troubled republic. The rising tensions in anticipation of the protest spurred hopes that Moscow would react by announcing constructive reforms to address the demands of the Baltic people. At the same time fears grew of violent clampdown. Erich Honecker from East Germany and Nicolae Ceaușescu from Romania offered

5005-464: The expansion of Western capitalism to allow for an inflow of Western investments, but the perestroika managers failed. President Bush had the opportunity to aid the Soviet Union in a way to bring closer ties between the governments, like Harry S. Truman did for many nations in Western Europe. Early on, as perestroika was getting under way, I felt like the West might come along and find it

5096-687: The first Soviet republic to declare independence. After the Revolutions of 1989 , 23 August has become an official remembrance day both in the Baltic countries, in the European Union and in other countries, known as the Black Ribbon Day or as the European Day of Remembrance for Victims of Stalinism and Nazism . The Soviet Union denied the existence of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact 's secret protocols which had ceded control of

5187-536: The first Soviet state to declare independence. The independence of all three Baltic states was recognised by most western countries by the end of 1991. This protest was one of the earliest and longest unbroken human chains in history. Similar human chains were later organised in many East European countries and regions of the USSR and, more recently, in Taiwan ( 228 Hand-in-Hand Rally ) and Catalonia ( Catalan Way ). On

5278-507: The following day that about 700,000 Estonians and 1,000,000 Lithuanians joined the protests. The Latvian Popular Front estimated an attendance of 400,000. Prior to the event, the organisers expected an attendance of 1,500,000 out of the about 8,000,000 inhabitants of the three states. Such expectations predicted 25–30% turnout among the native population. According to the official Soviet numbers, provided by TASS, there were 300,000 participants in Estonia and nearly 500,000 in Lithuania. To make

5369-535: The group members were also communist party members. Its goal was to organise the Sąjūdis Reform Movement, which became known subsequently simply as Sąjūdis. On 21 June 1988, the first massive gathering organised by Sąjūdis took place at Soviet Square near Soviet Palace . Three days later gathering took place in Gediminas' Square . There delegates to the 19th All-Union Conference of the Communist Party of

5460-481: The independent states that had existed during the interwar period. Claiming that no Soviet laws had legal power in the Baltics would also cancel the need to follow the Constitution of the Soviet Union and other formal secession procedures. In anticipation of the 50th anniversary of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, tensions were rising between the Baltics and Moscow. Lithuanian politician Romualdas Ozolas initiated

5551-420: The initial period (1985–87) of Mikhail Gorbachev's time in power, he talked about modifying central planning but did not make any truly fundamental changes ( uskoreniye ; "acceleration"). Gorbachev and his team of economic advisors then introduced more fundamental reforms, which became known as perestroika (restructuring). At the June 1987 plenary session of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of

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5642-528: The initiative group. Vytautas Landsbergis , a professor of musicology, who was not a member of the communist party, became the council's chairman. The movement supported Gorbachev's policies, but at the same time promoted Lithuanian national issues such as restoration of the Lithuanian language as the official language. Its demands included the revelation of truth about the Stalinist years, protection of

5733-444: The interests of improving socialism. [...] Looking back, I can proudly say that a clever, but very simple tactic – the mechanisms of totalitarianism against the system of totalitarianism – has worked. The most significant of Gorbachev's reforms in the foreign economic sector allowed foreigners to invest in the Soviet Union in the form of joint ventures with Soviet ministries, state enterprises, and cooperatives. The original version of

5824-424: The interview, Yakovlev admitted that the secret protocols were genuine. He condemned the protocols, but maintained that they had no impact on the incorporation of the Baltic states. Thus Moscow reversed its long-standing position that the secret protocols did not exist or were forgeries, but did not concede that events of 1940 constituted an occupation. It was clearly not enough to satisfy the Baltics and on 22 August,

5915-419: The law shifted control over the enterprise operations from ministries to elected workers' collectives. Gosplan 's responsibilities were to supply general guidelines and national investment priorities. The Law on Cooperatives , enacted in May 1988, was perhaps the most radical of the economic reforms during the early part of the Gorbachev era. For the first time since Vladimir Lenin 's New Economic Policy

6006-455: The means of production. Perestroika and Deng Xiaoping 's economic reforms have similar origins but very different effects on their respective countries' economies. Both efforts occurred in large socialist countries attempting to liberalize their economies, but while China's GDP has grown consistently since the late 1980s (albeit from a much lower level), national GDP in the USSR and in many of its successor states fell precipitously throughout

6097-524: The moment of signing". The declaration said that the question of the Baltics was a "problem of inalienable human rights " and accused the European community of "double standards" and turning a blind eye to the "last colonies of Hitler–Stalin era". On the day of the protest, Pravda published an editorial titled "Only the Facts". It was a collection of quotes from pro-independence activists intended to show

6188-513: The nominal privilege of withholding approval of the listed candidates. By the time of the Twenty-Eighth Party Congress in July 1990, it was clear that Gorbachev's reforms came with sweeping, unintended consequences , as nationalities of the constituent republics of the Soviet Union pulled harder than ever to break away from the Union and ultimately dismantle the Communist Party. In May 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev gave

6279-686: The outbreak of World War II in September 1939 and the Soviet invasion and occupation of the Baltic countries in June 1940. The 1989 event was organised by the Baltic pro-independence movements: Rahvarinne of Estonia, the Tautas fronte of Latvia, and Sąjūdis of Lithuania, to draw global attention by demonstrating a popular desire for independence and showcasing solidarity among the three nations. It has been described as an effective publicity campaign, and an emotionally captivating and visually stunning scene. The event presented an opportunity for

6370-551: The peace, petty vandalism, and other offences. About 13,000 demonstrated in the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic which was also affected by the secret protocol. A demonstration was held by the Baltic émigré and German sympathizers in front of the Soviet embassy in Bonn , then West Germany . Most estimates of the number of participants vary between one and two million. Reuters News reported

6461-441: The people from among various candidates. The March 1989 election of the Congress of People's Deputies of the Soviet Union marked the first time that voters of the Soviet Union ever chose the membership of a national legislative body. The results of the election stunned the ruling elite. Throughout the country, voters crossed unopposed Communist candidates off the ballot, many of them prominent party officials, taking advantage of

6552-550: The possible consequences could be catastrophic to these nations. A question could arise as to their very existence." Declaration of the Central Committee on the situation in the Soviet Baltic republics, 26 August On 26 August 1989, a pronouncement from the Central Committee of the Communist Party was read during the opening 19 minutes of Vremya , the main evening news program on Soviet television. It

6643-541: The pronouncement, such developments would lead to an "abyss" and "catastrophic" consequences. The workers and peasants were called on to save the situation and defend Soviet ideals. Overall, there were mixed messages: while indirectly threatening the use of force, it also placed hopes that the conflict could be solved via diplomatic means. It was interpreted that the Central Committee had not yet decided which way to go and had left both possibilities open. The call to pro-Soviet masses illustrated that Moscow believed it still had

6734-434: The remaining output as they saw fit. However, at the same time the state still held control over the means of production for these enterprises, thus limiting their ability to enact full-cost accountability. Enterprises bought input from suppliers at negotiated contract prices. Under the law, enterprises became self-financing; that is, they had to cover expenses (wages, taxes, supplies, and debt service) through revenues. Finally,

6825-490: The situation. On 19–20 September, the Central Committee of the Communist Party convened to discuss the nationality question – something Mikhail Gorbachev had been postponing since early 1988. The plenum did not specifically address the situation in the Baltic states and reaffirmed old principles regarding the centralised Soviet Union and the dominant role of the Russian language . It did promise some increase in autonomy, but

6916-562: The summer of 1985, Yakovlev became head of the propaganda department of the CPSU Central Committee. He argued in favor of the reform programs and played a key role in executing those policies. After the XX Congress , in an ultra-narrow circle of our closest friends and associates, we often discussed the problems of democratization of the country and society. We chose a simple – like a sledgehammer – method of propagating

7007-485: The three Baltic countries constituent republics of the Soviet Union . The demonstration originated in " Black Ribbon Day " protests held in the western cities in the 1980s. It marked the 50th anniversary of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact , in which Poland, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Romania were (as " spheres of influence ") divided between the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany . The Soviet-Nazi pact led to

7098-1048: The unacceptable anti-Soviet nature of their work. The chain connected the three Baltic capitals – Vilnius , Riga , and Tallinn . It ran from Vilnius along the A2 highway through Širvintos and Ukmergė to Panevėžys , then along the Via Baltica through Pasvalys to Bauska in Latvia and through Iecava and Ķekava to Riga ( Bauska highway , Ziepniekkalna street, Mūkusalas street, Stone bridge , Kaļķu street, Brīvības street) and then along road A2 , through Vangaži , Sigulda , Līgatne , Mūrnieki and Drabeši , to Cēsis , from there, through Lode, to Valmiera and then through Jēči , Lizdēni , Rencēni  [ et ] , Oleri , Rūjiena and Ķoņi to Estonian town Karksi-Nuia and from there through Viljandi , Türi and Rapla to Tallinn. The demonstrators peacefully linked hands for 15 minutes at 19:00 local time (16:00 GMT ). Later,

7189-451: Was a consistent policy line of the Bush administration, further demonstrating the lack of true support from the West. President Bush had a financial policy to aid perestroika that was shaped by a minimalist approach, foreign-policy convictions that set Bush up against other U.S. internal affairs, and a frugal attitude, all influencing his unwillingness to aid Gorbachev. Other factors influenced

7280-620: Was a growing nationalist rhetoric. Some members formed the new Independence Party while liberal-leaning members helped to found the Liberal Union of Lithuania . As a result, the movement, still led by its founder V. Landsbergis, mostly included members from the Kaunas faction, who were inclined to "differentiate the local population into two clear groups, 'patriots' and 'communists'". The popularity of Sąjūdis waned as it failed to maintain unity among people with different political beliefs and

7371-423: Was a peaceful political demonstration that occurred on 23 August 1989. Approximately two million people joined their hands to form a human chain spanning 690 kilometres (430 mi) across the three Baltic states of Estonia , Latvia and Lithuania , which at the time were occupied and annexed by the USSR and had a combined population of approximately eight million. The central government in Moscow considered

7462-631: Was a political reform movement within the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) during the late 1980s, widely associated with CPSU general secretary Mikhail Gorbachev and his glasnost (meaning "transparency") policy reform. The literal meaning of perestroika is "restructuring", referring to the restructuring of the political economy of the Soviet Union, in an attempt to end the Era of Stagnation . Perestroika allowed more independent actions from various ministries and introduced many market -like reforms. The purported goal of perestroika , however,

7553-425: Was a sternly worded warning about growing "nationalist, extremist groups" which advanced "anti-socialist and anti-Soviet" agendas. The announcement claimed that these groups discriminated against ethnic minorities and terrorised those still loyal to Soviet ideals. Local authorities were openly criticised for their failure to stop these activists. The Baltic Way was referred to as a "nationalist hysteria". According to

7644-415: Was abolished in 1928, the law permitted private ownership of businesses in the services, manufacturing, and foreign-trade sectors. The law initially imposed high taxes and employment restrictions, but it later revised these to avoid discouraging private-sector activity. Under this provision, cooperative restaurants, shops, and manufacturers became part of the Soviet scene. Gorbachev brought perestroika to

7735-444: Was attended by Algirdas Brazauskas , then party secretary for industrial affairs. In October 1988, Brazauskas was appointed first secretary of the communist party to replace Songaila . Communist leaders threatened to crack down on Sąjūdis, but backed down in the face of mass protests. Sąjūdis candidates fared well in elections to the Congress of People's Deputies , the newly created Soviet legislative body. Their candidates won in 36 of

7826-426: Was contradictory and failed to address the underlying reasons for the conflict. The human chain helped to publicise the Baltic cause around the world and symbolised solidarity among the Baltic peoples. The positive image of the non-violent Singing Revolution spread among the western media. The activists, including Vytautas Landsbergis , used the increased exposure to position the debate over Baltic independence as

7917-502: Was ineffective in handling the economic crisis. Moreover, Sąjūdis lost major support from the rural regions of Lithuania as they proposed agricultural and land reforms without the input and against the interests of most kolkhoz employees and workers. Sąjūdis retained support in Kaunas and Panevėžys . In late summer of 1992, Sąjūdis and several minor parties and movements formed an electoral coalition, "For democratic Lithuania". However,

8008-437: Was not to end the planned economy but rather to make socialism work more efficiently to better meet the needs of Soviet citizens by adopting elements of liberal economics. The process of implementing perestroika added to existing shortages, and created political, social, and economic tensions within the Soviet Union. Furthermore, it is often blamed for the political ascent of nationalism and nationalist political parties in

8099-529: Was published. In September Sąjūdis published a legal newspaper, "Atgimimas" (English: rebirth ). In total about 150 different newspapers were printed supporting Sąjūdis. As stated in the first issues “Atgimimas”, Sąjūdis was perceived as the reformist initiative by the intellectual authorities with a goal to start the national awakening. In October 1988, Sąjūdis held its founding conference in Vilnius. It elected 35-member council. Most its members were members of

8190-490: Was set alight. The protesters held candles and pre-war national flags decorated with black ribbons in memory of the victims of the Soviet terror: Forest Brothers , deportees to Siberia , political prisoners, and other " enemies of the people ". In Moscow's Pushkin Square , ranks of special riot police were employed when a few hundred people tried to stage a sympathy demonstration. TASS said 75 were detained for breaches of

8281-453: Was unavoidable and that perestroika would have been doomed to defeat and revanchism by the nomenklatura without glasnost , because conditions in the Soviet Union were not identical to those in China. Gorbachev cited a line from a 1986 newspaper article that he felt encapsulated this reality: "The apparatus broke Khrushchev's neck and the same thing will happen now." Another difference

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