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110-475: Every second year, COSPAR calls for a General Assembly (also called Scientific Assembly). These are conferences currently gathering almost three thousand participating space researchers. The most recent assemblies are listed in the table below; as of two previous leap years, two General Assemblies were cancelled. The 41st General Assembly in Istanbul was cancelled due to the 2016 Turkish coup d'état attempt , while

220-655: A pronunciamiento , in which the military deposes the existing government and hands over power to a new, ostensibly civilian government. A "barracks revolt" or cuartelazo is another type of military revolt, from the Spanish term cuartel ('quarter' or 'barracks'), in which the mutiny of specific military garrisons sparks a larger military revolt against the government. Other types of actual or attempted seizures of power are sometimes called "coups with adjectives". The appropriate term can be subjective and carries normative, analytical, and political implications. While

330-404: A FaceTime interview with CNN Türk , in which he called upon his supporters to take to the streets in defiance of the military-imposed curfew, saying "There is no power higher than the power of the people. Let them do what they will at the public squares and airports." Deputy Prime Minister Numan Kurtulmuş appeared on live television, saying Turkey's ruling Justice and Development Party (AKP)

440-462: A coup , is typically an illegal and overt attempt by a military organization or other government elites to unseat an incumbent leadership. A self-coup is when a leader, having come to power through legal means, tries to stay in power through illegal means. By one estimate, there were 457 coup attempts from 1950 to 2010, half of which were successful. Most coup attempts occurred in the mid-1960s, but there were also large numbers of coup attempts in

550-515: A COSPAR planetary protection policy with associated implementation requirements as an international standard to protect against interplanetary biological and organic contamination, and after 1967 as a guide to compliance with Article IX of the United Nations Outer Space Treaty in that area (). The COSPAR Planetary Protection Policy, and its associated requirements, is not legally binding under international law, but it

660-679: A Turkish businessman and a well-known Islamic scholar who lived in exile in Pennsylvania . The Turkish government alleged that Gülen was behind the coup (which Gülen denied) and that the United States was harboring him. Events surrounding the coup attempt and the purges in its aftermath reflect a complex power struggle between Islamist elites in Turkey. During the coup attempt, over 300 people were killed, and more than 2,100 were injured. Many government buildings, including

770-617: A coup is usually a conspiracy of a small group, a revolution or rebellion is usually started spontaneously by larger groups of uncoordinated people. The distinction between a revolution and a coup is not always clear. Sometimes, a coup is labelled as a revolution by its plotters to feign democratic legitimacy. According to Clayton Thyne and Jonathan Powell's coup data set, there were 457 coup attempts from 1950 to 2010, of which 227 (49.7%) were successful and 230 (50.3%) were unsuccessful. They find that coups have "been most common in Africa and

880-418: A coup. A 2019 study found that states that had recently signed civil war peace agreements were much more likely to experience coups, in particular when those agreements contained provisions that jeopardized the interests of the military. Research suggests that protests spur coups, as they help elites within the state apparatus to coordinate coups. A 2019 study found that regional rebellions made coups by

990-569: A coup. The authors of the study provide the following logic for why this is: Autocratic incumbents invested in spatial rivalries need to strengthen the military in order to compete with a foreign adversary. The imperative of developing a strong army puts dictators in a paradoxical situation: to compete with a rival state, they must empower the very agency—the military—that is most likely to threaten their own survival in office. However, two 2016 studies found that leaders who were involved in militarized confrontations and conflicts were less likely to face

1100-521: A crowd of supporters in the airport, at about 06:30 He said, "In Turkey, armed forces are not governing the state or leading the state. They cannot." He blamed "those in Pennsylvania" (a reference to Fethullah Gülen , who lives in Saylorsburg , Pennsylvania, and his Hizmet Movement ) for the coup attempt. Erdoğan also said he had plans to "clean up" the army, saying that "This uprising is

1210-713: A faction within the Turkish Armed Forces , organized as the Peace at Home Council , attempted a coup d'état against state institutions, including the government and president Recep Tayyip Erdoğan . They attempted to seize control of several places in Ankara , Istanbul , Marmaris and elsewhere, such as the Asian side entrance of the Bosphorus Bridge , but failed to do so after forces and civilians loyal to

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1320-844: A fixed succession rule being much less plagued by instability than less institutionalized autocracies. A 2014 study of 18 Latin American countries in the 20th-century study found the legislative powers of the presidency does not influence coup frequency. A 2019 study found that when a country's politics is polarized and electoral competition is low, civilian-recruited coups become more likely. A 2023 study found that civilian elites are more likely to be associated with instigating military coups while civilians embedded in social networks are more likely to be associated with consolidating military coups. A 2017 study found that autocratic leaders whose states were involved in international rivalries over disputed territory were more likely to be overthrown in

1430-548: A gift from God to us." State-run Anadolu Agency named former Colonel Muharrem Köse , who in March 2016 was dishonorably discharged for reported association with Gülen, as the suspected leader of the coup. However, the Alliance for Shared Values , a non-profit organization associated with Gülen, released a statement reiterating that it condemns any military intervention in domestic politics, and saying Erdoğan's allegations against

1540-512: A greater consultation of regional and local-specific sources. Successful coups are one method of regime change that thwarts the peaceful transition of power . A 2016 study categorizes four possible outcomes to coups in dictatorships : The study found that about half of all coups in dictatorships—both during and after the Cold War—install new autocratic regimes. New dictatorships launched by coups engage in higher levels of repression in

1650-816: A major threat to dictators. The Harem conspiracy of the 12th century BC was one of the earliest. Palace coups were common in Imperial China . They have also occurred among the Habsburg dynasty in Austria, the Al-Thani dynasty in Qatar , and in Haiti in the 19th to early 20th centuries. The majority of Russian tsars between 1725 and 1801 were either overthrown or usurped power in palace coups. The term putsch ( [pʊtʃ] , from Swiss German for 'knock'), denotes

1760-683: A news conference that the TSK did not support the coup and the perpetrators represented a tiny faction that were on the verge of being brought under control. Istanbul Atatürk Airport was closed; all flights from the airport were cancelled. There was an explosion in the TRT broadcasting headquarters and gunfire was reported in Ankara. Soon after, it was stormed by a crowd of civilians and police, with four soldiers inside reportedly being "neutralized". The channel went back on air and Karaş, who had previously announced

1870-433: A premium on "the inner-workings of the [military] operation." In short, they blame the military for its failure rather than acknowledge the power of the masses and their successes. Pro-state forces sent text messages to every Turkish citizen calling for them to protest against the coup attempt. Throughout the night sela prayers were repeatedly called from mosque minarets across the country to encourage people to resist

1980-520: A public meeting. In 2007, the military expressed its opposition to the election of Abdullah Gül , of the Justice and Development Party (AKP), as president, by issuing an e-memorandum . Still, Gül was eventually elected when the AKP won both a referendum on the matter. Also, a snap election , and the party returned with a larger majority in the parliament. The military cited erosion of secularism as one of

2090-405: A putsch. Pronunciamiento ( ' pronouncement ' ) is a term of Spanish origin for a type of coup d'état . Specifically the pronunciamiento is the formal declaration deposing the previous government and justifying the installation of the new government by the golpe de estado . One author distinguishes a coup, in which a military or political faction takes power for itself, from

2200-559: A rift between Erdogan and Gülen. For example, prosecutors that allegedly were aligned with the Gülen movement tried to arrest the intelligence chief Hakan Fidan for the peace negotiations with the PKK , and by extension PM Erdogan subsequently, as the Turkish secret service is directly subordinate to the prime minister of Turkey. During this period (2010-2013), state secrets were leaked, fraud

2310-417: A separate reported plot, Sledgehammer . Simultaneously, Erdoğan promoted lower-ranking officers up the chain of command, ensuring that the military chief of staff was loyal to him and thereby demoralizing the army. The AKP's alliance with Gülen started to collapse during 2013 as Gülenists targeted the AKP using corruption charges. After the split, Erdoğan decided it would be advantageous to rehabilitate

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2420-572: A somewhat higher chance of success in Africa and Asia. Numbers of successful coups have decreased over time. A number of political science datasets document coup attempts around the world and over time, generally starting in the post-World War II period. Major examples include the Global Instances of Coups dataset, the Coups & Political Instability dataset by the Center of Systemic Peace,

2530-425: A two-sided impact on coup attempts, depending on the state of the economy. During periods of economic expansion, elections reduced the likelihood of coup attempts, whereas elections during economic crises increased the likelihood of coup attempts. A 2021 study found that oil wealthy nations see a pronounced risk of coup attempts but these coups are unlikely to succeed. A 2014 study of 18 Latin American countries in

2640-483: A vast network of newspapers, TV channels, schools , associations, lobby organizations, financial institutions and positions within the state such as the army and the judiciary. Initially, the then Prime Minister Erdogan seemingly tolerated the power of the Gülen movement because of common interests such as limiting the undemocratic political power of the military , but also because of impotence and fear of Gülen's power within Turkey. A series of events eventually led to

2750-589: Is an editor's note in the London Morning Chronicle ,1804, reporting the arrest by Napoleon in France, of Moreau , Berthier , Masséna , and Bernadotte : "There was a report in circulation yesterday of a sort of coup d'état having taken place in France, in consequence of some formidable conspiracy against the existing government." In the British press , the phrase came to be used to describe

2860-568: Is an internationally agreed standard with implementation guidelines for compliance with Article IX of the Outer Space Treaty. States Parties to the Outer Space Treaty are responsible for national space activities under Article VI of this Treaty, including the activities of governmental and non-governmental entities. It is the State that ultimately will be held responsible for wrongful acts committed by its jurisdictional subjects. Updating

2970-533: Is more likely in former French colonies. A 2018 study in the Journal of Peace Research found that leaders who survive coup attempts and respond by purging known and potential rivals are likely to have longer tenures as leaders. A 2019 study in Conflict Management and Peace Science found that personalist dictatorships are more likely to take coup-proofing measures than other authoritarian regimes;

3080-477: Is still in charge of the government. The mayor of Ankara , Melih Gökçek of the AKP , encouraged people to go out to the city's streets in defiance, despite a curfew imposed by the military. Erdoğan's plane took off from Dalaman Airport near Marmaris at 23:47, but had to wait in the air south of Atatürk for the airport to be secured. His plane landed at 02:50 The First Army General Command in Istanbul stated in

3190-503: Is taking place outside of the chain of command". He also said that "the government elected by the people remains in charge and this government will only go when the people say so." The Turkish Presidential office said President Erdoğan was on holiday inside Turkey and condemned the coup attempt as an attack on democracy. A presidential source also said Erdoğan and his government were still in power. The first messages from Erdoğan were transmitted at around 00:23 At about 01:00, Erdoğan did

3300-420: Is therefore also described by some analysts as a last desperate attempt by Gülenists to retain power. It is widely reported that Kemalist ideology played a huge role in motivating the 15 July 2016 coup attempt, like all previous political interventions in the history of Turkey's military coups. Since the establishment of multiparty democracy in Turkey in 1946, the Turkish Armed Forces (TSK), together with

3410-679: The Dimokritos airport in Alexandroupoli , in Greece , while two Greek F-16s observed the procedure and escorted it to the airport. The first reports said that the passengers were seven military personnel and a civilian. Later, it turned out that all were military personnel (two majors, four captains and two non-commissioned officers ). They had removed the badges and insignia from their uniforms, making it impossible to know their rank. All were arrested after landing for illegal entry into

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3520-525: The Fatih Sultan Mehmet and Bosphorus bridges in Istanbul were closed. Turkish Prime Minister Binali Yıldırım said military action was being "taken outside the chain of command" and it was an "illegal attempt" to seize power by "part of the military". He further said that those involved "will pay the highest price." Local media also reported tanks in Istanbul's Atatürk Airport . It

3630-437: The Turkish Armed Forces , faced a series of trials and purges, under reports of involvement in a secret society codenamed " Ergenekon ." Supported by Islamist (both pro-Gülen and pro-Erdoğan) prosecutors, security officials, and media, the purges allowed lower-rank Islamist officers to assume high-ranking military positions. They were seen as a bid by Turkey's civilian leaders under President Erdoğan to establish dominance over

3740-711: The Turkish Parliament and the Presidential Palace , were bombed from the air. Mass arrests followed, with at least 40,000 detained, including at least 10,000 soldiers and 2,745 judges, for being affiliated with the coup attempt. 15,000 education staff were also suspended and the licenses of 21,000 teachers working at private institutions were revoked after the government stated they were loyal to Gülen. More than 77,000 people have been arrested and over 160,000 fired from their jobs, on reports of connections to Gülen. There were many reactions against

3850-456: The head of government assume dictatorial powers. A soft coup , sometimes referred to as a silent coup or a bloodless coup , is an illegal overthrow of a government, but unlike a regular coup d'état it is achieved without the use of force or violence. A palace coup or palace revolution is a coup in which one faction within the ruling group displaces another faction within a ruling group. Along with popular protests, palace coups are

3960-418: The judiciary , have viewed themselves as guardians of Kemalist ideals and the secular Turkish nationalist state established under Mustafa Kemal Atatürk against political parties that have promoted a larger role for Islam and minorities in public life. The military and judiciary have regularly intervened in politics to block or ban popular parties representing conservative Muslim Turks, attempting to relax

4070-420: The paramilitary faction led by Ernst Röhm , but Nazi propaganda justified it as preventing a supposed putsch planned or attempted by Röhm. The Nazi term Röhm-Putsch is still used by Germans to describe the event, often with quotation marks as the 'so-called Röhm Putsch'. The 1961 Algiers putsch and the 1991 August Putsch also use the term. The 2023 Wagner Group rebellion has also been described as

4180-444: The rents that an incumbent can extract . One reason why authoritarian governments tend to have incompetent militaries is that authoritarian regimes fear that their military will stage a coup or allow a domestic uprising to proceed uninterrupted – as a consequence, authoritarian rulers have incentives to place incompetent loyalists in key positions in the military. A 2016 study shows that the implementation of succession rules reduce

4290-452: The "impression that the decision has been predetermined, and that the interview was conducted just as a formality." On 11 October 2016, four more of the eight were denied asylum. Two of the men who had previously been denied asylum applied for a re-evaluation but their applications were also rejected. After Erdoğan flew into Istanbul, he made a televised speech inside the airport at around 04:00, whilst thousands gathered outside. He addressed

4400-473: The 1970s, followers of the influential cleric Fethullah Gülen had assumed increasingly important positions within the Turkish state apparatus. Gülen several times advised his followers to take key positions in society and government , if necessary with a secret identity to avoid opposition from the laicistic Turkish army and government. Nevertheless, at the start of the 21st century, Gülen's followers achieved crucial positions of power in Turkey (and beyond) with

4510-429: The 20th century study found that coup frequency does not vary with development levels, economic inequality , or the rate of economic growth. In what is referred to as "coup-proofing", regimes create structures that make it hard for any small group to seize power. These coup-proofing strategies may include the strategic placing of family, ethnic, and religious groups in the military; creation of an armed force parallel to

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4620-686: The 43rd General Assembly in Sydney was also cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic . Responding to concerns raised in the scientific community that spaceflight missions to the Moon and other celestial bodies might compromise their future scientific exploration, in 1958 the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU) established an ad-hoc Committee on Contamination by Extraterrestrial Exploration (CETEX) to provide advice on these issues. In

4730-604: The Americas (36.5% and 31.9%, respectively). Asia and the Middle East have experienced 13.1% and 15.8% of total global coups, respectively. Europe has experienced by far the fewest coup attempts: 2.6%." Most coup attempts occurred in the mid-1960s, but there were also large numbers of coup attempts in the mid-1970s and the early 1990s. From 1950 to 2010, a majority of coups failed in the Middle East and Latin America. They had

4840-669: The COSPAR Planetary Protection Policy, either as a response to new discoveries or based on specific requests, is a process that involves appointed members of the COSPAR Panel on Planetary Protection who represent, on the one hand, their national or international authority responsible for compliance with the United Nations Outer Space Treaty of 1967, and, on the other hand, COSPAR Scientific Commissions B – Space Studies of

4950-625: The Coup d'etat Project by the Cline Center, the Colpus coup dataset, and the Coups and Agency Mechanism dataset. A 2023 study argued that major coup datasets tend to over-rely on international news sources to gather their information, potentially biasing the types of events included. Its findings show that while such a strategy is sufficient for gathering information on successful and failed coups, attempts to gather data on coup plots and rumors require

5060-846: The Earth-Moon System, Planets and Small Bodies of the Solar Systems, and F - Life Sciences as Related to Space. After reaching a consensus among the involved parties, the proposed recommendation for updating the Policy is formulated by the COSPAR Panel on Planetary Protection and submitted to the COSPAR Bureau for review and approval. The new structure of the Panel and its work was described in recent publications (;). The recently updated COSPAR Policy on Planetary Protection

5170-503: The Republic of Turkey and loyal state institutions 179 civilians killed 270–350 killed and 2,185 wounded overall After the end of the coup: 15,846 detained (10,012 soldiers, 1,481 judiciary members), of which 8,133 were arrested 48,222 government officials and workers suspended 3 news agencies, 16 TV stations, 23 radio stations, 45 newspapers, 15 magazines and 29 publishers were ordered to shut down On 15 July 2016,

5280-450: The Turkish civil service began in the wake of the coup attempt, with President Erdoğan warning his opponents that "they will pay a heavy price for this." The New York Times along with some other Western media such as The Economist , described the purges as a "counter-coup", with the Times expecting the president to "become more vengeful and obsessed with control than ever, exploiting

5390-412: The above factors are connected to military culture and power dynamics. These factors can be divided into multiple categories, with two of these categories being a threat to military interests and support for military interests. If interests go in either direction, the military will find itself either capitalizing off that power or attempting to gain it back. Oftentimes, military spending is an indicator of

5500-572: The army. The "Ergenekon" convictions were overturned in April 2016 by the Court of Cassation , which ruled that the existence of the network was unproven. In 2013, law enforcement efforts to fight corruption, which had led to the 2013 corruption scandal in Turkey , were faulted by Erdoğan. The anti-corruption efforts were a source of tension between the Gülenists and the AKP. In political analysis in

5610-424: The authors argue that this is because "personalists are characterized by weak institutions and narrow support bases, a lack of unifying ideologies and informal links to the ruler". In their 2022 book Revolution and Dictatorship: The Violent Origins of Durable Authoritarianism , political scientists Steven Levitsky and Lucan Way found that political-military fusion, where the ruling party is highly interlinked with

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5720-510: The contextualized idea of a 'knockout blow to the existing administration within a state'. One early use within text translated from French was in 1785 in a printed translation of a letter from a French merchant, commenting on an arbitrary decree, or arrêt , issued by the French king restricting the import of British wool. What may be its first published use within a text composed in English

5830-421: The country's television and mobile phone networks. This allowed Erdoğan to make his Facetime call, and to speak on television. Other scholars of civil-military relations, like Drew H. Kinney, have said reports like Luttwak and Singh's miss the point of their own analysis: civil resistance thwarted the coup. Luttwak argues that wayward elements of the Turkish armed forces could not silence Erdoğan. Singh says that

5940-434: The country. At 03:12, Yıldırım made a statement saying that the situation was under control and that a no-fly zone was declared over Ankara and that military planes that still flew would be shot down. It was reported that the Turkish parliament had been bombed again at 03:23 and 03:33. A helicopter belonging to the pro-coup forces was also seen flying by it. Half an hour following the report of 12 deaths and 2 injuries in

6050-520: The country. They were transferred to the local police station, while the Greek authorities at the airport guarded the helicopter. The eight passengers all requested political asylum in Greece as they believed they would not get a fair trial in Turkey. On 21 September 2016, Greece denied three out of the eight asylum. The men's lawyer Stavroula Tomara said they would be appealing the decision and said they had

6160-493: The coup after disagreements over the phrasing of a statement. Iran opposed the coup and advised Erdogan to defeat the coup plotters. President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan said the head of United States Central Command , General Joseph Votel , was "siding with coup plotters", after Votel criticized the Turkish government for arresting the Pentagon 's contacts in Turkey. In March 2017, Germany's intelligence chief said Germany

6270-441: The coup as "well orchestrated," and predicted that "given the scale of the operation, it is difficult to imagine they will stop short of prevailing." Another EU diplomat said that the Turkish ambassador in his capital was shocked and "taking it very seriously". The Peace at Home Council was reportedly chaired by Muharrem Köse . Turkey's Prime Minister Binali Yıldırım responded to the events by stating that an "illegal action

6380-489: The coup attempt will be successful. The number of successful coups has decreased over time. Failed coups in authoritarian systems are likely to strengthen the power of the authoritarian ruler. The cumulative number of coups is a strong predictor of future coups, a phenomenon referred to as the "coup trap". In what is referred to as "coup-proofing", regimes create structures that make it hard for any small group to seize power. These coup-proofing strategies may include

6490-584: The coup attempt, both domestically and internationally. The main opposition parties in Turkey condemned the attempt, while several international leaders—such as those of the United States, NATO , the European Union , and neighboring countries—called for "respect of the democratic institutions in Turkey and its elected officials." Many international organizations also opposed the coup. The United Nations Security Council , however, did not denounce

6600-413: The coup plot, and the plotters were forced to execute the coup five hours ahead of schedule. One of the main organizers, General Semih Terzi , was shot dead by loyalist Sgt. Maj. Ömer Halisdemir at the onset, demoralizing and disrupting command and control of the rebels. These two incidents resulted in the coup being carried out in an uncoordinated manner. The highest ranking staff officers opposed

6710-399: The coup plotters. While the sela is usually called from minarets to inform the public of a funeral, they are also traditionally performed to notify of a significant event, in this case "to rally people". The coup plotters initiated their operation hours ahead of the planned time when they understood that their plans had been compromised. Had the coup been launched at its original time,

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6820-609: The coup trap and reduces cycles of political instability. Hybrid regimes are more vulnerable to coups than very authoritarian states or democratic states. A 2021 study found that democratic regimes were not substantially more likely to experience coups. A 2015 study finds that terrorism is strongly associated with re-shuffling coups. A 2016 study finds that there is an ethnic component to coups: "When leaders attempt to build ethnic armies, or dismantle those created by their predecessors, they provoke violent resistance from military officers." Another 2016 study shows that protests increase

6930-538: The coup, and publicly ordered all personnel to return to their barracks. Acting outside the military chain of command , the rebels lacked the coordination and resources to achieve their goals. The conscripted soldiers that the rebels mobilized were uninformed of their mission's true purpose and became demoralized. Many surrendered rather than shoot demonstrators. The commander of the First Army in Istanbul, General Ümit Dündar , personally called Erdoğan to warn him of

7040-547: The coup, said live that she had been held hostage and forced to read the declaration of the coup at gunpoint. By 01:00, it was reported that the military had pulled its forces from the Atatürk airport and people were coming inside, but by 01:13, it was reported that tanks were inside the airport and gunfire was heard. Tanks opened fire near the Turkish Parliament Building . The parliamentary building

7150-535: The crisis not just to punish mutinous soldiers but to further quash whatever dissent is left in Turkey,". As of 20 July 2016, the purge already had seen over 45,000 military officials, police officers, judges, governors and civil servants arrested or suspended, including 2,700 judges, 15,000 teachers, and every university dean in the country. Coup d%27%C3%A9tat A coup d'état ( / ˌ k uː d eɪ ˈ t ɑː / ; French: [ku deta] ; lit.   ' stroke of state ' ), or simply

7260-567: The current government" and that Turkey was now led by the Peace at Home Council who would "ensure the safety of the population." The statement read in part: "Turkish Armed Forces have completely taken over the administration of the country to reinstate constitutional order, human rights and freedoms, the rule of law and general security that was damaged. [...] All international agreements are still valid. We hope that all of our good relationships with all countries will continue." The plotters said they had "done so to preserve democratic order, and that

7370-560: The early hours of the morning of 16 July, soldiers blocking the Bosphorus Bridge surrendered to the police. According to the government-run Anadolu Agency , this consisted of a group of 50 soldiers. Some of these soldiers were lynched by civilians despite the police's efforts, who fired into the air to protect the surrendering soldiers. Meanwhile, in the headquarters of the Turkish Army, 700 unarmed soldiers surrendered as

7480-501: The ensuing conflict, two policemen were killed and 8 were injured. The Doğan News Agency reported that in Istanbul several individuals were injured after soldiers fired on a group of people attempting to cross the Bosphorus Bridge in protest of the attempted coup. On Saturday 16 July 2016, at 00:42 EEST ( UTC+3 ), a Turkish Black Hawk helicopter sent a distress signal and requested permission from Greek authorities for an emergency landing, and landed eight minutes later (00:50) at

7590-609: The headquarters. The military also entered the Justice and Development Party 's offices in Istanbul and asked people to leave. Early reports said President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan was safe in Marmaris , south-west Turkey , where he had been on holiday. From around 23:00 to midnight, helicopters bombed the police special forces headquarters and police air force headquarters in Gölbaşı , just outside of Ankara . The attacks left 42 dead and 43 injured. Türksat headquarters in Gölbaşı

7700-401: The jets did not fire because the fighter jet pilots were told by President Erdoğan's pilot over the radio that the (flight of the) Gulfstream IV was a Turkish Airlines flight. According to Naunihal Singh, author of Seizing Power , the coup attempt also failed because the plotters failed to secure control of the media and shape the narrative. Successful coups require that the rebels control

7810-419: The likelihood of a coup taking place. Nordvik found that about 75% of coups that took place in many different countries rooted from military spending and oil windfalls. The accumulation of previous coups is a strong predictor of future coups, a phenomenon called the coup trap . A 2014 study of 18 Latin American countries found that the establishment of open political competition helps bring countries out of

7920-435: The likelihood of coups. A fifth 2016 study finds no evidence that coups are contagious; one coup in a region does not make other coups in the region likely to follow. One study found that coups are more likely to occur in states with small populations, as there are smaller coordination problems for coup-plotters. In autocracies, the frequency of coups seems to be affected by the succession rules in place, with monarchies with

8030-482: The mass media. This allows even small rebel contingents to portray themselves as fully in control, and their victory as inevitable. Consequently, they convince the public, along with neutral and even loyalist soldiers, to defect to them or not resist. The rebels failed to properly broadcast their messages effectively across the media that they controlled. They failed to capture Türksat , Turkey's main cable and satellite communications company, and failed to gain control of

8140-427: The mid-1970s and the early 1990s. Coups occurring in the post- Cold War period have been more likely to result in democratic systems than Cold War coups, though coups still mostly perpetuate authoritarianism . Many factors may lead to the occurrence of a coup, as well as determine the success or failure of a coup. Once a coup is underway, coup success is driven by coup-makers' ability to get others to believe that

8250-646: The middle of the night, much of the population would have been asleep. The streets would have been mostly empty. Reports have emerged, neither confirmed nor denied by Russia or Turkey that the Russian Main Intelligence Directorate intercepted signals on an imminent coup passed on to loyal Turkish operatives. The intercepted plans revealed several helicopters with commandos were on the way to Marmaris's coastal resort, where Erdoğan stayed, capturing or killing him. Pre-warned, Erdoğan left quickly to avoid them. An extensive purge of

8360-417: The military . In these trials in 2013 – viewed as "sensational" and "one of the biggest in recent Turkish history" – 275 people, including senior military officers, journalists, lawyers, and academics, were said to be involved in the so-called "Ergenekon" conspiracy, reportedly plotting a coup in 2003/04 against then– Prime Minister Erdoğan . Additionally, some military officers were said to be involved in

8470-674: The military and created the administrative structures of the military from its inception, is extremely effective at preventing military coups. For example, the People's Liberation Army was created by the Chinese Communist Party during the Chinese Civil War , and never instigated a military coup even after large-scale policy failures (i.e. the Great Leap Forward ) or the extreme political instability of

8580-565: The military headquarters. When he arrived, he was immediately apprehended. Abidin Ünal , head of the Turkish Air Force , who had been attending a wedding in Istanbul , was abducted from there by soldiers who descended from a helicopter. The coupists then tried to force Akar to sign the coup declaration, almost strangling him using a belt in the process. He refused and was then taken to the Akıncı Air Base and other commanders at

8690-400: The military more likely. A 2018 study found that "oil price shocks are seen to promote coups in onshore-intensive oil countries, while preventing them in offshore-intensive oil countries". The study argues that states which have onshore oil wealth tend to build up their military to protect the oil, whereas states do not do that for offshore oil wealth. A 2020 study found that elections had

8800-486: The military." Erdoğan wasn't censored (Luttwak's point) and was therefore able to use FaceTime to mobilize resistance, which in turn hindered the conspirators' ability to project success (Singh's point). The result is civilian resistance to soldiers, i.e., people power. The reason Singh, Luttwak, and other scholars of civil-military relations miss this is, according to Kinney, because they "usually do not study extra-military reasons for coup failures/successes," but rather put

8910-436: The months prior to the coup attempt, the incidence of corruption was reported to be "rife" in Turkey. Following the coup attempt, some coup leaders cited corruption as a reason for their actions. On 13 July, less than two days before the coup was launched, Erdoğan signed a bill giving Turkish soldiers immunity from prosecution while taking part in domestic operations. The bill requires cases against commanders to be approved by

9020-564: The movement were "highly irresponsible". Gülen himself said in a brief statement just before midnight: "As someone who suffered under multiple military coups during the past five decades, it is especially insulting to be accused of having any link to such an attempt. I categorically deny such accusations." Reuters reported that in early hours of 16 July, the coup appeared to have "crumbled" as crowds defied pro-coup military orders and gathered in major squares of Istanbul and Ankara to oppose it. Reuters also reported pro-coup soldiers surrendering to

9130-597: The next year, this mandate was transferred to the newly founded Committee on Space Research (COSPAR), which as an interdisciplinary scientific committee of the ICSU (now the International Science Council - ISC ) was considered to be the appropriate place to continue the work of CETEX. Since that time, COSPAR has provided an international forum to discuss such matters under the terms “planetary quarantine” and later “planetary protection”, and has formulated

9240-509: The occurrence of coup attempts. Succession rules are believed to hamper coordination efforts among coup plotters by assuaging elites who have more to gain by patience than by plotting. According to political scientists Curtis Bell and Jonathan Powell, coup attempts in neighbouring countries lead to greater coup-proofing and coup-related repression in a region. A 2017 study finds that countries' coup-proofing strategies are heavily influenced by other countries with similar histories. Coup-proofing

9350-530: The parliament, soldiers entered CNN Türk 's headquarters and forced the studio to go off air. After an hour of interruption by the pro-coup soldiers, CNN Türk resumed its broadcast. Later, İsmail Kahraman said a bomb exploded at a corner of the public relations building inside the parliament, with no deaths but several injuries among police officers. At around 04:00 two or three helicopters attacked Erdogan's hotel. According to eyewitness accounts, ten to fifteen heavily armed men landed and started firing. In

9460-512: The plot, persuading him to evacuate his hotel ahead of the plotters, and helped to secure Istanbul for Erdoğan to land. The MİT also mobilized its anti-aircraft guns, which the plotters were unaware existed, deterring rebel jets and commando teams. Equally important to the coup's failure, according to military strategist Edward N. Luttwak , was the inability of the rebels to neutralize Erdoğan and other high ranking government officials, either by killing or detaining them. A unit of special forces

9570-476: The police conducted an operation into the building while 150 armed soldiers were kept inside by the police. The coupists in the TRT building in Istanbul surrendered in the early morning as well. Chief of Staff Akar, held hostage at the Akıncı Air Base in Ankara, was also rescued by pro-state forces. One of the primary reasons that the coup failed was chaos among the plotters' ranks. Turkey's National Intelligence Organization (MİT) head Hakan Fidan discovered

9680-523: The police in Taksim Square , Istanbul. It was reported that by 05:18, Atatürk airport had completely been recaptured by the government whilst the police had surrounded the coupists inside the Turkish army headquarters, calling for them to surrender. Between 06:00–08:00 a skirmish took place there. In Akar's absence, Ümit Dündar , head of the First Army, was appointed Acting Chief of Staff. In

9790-712: The political-military actions of an unsuccessful minority reactionary coup. The term was initially coined for the Züriputsch of 6 September 1839 in Switzerland. It was also used for attempted coups in Weimar Germany , such as the 1920 Kapp Putsch , Küstrin Putsch , and Adolf Hitler 's 1923 Beer Hall Putsch . The 1934 Night of the Long Knives was Hitler's purge to eliminate opponents, particularly

9900-512: The prime minister, while district governors may sign cases against lower-ranking soldiers. The immunity bill was seen as part of the détente between the government and the armed forces. The latter has increasingly been taking over military operations in Kurdish-inhabited areas from police and paramilitary units. On 15 July 2016, as reported just before 23:00 EEST ( UTC+3 ), military jets were spotted flying over Ankara , and both

10010-495: The reasons for the coup in the statement published on the day of the coup. As opposed to previous political interventions by the Turkish military, Turkey's AKP government and pro-state media maintain that the 15 July 2016 coup attempt was not motivated by allegiance to Kemalist ideology , but rather to the vast political, economic, and religious network led by U.S.-based Muslim cleric Fethullah Gülen . Between 2007 and 2012, high-profile Kemalists , including high-ranking officers of

10120-525: The rebels could not project success because they couldn't control the message. Kinney states that neither of these reasons on their own matter, but rather it's their effect—civil disobedience—that is important. We might find that "[Gülen's movement] ... [might] have had nothing to do with the attempted takeover in July, but civilians [nevertheless] definitely played a role in thwarting the coup," writes Kinney. "... [A]n unhappy civilian populace mobilized to face down

10230-440: The regular military; and development of multiple internal security agencies with overlapping jurisdiction that constantly monitor one another. It may also involve frequent salary hikes and promotions for members of the military, and the deliberate use of diverse bureaucrats. Research shows that some coup-proofing strategies reduce the risk of coups occurring. However, coup-proofing reduces military effectiveness, and limits

10340-456: The restrictions on traditional religious practices, such as women's wearing of headscarves . The military has toppled four elected governments: by coups in 1960 and 1980 , and by military decisions in 1971 and 1997 . The military has also banned several major political parties . In 1998, Erdoğan , then-mayor of Istanbul, was banned for life from politics and jailed because he had read a religious poem by Ziya Gökalp several years before, at

10450-401: The risk of coups, presumably because they ease coordination obstacles among coup plotters and make international actors less likely to punish coup leaders. A third 2016 study finds that coups become more likely in the wake of elections in autocracies when the results reveal electoral weakness for the incumbent autocrat. A fourth 2016 study finds that inequality between social classes increases

10560-406: The rule of law must remain a priority". The statement also ordered temporary martial law ( sıkıyönetim ), and said a new constitution would be prepared "as soon as possible". TRT was then taken off air. Other media outlets were also raided by the putschists, such as Turkish newspaper Hürriyet and private broadcaster CNN Türk . Reuters reported on 15 July that an EU source described

10670-525: The state defeated them. The Council cited an erosion of secularism , elimination of democratic rule, disregard for human rights, and Turkey's loss of credibility in the international arena as reasons for the coup. The government said it had evidence the coup leaders were linked to the Gülen movement , which is designated as a terrorist organization by the Republic of Turkey and led by Fethullah Gülen ,

10780-400: The strategic placing of family, ethnic, and religious groups in the military and the fragmenting of military and security agencies. However, coup-proofing reduces military effectiveness as loyalty is prioritized over experience when filling key positions within the military. The term comes from French coup d'État , literally meaning a 'stroke of state' or 'blow of state'. In French,

10890-457: The top, is a form of coup d'état in which a political leader, having come to power through legal means, stays in power through illegal means through the actions of themselves and/or their supporters. The leader may dissolve or render powerless the national legislature and unlawfully assume extraordinary powers not granted under normal circumstances. Other measures may include annulling the nation's constitution , suspending civil courts, and having

11000-664: The various murders by Napoleon's alleged secret police , the Gens d'Armes d'Elite , who executed the Duke of Enghien : "the actors in torture, the distributors of the poisoning draughts, and the secret executioners of those unfortunate individuals or families, whom Bonaparte's measures of safety require to remove. In what revolutionary tyrants call grand[s] coups d'état , as butchering, or poisoning, or drowning, en masse, they are exclusively employed." A self-coup , also called an autocoup (from Spanish autogolpe ) or coup from

11110-410: The war's duration. A 2003 review of the academic literature found that the following factors influenced coups: The literature review in a 2016 study includes mentions of ethnic factionalism, supportive foreign governments, leader inexperience, slow growth, commodity price shocks, and poverty. Coups have been found to appear in environments that are heavily influenced by military powers. Multiple of

11220-410: The word État ( French: [eta] ) is capitalized when it denotes a sovereign political entity. Although the concept of a coup d'état has featured in politics since antiquity, the phrase is of relatively recent coinage. It did not appear within an English text before the 19th century except when used in the translation of a French source, there being no simple phrase in English to convey

11330-575: The year after the coup than existed in the year before the coup. One-third of coups in dictatorships during the Cold War and 10% of later ones reshuffled the regime leadership. Democracies were installed in the wake of 12% of Cold War coups in dictatorships and 40% of post-Cold War ones. Coups occurring in the post- Cold War period have been more likely to result in democratic systems than Cold War coups, though coups still mostly perpetuate authoritarianism . Coups that occur during civil wars shorten

11440-523: Was also attacked, killing two security personnel. At around 23:50, soldiers occupied Taksim Square in central Istanbul . At 00:02, it was reported by Reuters that soldiers were inside the buildings of the state broadcaster, the Turkish Radio and Television Corporation (TRT), in Ankara . During the coup attempt, soldiers forced anchor Tijen Karaş to read out a statement saying that "the democratic and secular rule of law has been eroded by

11550-559: Was also hit from the air. Injuries were reported among protesters following gunfire on Bosphorus Bridge . A helicopter belonging to the pro-coup forces was shot down by a Turkish military F-16 fighter jet. There were also reports of pro-state jets flying over Ankara to "neutralize" helicopters used by those behind the coup. At 03:08, a military helicopter opened fire on the Turkish parliament . At 03:10, Turkish Armed Forces stated on their website that they had complete control over

11660-552: Was committed with the entrance exams for government employees (KPSS), a change of power occurred at the Supreme Council of Judges and Prosecutors (HSYK) and (sex)tapes of both government members and opposition members were leaked. Following these events and other incidents, the Turkish government decided to designate the Gülen movement as parallel state and FETÖ (Fethullahist Terror Organization). Alleged Gülen supporters were fired or arrested. The coup attempt that followed

11770-632: Was published in the August 2020 issue of COSPAR's journal Space Research Today . It contains some updates with respect to the previously approved version () based on recommendations formulated by the Panel and approved by the COSPAR Bureau. The table contains the list of countries participating in the Committee on Space Research: 2016 Turkish coup d%27%C3%A9tat attempt Turkish government victory [REDACTED] Peace at Home Council Supported by: [REDACTED] 65th government of

11880-632: Was reported that Internet users within Turkey were blocked from accessing Twitter , Facebook , and YouTube . Twitter later stated that it had "no reason to think we've been fully blocked". Some hostages were taken at military headquarters, including the Turkish Chief of the General Staff Hulusi Akar . At around 21:00, the coupists had invited Salih Zeki Çolak , the commander of the Turkish Land Forces to

11990-522: Was sent via helicopter to kill or capture the president, but missed because he had been evacuated by his security detail just minutes before. Once Erdoğan landed at Atatürk International Airport (which had been recaptured from the rebels by his supporters), It became highly unlikely that the coup attempt would succeed. According to a military source, several rebel F-16s targeted Erdoğan's presidential jet en route to Istanbul, but they did not fire. A senior Turkish counter-terrorism official later stated that

12100-567: Was unconvinced by Erdoğan's statement that Fethullah Gülen was behind the failed coup attempt. The same month, the British Parliament's Foreign Affairs Select Committee said some Gulenists were involved in the coup d'état attempt but found no hard evidence that Fethullah Gülen masterminded the failed coup and found no evidence to justify the United Kingdom designating the Gülen movement as a "terrorist organization". Since

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