125-505: Coteaux Champenois ( French pronunciation: [kɔto ʃɑ̃pənwa] ) is a wine Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée (AOC) in the Champagne province of France . It covers the same area as sparkling Champagne production, but covers only still wines. The grapes are the same as those allowed for sparkling Champagne: Pinot noir and Pinot Meunier for red wines, and Chardonnay for whites. Rosé wines are made very rarely, but there
250-586: A vinegar smell. In medieval Europe , the Roman Catholic Church supported wine because the clergy required it for the Mass . Monks in France made wine for years, aging it in caves. An old English recipe that survived in various forms until the 19th century calls for refining white wine from bastard—bad or tainted bastardo wine. Later, the descendants of the sacramental wine were refined for
375-477: A 5th-century edict forbade the sale of wine outside of Roman settlements. Wine historian Hugh Johnson believes this might have been an added incentive for the barbarian invasions and sacking of Roman settlements such as Trier—"an invitation to break down the door." Rome's influence on Britain with respect to wine is not so much viticultural as it is cultural. Throughout modern history, the British have played
500-919: A base of city-states along the Mediterranean coast centered around modern day Lebanon (as well as including small parts of Israel / Palestine and coastal Syria ); however, the Nuragic culture in Sardinia already had a custom of consuming wine before the arrival of the Phoenicians. The wines of Byblos were exported to Egypt during the Old Kingdom and then throughout the Mediterranean. Evidence for this includes two Phoenician shipwrecks from 750 BCE, found with their cargoes of wine still intact, which were discovered by Robert Ballard As
625-465: A combination of these three materials. This is probably one of the main reasons why wine derived from grapes has historically been more prevalent by far than other types, and why specific types of fruit wines have generally been confined to the regions in which the fruits were native or introduced for other reasons. Mead, also called honey wine, is created by fermenting honey with water, sometimes with various fruits, spices, grains, or hops . As long as
750-524: A common practice due to their resistance to phylloxera , a root louse that eventually kills the vine. In the late 19th century, most of Europe's vineyards (excluding some of the driest in the south) were devastated by the infestation, leading to widespread vine deaths and eventual replanting. Grafting is done in every wine-producing region in the world except in Argentina and the Canary Islands –
875-431: A deal of expense at harvest-time, for picking, pressing and storage. The yields were notoriously unpredictable. For a large estate, a bad season's losses could be enormous, or the profits exceed what was considered proper for an aristocratic farmer-citizen. Very large wine estates were therefore quite rare, and the lowest risk investment strategy was an exchange of small, specialist properties already in production, along with
1000-634: A dual system of region of origin and product quality. New World wines —those made outside the traditional wine regions of Europe—are usually classified by grape rather than by terroir or region of origin, although there have been unofficial attempts to classify them by quality. According to Canadian Food and Drug Regulations, wine in Canada is an alcoholic drink that is produced by the complete or partial alcoholic fermentation of fresh grapes, grape must, products derived solely from fresh grapes, or any combination of them. There are many materials added during
1125-520: A filter allows the removal of bitter sediments that may have formed in the wine. Sediment is more common in older bottles, but aeration may benefit younger wines. During aeration, a younger wine's exposure to air often "relaxes" the drink, making it smoother and better integrated in aroma, texture, and flavor. Older wines generally fade (lose their character and flavor intensity) with extended aeration. Despite these general rules, breathing does not necessarily benefit all wines. Wine may be tasted as soon as
1250-684: A highly regarded wine known as ceretanum from Ceret (modern-day Jerez de la Frontera ). Wine historian Hugh Johnson believes this wine was an early ancestor of sherry. Spanish wines penetrated more extensively than Italian wines into the Roman Empire, with amphoras from Spain discovered in Aquitaine , Brittany , the Loire Valley , Normandy , Britain and the German frontier . The historian Strabo noted in his work Geographica that
1375-612: A key role in shaping the world of wine and defining global wine markets. Though evidence of V. vinifera vines in the British Isles dates to the Hoxnian Stage when the climate was warmer than it is now, British interest in wine production greatly increased following the Roman conquest of Britain in the 1st century AD. Amphoras from Italy indicate that wine was regularly transported to Britain at great expense by sea, around
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#17327728794211500-603: A litre of undiluted wine daily. Tchernia and Van Limbergen estimate the same average consumption levels per diem, per capita throughout the Greco-Roman world. One of the most important wine centres of the Roman world was the city of Pompeii , located south of Naples, on the Campanian coast. An expanse of farms and vineyards covered the slopes of nearby Vesuvius, exploiting its exceptionally fertile soil to produce some of
1625-445: A mineral flavor due to the presence of water-soluble salts as a result of limestone's presence in the vineyard's soil. Wine aroma comes from volatile compounds released into the air. Vaporization of these compounds can be accelerated by twirling the wine glass or serving at room temperature. Many drinkers prefer to chill red wines that are already highly aromatic, like Chinon and Beaujolais . Roman wine Ancient Rome played
1750-644: A more palatable taste. This gave rise to modern viticulture in French wine , Italian wine , Spanish wine , and these wine grape traditions were brought into New World wine . For example, Mission grapes were brought by Franciscan monks to New Mexico in 1628 beginning the New Mexico wine heritage, these grapes were also brought to California which started the California wine industry. Thanks to Spanish wine culture, these two regions eventually evolved into
1875-425: A northerly location. A south-southwest-facing slope maximizes the amount of sunshine vines receive, with the degree of angle allowing the vines to receive the sun's rays perpendicularly rather than at the low or diffuse angle vineyards on flatter terrain receive. Hillsides offered the added benefit of shielding vines from the cold northern winds, and the rivers' reflection offered additional warmth to aid in ripening
2000-440: A pale orange to a vivid near-purple, depending on the varietals used and wine-making techniques. There are three primary ways to produce rosé wine: Skin contact (allowing dark grape skins to stain the wort ), saignée (removing juice from the must early in fermentation and continuing fermentation of the juice separately), and blending of a red and white wine (uncommon and discouraged in most wine growing regions). Rosé wines have
2125-508: A particularly marked effect on Roman viticulture. The Carthaginians practised advanced viticultural techniques, described in the work of the Carthaginian writer Mago . Rome ransacked and burned the libraries of Carthage but the 26 volumes of Mago's agricultural treatise survived intact. They were subsequently translated into Latin and Greek in 146 BC. Although this work did not survive to the modern era, it has been extensively quoted in
2250-685: A pivotal role in the history of wine . The earliest influences on the viticulture of the Italian Peninsula can be traced to ancient Greeks and the Etruscans . The rise of the Roman Empire saw both technological advances in and burgeoning awareness of winemaking , which spread to all parts of the empire. Rome 's influence has had a profound effect on the histories of today's major winemaking regions in France , Germany , Italy , Portugal and Spain . The Roman belief that wine
2375-499: A sign of short-lived local wine production, brought to an end by Domitian 's edict against vine cultivation during a widespread grain famine. The edict was rescinded by Probus in 270 AD. Investigations of the Nene Valley and pollen analysis by Brown et al confirm several viticulture sites, at least from that date. More than 400 artifacts depicting Bacchus have been found throughout Britain, evidence of his widespread cult as
2500-532: A single amphora worth the value of a slave. From the Mediterranean coast, the Romans pushed further up the Rhone Valley , to areas where olives and figs were unable to grow but where oak trees were still found. As a result of their experience in what is now northeastern Italy , the Romans knew that regions where Quercus ilex were found had climates warm enough to allow the full ripening of grapes. In
2625-460: A stipulation in their contract to cover grave and funeral expenses. He described some contemporary varieties, recommending Aminean and Nomentan as the best. Some modern ampelographers believe that two white wine varieties mentioned, Arcelaca and Argitis , may be early ancestors to the modern grape Riesling. Pliny is also the source for one of the most famous Latin quotations about wine: " In vino veritas ," or "There's truth in wine," referring to
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#17327728794212750-464: A strongly acid cation exchange resin in the sodium ion form, or a weakly basic anion exchange resin in the hydroxyl ion form. In the United States, for a wine to be vintage-dated and labeled with a country of origin or American Viticultural Area (AVA; e.g., Sonoma Valley ), 95% of its volume must be from grapes harvested in that year. If a wine is not labeled with a country of origin or AVA
2875-602: A variety of subjects in De agri cultura ( Concerning the Cultivation of the Land ), the oldest surviving work of Latin prose. He comments in detail on viticulture and winemaking. He believes that grapes produce the best wine when they receive the maximum amount of sunshine, so he recommends that vines be trained in trees as high as possible and have all leaves removed once the grapes begin to ripen. He advises winemakers to wait until
3000-440: A wide range of sweetness levels from dry Provençal rosé to sweet White Zinfandels and blushes. Rosé wines are made from a wide variety of grapes all over the world. Sometimes called amber wines, these are wines made with white grapes but with the skins allowed to soak during pressing, similar to red and rosé wine production. They are notably tannic , and usually made dry. These are effervescent wines, made in any of
3125-533: A wine-god. They include the great silver dish of the Mildenhall Treasure , showing the rites of Bacchus' procession and his triumph over Hercules in a drinking contest. In Colchester , the early capital of Roman Britain , excavations have uncovered containers identifying over 60 different types of wines from Italy, Spain, the Rhine and Bordeaux. Roman attitudes to wine were complex, especially among
3250-521: A year; nonetheless, he notes that while some wines are best consumed young, especially fine wines such as Falernian are meant to be consumed much older. The poetry of Virgil recalls that of the Greek poet Hesiod in its focus on the morality and virtue of viticulture, particularly the austerity, integrity and hard work of Roman farmers. The second book of the didactic poem Georgics deals with viticultural matters. Virgil advises leaving some grapes on
3375-458: Is also a rosé AOC in the Champagne region, Rosé des Riceys . Production is small, especially in vintages where yields are low, given the high demand for Champagne and the higher profit of producing sparkling wine. This wine region article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Wine Wine is an alcoholic drink made from fermented fruit . Yeast consumes
3500-438: Is commonly used in champagne . Dry (low sugar) white wine is the most common, derived from the complete fermentation of the juice, however sweet white wines such as Moscato d'Asti are also made. A rosé wine gains color from red grape skins, but not enough to qualify it as a red wine . It may be the oldest known type of wine, as it is the most straightforward to make with the skin contact method . The color can range from
3625-494: Is either a borrowing from Proto-Indo-European or the lexeme was specifically borrowed from Proto-Armenian * ɣʷeinyo -, whence Armenian gini . An alternate hypothesis by Fähnrich supposes * ɣwino -, a native Kartvelian word derived from the verbal root * ɣun - ('to bend'). See * ɣwino - for more. All these theories place the origin of the word in the same geographical location, South Caucasus, that has been established based on archeological and biomolecular studies as
3750-424: Is evidence that he borrowed some of this material from Cato's work, Varro credits the lost multi-volume work of Mago the Carthaginian , as well as the Greek writers Aristotle , Theophrastus and Xenophon . Varro's treatise is written as a dialogue and divided into three parts, the first of which contains most of the discussion on wine and viticulture. He defines old wine as one removed from its vintage by at least
3875-413: Is evidence to suggest that this edict was largely ignored in the Roman provinces, wine historians have debated the effect of the edict on the infant wine industries of Spain and Gaul . The intent of the edict was that fewer vineyards would result in only enough wine for domestic consumption, with little or no surplus for foreign trade. While vineyards were already established in these growing wine regions,
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4000-597: Is fortified with brandy . In these latter cases, the term "wine" refers to the similarity in alcohol content rather than to the production process. The commercial use of the English word "wine" (and its equivalent in other languages) is protected by law in many jurisdictions. Wine is usually made from one or more varieties of the European species Vitis vinifera , such as Pinot noir , Chardonnay , Cabernet Sauvignon , Gamay and Merlot . When one of these varieties
4125-574: Is from the late 4th-century BCE writings of Chanakya , the chief minister of Emperor Chandragupta Maurya . In his writings, Chanakya condemns the use of alcohol while chronicling the emperor and his court's frequent indulgence of a style of wine known as madhu . The ancient Romans planted vineyards near garrison towns so wine could be produced locally rather than shipped over long distances. Some of these areas are now world-renowned for wine production. The Romans discovered that burning sulfur candles inside empty wine vessels kept them fresh and free from
4250-563: Is from the present-day Georgia (6000 BCE), Persia (5000 BCE), Italy , and Armenia (4000 BCE). New World wine has some connection to alcoholic beverages made by the indigenous peoples of the Americas but is mainly connected to later Spanish traditions in New Spain . Later, as Old World wine further developed viticulture techniques, Europe would encompass three of the largest wine-producing regions . Based on statistics gathered by
4375-442: Is the family of rare teinturier varieties, which actually have red flesh and produce red juice. To make white wine, grapes are pressed quickly with the juice immediately drained away from the grape skins. The grapes used are typically white grape varieties , though red grapes may be used if the winemaker is careful not to let the skin stain the wort during the separation of the pulp-juice. For example, pinot noir (a red grape)
4500-405: Is used as the predominant grape (usually defined by law as minimums of 75% to 85%), the result is a " varietal " as opposed to a "blended" wine. Blended wines are not necessarily inferior to varietal wines, rather they are a different style of wine-making. Wine can also be made from other species of grape or from hybrids , created by the genetic crossing of two species. V. labrusca (of which
4625-656: Is used in the cheapest of wines. The bottles used for sparkling wine must be thick to withstand the pressure of the gas behind the cork , which can be up to 6 standard atmospheres (88 psi). This refers to sweet wines that have a high level of sugar remaining after fermentation . There are various ways of increasing the amount of sugar in a wine, yielding products with different strengths and names. Icewine , Port , Sauternes , Tokaji Aszú , Trockenbeerenauslese , and Vin Santo are some examples. Wines from other fruits , such as apples and berries, are usually named after
4750-806: The Atlantic Coast and to the British Isles . Bordeaux soon became self-sufficient enough with its own vineyards to export its own wine to Roman soldiers stationed in Britain. In the 1st century AD, Pliny the Elder mentions plantings in Bordeaux, including the Balisca grape (previously known in Spain) under the synonym of Biturica after the local Bituriges tribe. Ampelographers note that corruption of
4875-638: The Celtic tribes in Gaul and Germanic tribes of the Rhine and Danube . During the Gallic Wars , when Julius Caesar brought his troops to Cabyllona in 59 BC, he found two Roman wine merchants already established in business trading with the local tribes. In places like Bordeaux , Mainz , Trier and Colchester where Roman garrisons were established, vineyards were planted to supply local need and limit
5000-608: The Celts first cultivated the grapevine in Gaul. Grape pips have been found throughout France, pre-dating the Greeks and Romans, with some examples found near Lake Geneva dated to 10,000 BC. The extent to which the Celts and Gallic tribes produced wine is not clearly known, but the arrival of the Greeks near Massalia in 600 BC certainly introduced new types and styles of winemaking and viticulture. The limit of Greek viticultural influence
5125-451: The Champagne region . Although wild V. vinifera vines have existed along the Rhine since prehistory, the earliest evidence of viticulture dates to the Roman conquest and settlement of the western territories of Germania . Agricultural tools, such as pruning knives, have been found near Roman garrison posts in Trier and Cologne , but the first definitive record of wine production dates to
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5250-490: The Concord grape is a cultivar ), V. aestivalis , V. rupestris , V. rotundifolia and V. riparia are native North American grapes usually grown to eat fresh or for grape juice, jam, or jelly, and only occasionally made into wine. Hybridization is different from grafting . Most of the world's vineyards are planted with European Vitis vinifera vines that have been grafted onto North American species' rootstock,
5375-565: The Côte d'Or . Rome's first allies among the tribes of Gaul were the Aedui , whom they supported by founding the city of Augustodunum in what is now the Burgundy wine region. While it is possible that vineyards were planted in the 1st century AD, shortly after the founding of Augustodunum, the first definitive evidence of wine production comes from an account of the visit by Emperor Constantine to
5500-589: The International Organisation of Vine and Wine in 2022 the top five wine producing countries were Italy, France, Spain, the United States, and Australia. Wine has long played an important role in religion. Red wine was associated with blood by the ancient Egyptians , and was used by both the Greek cult of Dionysus and the Romans in their Bacchanalia ; Judaism also incorporates it in
5625-972: The Kiddush , and Christianity in the Eucharist . Egyptian , Greek , Roman , and Israeli wine cultures are still connected to these ancient roots. Similarly the largest wine regions in Italy, Spain , and France have heritages in connection to sacramental wine , likewise, viticulture traditions in the Southwestern United States started within New Spain as Catholic friars and monks first produced wines in New Mexico and California . The earliest known traces of wine are from Georgia ( c. 6000 BCE), Iran ( Persia ) ( c. 5000 BCE), Armenia ( c. 4100 BCE ), and Sicily ( c. 4000 BCE). Wine reached
5750-511: The Mediterranean Basin in the early Bronze Age and was consumed and celebrated by ancient civilizations like ancient Greece and Rome . Throughout history, wine has been consumed for its intoxicating effects . The earliest archaeological and archaeobotanical evidence for grape wine and viniculture, dating to 6000–5800 BCE was found on the territory of modern Georgia . Both archaeological and genetic evidence suggest that
5875-536: The Mycenaean Greek 𐀕𐀶𐀺𐄀𐀚𐀺 me-tu-wo ne-wo (* μέθυϝος νέϝῳ ), meaning "in (the month)" or "(festival) of the new wine", and 𐀺𐀜𐀷𐀴𐀯 wo-no-wa-ti-si , meaning "wine garden", written in Linear B inscriptions. Linear B also includes, inter alia, an ideogram for wine, i.e. 𐂖 . The ultimate Indo-European origin of the word is the subject of some continued debate. Some scholars have noted
6000-581: The Okanagan Valley of British Columbia , and the Niagara Peninsula and Essex County regions of Ontario are the three largest producers. Some blended wine names are marketing terms whose use is governed by trademark law rather than by specific wine laws. For example, Meritage is generally a Bordeaux-style blend of Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot, but may also include Cabernet Franc , Petit Verdot , and Malbec . Commercial use of
6125-527: The Republican era, the culture of Roman winemaking was influenced by the viticultural skills and techniques of allies, and of regions conquered in Rome's expansion. The Greek settlements of southern Italy were brought under Roman control by 270 BC. The Etruscans, who had long-established, mostly maritime trade routes into Gaul, were largely Romanised by the 1st century BC. The Punic Wars with Carthage had
6250-513: The aroma and taste influences of their unique terroir . However, flavor differences are less desirable for producers of mass-market table wine or other cheaper wines, where consistency takes precedence. Such producers try to minimize differences in sources of grapes through production techniques such as micro-oxygenation , tannin filtration, cross-flow filtration, thin-film evaporation, and spinning cones. About 700 grapes go into one bottle of wine, approximately 2.6 pounds. Regulations govern
6375-494: The equestrian and senatorial classes ; the latter were supposed to have no interest in personal profits. Equestrian entrepreneurs often acted as agents and negotiators for landowners of the senatorial class, whose estates, large or small, were traditionally used to provide grain, olives and other food staples, not ingredients for luxuries such as wine production. Viticulture involved a very different set of skills, practices, abilities and landscapes than traditional agriculture, and
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#17327728794216500-627: The modern winemaking regions of Catalonia , the Rioja , the Ribera del Duero , and Galicia ) and Hispania Baetica (which includes modern Andalusia ) Montilla-Moriles winemaking region of Cordoba and the sherry winemaking region of Cádiz . While the Carthaginians and Phoenicians were the first to introduce viticulture to Spain, Rome's influential wine technology and the development of road networks brought new economic opportunities to
6625-513: The sugar in the fruit and converts it to ethanol and carbon dioxide , releasing heat in the process. Wine is most often made from grapes , and the term "wine" generally refers to grape wine when used without any qualification. Even so, wine can be made from a variety of fruit crops , including plum , cherry , pomegranate , blueberry , currant , and elderberry . Different varieties of grapes and strains of yeasts are major factors in different styles of wine. These differences result from
6750-535: The 1st century AD, Pliny notes that the settlement of Vienne (near what is now the Côte-Rôtie AOC ) produced a resinated wine that fetched high prices in Rome. Wine historian Hanneke Wilson notes that this Rhone wine was the first truly French wine to receive international acclaim. The first mention of Roman interest in the Bordeaux region was in Strabo's report to Augustus that there were no vines down
6875-527: The 370 AD work by Ausonius titled Mosella , wherein he described vibrant vineyards along the Mosel . A native of Bordeaux, Ausonius compared the vineyards favorably to those of his homeland and seems to indicate that viticulture had long been present in this area. The reasons for planting Rhineland were to cater to the growing demand of Roman soldiers along the Limes Germanicus (German frontier) and
7000-587: The Iberian Peninsula. The development of wine-producing regions in Bordeaux and Germany made supplying the needs of local Roman colonists much easier and cheaper, but in Britain, no certain evidence of an early local or provincial wine industry has been found, possibly because climate and soil conditions have not favoured its preservation. Remnants of amphora production at Brockley Hill , in Middlesex , have been dated to 70–100 AD, and may be explained as
7125-418: The Roman empire, including Bordeaux , Narbonne , Toulouse and Spain . Evidence in the form of counterfeit stamps on amphoras of non-Pompeian wine suggests that the popularity and reputation of Pompeian wine may have given rise to early wine fraud . The 79 AD eruption of Mount Vesuvius had a devastating effect on Campana's well-established, long-distance maritime export and trade. Ports, vineyards, and
7250-463: The Romans seized Massalia in 125 BC, they pushed farther inland and westward. They founded the city of Narbonne in 118 BC (in the modern-day Languedoc region) along the Via Domitia , the first Roman road in Gaul. The Romans established lucrative trading relations with local tribes of Gaul, despite their potential to produce wine of their own. The Gallic tribes paid high prices for Roman wine, with
7375-531: The above styles (i.e, orange, red, rosé, white). They must undergo secondary fermentation to create carbon dioxide , which creates the bubbles. Two common methods of accomplishing this are the traditional method , used for Cava , Champagne , and more expensive sparkling wines, and the Charmat method , used for Prosecco , Asti , and less expensive wines. A hybrid transfer method is also used, yielding intermediate results, and simple addition of carbon dioxide
7500-504: The arrival of the Roman military. Evidence of this trade and the far-reaching ancient wine economy is most often found through amphorae – ceramic jars used to store and transport wine and other commodities. The works of Roman writers – most notably Cato , Columella , Horace , Catullus , Palladius , Pliny , Varro and Virgil – have provided insight into the role played by wine in Roman culture as well as contemporary understanding of winemaking and viticultural practices. Many of
7625-427: The average wine drinker, the vintage year may not be as significant for perceived quality as had been thought, although wine connoisseurs continue to place great importance on it. Wine tasting is the sensory examination and evaluation of wine. Wines contain many chemical compounds similar or identical to those in fruits, vegetables, and spices . The sweetness of wine is determined by the amount of residual sugar in
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#17327728794217750-537: The benefits of different trellising and vine-training systems , the effects of pruning and harvest yields on the quality of wine, as well as winemaking techniques such as sur lie aging after fermentation and the maintenance of sanitary practices throughout the winemaking process to avoid contamination, impurities and spoilage. Marcus Porcius Cato was a Roman statesman. He had been raised on his family's farm in Reate , northeast of Rome, and wrote extensively on
7875-613: The best Roman wines, Pliny concludes that the vineyard has more influence on the resulting quality of wine than the particular vine. The early sections of Book 23 deal with some of the purported medicinal properties of wine. Pliny was a strong advocate for training vines up trees in a pergola , noting that the finest wines in Campania all derived from this practice. Due to the dangers in working on and pruning vines trained this way, however, he advised not using slaves, who were costly to buy and maintain, but rather vineyard workers hired with
8000-416: The best wine. Volume 12 concerns various aspects of winemaking. Columella describes the boiling of grape must in a lead vessel to concentrate sugars and at the same time allow the lead to impart sweetness and desirable texture to the wine, a practice that may have contributed to lead poisoning . He presents precise details on how a well-run vineyard should operate, from the optimum breakfast for slaves to
8125-530: The best wines available to the Italian mainland, Rome and the Provinces. The Pompeians themselves developed a widespread reputation for their wine-drinking capacity. The worship of Bacchus , the Roman god of wine, is attested by his image on frescoes and archaeological fragments throughout the region. Amphoras stamped with the emblems of Pompeian merchants have been found across the modern-day remnants of
8250-524: The bottle is opened to determine how long it should be aerated, if at all. When tasting wine, individual flavors may also be detected, due to the complex mix of organic molecules (e.g. esters and terpenes ) that grape juice and wine can contain. Experienced tasters can distinguish between flavors characteristic of a specific grape and flavors that result from other factors in wine-making. Typical intentional flavor elements in wine—chocolate, vanilla, or coffee—are those imparted by aging in oak casks rather than
8375-473: The city in 312 AD. The founding of France's other great wine regions is not as clear. The Romans' propensity for planting on hillsides has left archaeological evidence of Gallo-Roman vineyards in the chalk hillsides of Sancerre . In the 4th century, the Emperor Julian had a vineyard near Paris on the hill of Montmartre , and a 5th-century villa in what is now Épernay shows the Roman influence in
8500-470: The city walls (for example, at Pompei's former cattle-market, the Forum Boarium). This complements evidence of pressing and production technologies that worked in tandem with this cultivation. Some of these vineyards have been replanted in the modern era with ancient grape varieties and experimental archaeology used to recreate Roman wine. Among the lasting legacies of the ancient Roman empire were
8625-1363: The classification and sale of wine in many regions of the world. European wines tend to be classified by region (e.g. Bordeaux , Rioja and Chianti ), while non-European wines are most often classified by grape (e.g. Pinot noir and Merlot ). Market recognition of particular regions has recently been leading to their increased prominence on non-European wine labels. Examples of recognized non-European locales include Napa Valley , Santa Clara Valley, Sonoma Valley , Anderson Valley, and Mendocino County in California; Willamette Valley and Rogue Valley in Oregon ; Columbia Valley in Washington ; Barossa Valley in South Australia ; Hunter Valley in New South Wales ; Luján de Cuyo in Argentina ; Vale dos Vinhedos in Brazil ; Hawke's Bay and Marlborough in New Zealand ; Central Valley in Chile ; and in Canada ,
8750-496: The complex interactions between the biochemical development of the grape, the reactions involved in fermentation , the grape's growing environment ( terroir ), and the wine production process. Many countries enact legal appellations intended to define styles and qualities of wine. These typically restrict the geographical origin and permitted varieties of grapes, as well as other aspects of wine production. Wine has been produced for thousands of years. The earliest evidence of wine
8875-415: The cost of long-distance trading. Roman settlements were founded and populated by retired soldiers with knowledge of Roman viticulture from their families and life before the military; vineyards were planted in their new homelands. While it is possible that the Romans imported grapevines from Italy and Greece, there is sufficient evidence to suggest that they cultivated native vines that may be the ancestors of
9000-420: The course of the manufacture, such as yeast, concentrated grape juice, dextrose , fructose , glucose or glucose solids, invert sugar , sugar, or aqueous solutions. Calcium sulphate in such quantity that the content of soluble sulphates in the finished wine shall not exceed 0.2 percent weight by volume calculated as potassium sulphate. Calcium carbonate in such quantity that the content of tartaric acid in
9125-728: The earliest production of wine outside of Georgia was relatively later, likely having taken place elsewhere in the Southern Caucasus (which encompasses Armenia , Georgia and Azerbaijan ), or the West Asian region between Eastern Turkey , and northern Iran . The earliest known winery, from 4100 BCE, is the Areni-1 winery in Armenia . A 2003 report by archaeologists indicates a possibility that grapes were mixed with rice to produce fermented drinks in ancient China in
9250-479: The earliest recorded examples of deliberately choosing a wine for a specific occasion, Horace's Odes included serving a wine from the birth-year vintage at a celebration of an honored guest. He writes of serving simple wines for everyday occasions and saving celebrated wines such as Caecuban for special events. Horace answered the question posed by the Alexandrian poet Callimachus as to whether water or wine
9375-475: The early years of the seventh millennium BCE. Pottery jars from the Neolithic site of Jiahu , Henan , contained traces of tartaric acid and other organic compounds commonly found in wine. However, other fruits indigenous to the region, such as hawthorn , cannot be ruled out. If these drinks, which seem to be the precursors of rice wine , included grapes rather than other fruits, they would have been any of
9500-436: The equipment, knowledge and skills that came with them, a ready-made wine estate. Considering the disinhibiting, even disabling effects of alcohol, any investment in commercial-scale wine production by Rome's ruling class was also of doubtful morality. Purcell suggests that for these reasons, Rome's upper classes were committed to refinement and high quality, and had only marginal open involvement in high volume wine production and
9625-422: The eruption of Mount Vesuvius, the work covers a vast array of topics, including serious discourse on viticulture and wine. Book 14 deals exclusively with the subject of wine itself, including a ranking of the "first growths" of Rome. Book 17 includes a discussion of various viticultural techniques and an early formalization of the concept of terroir , in that unique places produce unique wine. In his rankings of
9750-464: The finished wine shall not be less than 0.15 percent weight by volume. Also, sulphurous acid , including salts thereof, in such quantity that its content in the finished wine shall not exceed 70 parts per million in the free state, or 350 parts per million in the combined state, calculated as sulphur dioxide. Caramel, amylase and pectinase at a maximum level of use consistent with good manufacturing practice. Prior to final filtration may be treated with
9875-898: The first great traders in wine ( cherem ), the Phoenicians seem to have protected it from oxidation with a layer of olive oil, followed by a seal of pinewood and resin, similar to retsina . The earliest remains of Apadana Palace in Persepolis dating back to 515 BCE include carvings depicting soldiers from the Achaemenid Empire subject nations bringing gifts to the Achaemenid king, among them Armenians bringing their famous wine . Literary references to wine are abundant in Homer (8th century BCE, but possibly relating earlier compositions), Alkman (7th century BCE), and others. In ancient Egypt , six of 36 wine amphoras were found in
10000-718: The first modern wine industry was Japanese wine , developed in 1874 after grapevines were brought back from Europe. The English word "wine" comes from the Proto-Germanic *winam , an early borrowing from the Latin vinum , Georgian ღვინო ( ghvee-no ), "wine", itself derived from the Proto-Indo-European stem * win-o- (cf. Armenian : գինի , gini ; Ancient Greek : οἶνος oinos ; Aeolic Greek : ϝ οῖνος woinos ; Hittite : wiyana ; Lycian : oino ). The earliest attested terms referring to wine are
10125-446: The flagship wines of the producer. Superior vintages from reputable producers and regions will often command much higher prices than their average ones. Some vintage wines (e.g. Brunello ), are only made in better-than-average years. For consistency, non-vintage wines can be blended from more than one vintage, which helps wine-makers sustain a reliable market image and maintain sales even in bad years. One recent study suggests that for
10250-444: The fruit from which they are produced, and combined with the word "wine" (for example, apple wine and elderberry wine ) and are generically called fruit wine or country wine (similar to French term vin de pays ). Other than the grape varieties traditionally used for wine-making, most fruits naturally lack either sufficient fermentable sugars, proper amount of acidity, yeast amounts needed to promote or maintain fermentation, or
10375-451: The grape itself. Vertical and horizontal tasting involves a range of vintages within the same grape and vineyard, or the latter in which there is one vintage from multiple vineyards. " Banana " flavors ( isoamyl acetate ) are the product of yeast metabolism, as are spoilage aromas such as "medicinal" or "Band-Aid" ( 4-ethylphenol ), "spicy" or "smoky" ( 4-ethylguaiacol ), and rotten egg ( hydrogen sulfide ). Some varieties can also exhibit
10500-421: The grape skin, by allowing the grapes to soak in the extracted juice . Red wine is made from dark-colored red grape varieties . The actual color of the wine can range from violet, typical of young wines, through red for mature wines, to brown for older red wines. The juice from most red grapes is actually greenish-white; the red color comes from anthocyanins present in the skin of the grape. A notable exception
10625-417: The grapes are fully ripe before harvesting, to ensure high quality in the wine and thus maintain the reputation of the wine estate. Inferior and sour wines should be reserved for the work-hands. Cato claimed that vineyard cultivation was the only profitable agricultural use for slaves; if they became unproductive for any reason, their rations should be cut. Once they were worn out, they should be sold on. Cato
10750-496: The grapes grown in those provinces today. As the republic grew into empire beyond the peninsula, wine's trade and market economy echoed this growth. The wine trade in Italy consisted of Rome's sale of wine abroad to settlements and provinces around the Mediterranean Sea, yet by the end of the 1st century AD, its exports had competition from the provinces, themselves exporters to Rome. The Roman market economy encouraged
10875-627: The grapes. With the right type of grape (perhaps even an early ancestor of the German wine grape Riesling ), the Romans found that wine could be produced in Germania. From the Rhine, German wine would make its way downriver to the North Sea and to merchants in Britain, where it began to develop a good reputation. Despite military hostilities, the neighboring Germanic tribes like the Alamanni and Franks were eager customers for German wine until
11000-470: The high costs associated with importing wine from Rome, Spain or Bordeaux. The Romans briefly considered building a canal that would link the Saône and Mosel rivers in order to facilitate waterway trading. The alternative was to drink what Tacitus described as an inferior beer -like beverage. The steep hillsides along the rivers Mosel and Rhine provided an opportunity to extend the cultivation of grapes to
11125-412: The ignoring of trade considerations may have suppressed the spread of viticulture and winemaking in these areas. Domitian's edict remained in effect for nearly two centuries until Emperor Probus repealed it in 280 AD. The preservation of Pompeii has provided unique insights into Roman wine making and viticulture. Preserved vine roots reveal planting patterns. Whole vineyards have been excavated within
11250-540: The influential writings of Romans Pliny, Columella, Varro and Gargilius Martialis . For most of Rome's winemaking history, Greek wine was the most highly prized, with domestic Roman wine commanding lower prices. The 2nd century BC saw the dawn of the "golden age" of Roman winemaking and the development of grand cru vineyards. The famous vintage of 121 BC became known as the Opimian vintage, named for consul Lucius Opimius . Remarkable for its abundant harvest and
11375-465: The modern Italian city of Teramo , historically known as Praetutium) along the Adriatic coast near the border of Emilia-Romagna and Marche ; and Lunense in modern-day Tuscany . Around Rome itself were the estates of Alban, Sabinum, Tiburtinum, Setinum and Signinum. Southward to Naples were the estates of Caecuban, Falernian, Caulinum, Trebellicanum, Massicum, Gauranium, and Surrentinum. In Sicily
11500-701: The name Biturica is Vidure , a French synonym of Cabernet Sauvignon , perhaps pointing to the ancestry of this vine with the Cabernet family that includes Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Franc , Merlot and Petit Verdot . Further up the Rhone, along the Saône tributary , the Romans encountered the areas that would become the modern-day wine regions of Beaujolais , the Mâconnais , the Côte Chalonnaise and
11625-570: The often confessional loquacity of the intoxicated. This is not a commendation on Pliny's part: he regrets that the "excessive candour" of drunkards can lead to serious breaches of etiquette, and thoughtless disclosure of matters best kept private. Marcus Terentius Varro , whom the rhetorician Quintilian called "the most learned man among the Romans," wrote extensively on such topics as grammar, geography, religion, law and science, but only his agricultural treatise De re rustica (or Rerum rusticarum libri ) has survived in its entirety. While there
11750-551: The oldest and largest producers, respectively, of wine of the United States . Viking sagas earlier mentioned a fantastic land filled with wild grapes and high-quality wine called precisely Vinland . Prior to the Spanish establishing their American wine grape traditions in California and New Mexico, both France and Britain had unsuccessfully attempted to establish grapevines in Florida and Virginia respectively. In East Asia,
11875-529: The only places not yet exposed to the insect. In the context of wine production, terroir is a concept that encompasses the varieties of grapes used, elevation and shape of the vineyard, type and chemistry of soil, climate and seasonal conditions, and the local yeast cultures. The range of possible combinations of these factors can result in great differences among wines, influencing the fermentation, finishing, and aging processes as well. Many wineries use growing and production methods that preserve or accentuate
12000-513: The origin of viticulture. Wine types: The types have such different properties that in practice they are considered different drinks. Wine is made in many ways from different fruits, with grapes being the most common. The type of grape used and the amount of skin contact while the juice is being extracted determines the color and general style of the wine. The color has no relation to a wine's sweetness —all may be made sweet or dry. Red wine gains its color and flavor (notably, tannins ) from
12125-424: The percentage requirement is lowered to 85%. Vintage wines are generally bottled in a single batch so that each bottle will have a similar taste. Climate's impact on the character of a wine can be significant enough to cause different vintages from the same vineyard to vary dramatically in flavor and quality. Thus, vintage wines are produced to be individually characteristic of the particular vintage and to serve as
12250-580: The potential of wines from Spain and the Bordeaux region. Columella extols the quality of wines made from the ancient grape varieties Balisca and Biturica, believed by ampelographers to be ancestral to the Cabernet family. Pliny the Elder was a 1st-century AD naturalist and author of the 37-volume Roman encyclopedia Naturalis Historia ( Natural History ), dedicated to the Emperor Titus . Published after Pliny's death near Pompeii following
12375-457: The primary substance fermented is honey, the drink is considered mead. Mead was produced in ancient history throughout Europe, Africa and Asia, and was known in Europe before grape wine. Other drinks called "wine", such as barley wine and rice wine (e.g. sake , huangjiu and cheongju ), are made from starch-based materials and resemble beer more than traditional wine, while ginger wine
12500-534: The provinces' exports, enhancing supply and demand. Rome's defeat of Carthage in the Punic Wars brought the southern and coastal territories of Spain under its control, but the complete conquest of the Iberian Peninsula remained unaccomplished until the reign of Caesar Augustus . Roman colonization led to the development of Tarraconensis in the northern regions of Spain (including what are now
12625-515: The region, elevating grapes from a private agricultural crop to an important component of a viable commercial enterprise. Spanish wine was in Bordeaux before the region produced its own. French historian Roger Dion has suggested that the balisca vine (common in Spain's northern provinces, particularly Rioja ) was brought from Rioja to plant the first Roman vineyards of Bordeaux. Spanish wines were frequently traded in Rome. The poet Martial described
12750-501: The region. Portugal has developed a system resembling that of France and, in fact, pioneered this concept in 1756 with a royal charter creating the Demarcated Douro Region and regulating the production and trade of wine. Germany created a similar scheme in 2002, although it has not yet achieved the authority of the other countries' classification systems. Spain , Greece and Italy have classifications based on
12875-589: The river Tarn towards Garonne into the region known as Burdigala . The wine for this seaport was being supplied by the "high country" region of Gaillac in the Midi-Pyrénées region. The Midi had abundant indigenous vines that the Romans cultivated, many of which are still being used to produce wine, including— Duras , Fer , Ondenc and Len de l'El . The location of Bordeaux on the Gironde estuary made it an ideal seaport from which to transport wine along
13000-530: The several dozen indigenous wild species in China, rather than Vitis vinifera , which was introduced 6000 years later. In 2020, a 2,600-year-old well-preserved Phoenician wine press was excavated at Tell el-Burak, south of Sidon in Lebanon , probably devoted to making wine for trading in their colonies. The spread of wine culture westwards was most probably due to the Phoenicians, who spread outward from
13125-525: The similarities between the words for wine in Indo-European languages (e.g. Armenian gini , Latin vinum , Ancient Greek οἶνος, Russian вино [vʲɪˈno] ), Kartvelian (e.g. Georgian ღვინო [ˈɣvino] ), and Semitic ( *wayn ; Hebrew יין [jajin] ), pointing to the possibility of a common origin of the word denoting "wine" in these language families. The Georgian word goes back to Proto-Kartvelian * ɣwino -, which
13250-403: The standard textbook of Roman winemaking for centuries. Columella was a 1st-century AD writer. His 12-volume De re rustica is considered one of the most important works on Roman agriculture . Its eleven volumes of prose are augmented by one on gardens (Volume 10), in hexameter verse. Volumes 3 and 4 delve into the technical aspects of viticulture, including advice on which soil types yield
13375-639: The techniques and principles first developed in ancient Roman times can be found in modern winemaking. The beginnings of domestic viticulture and winemaking on the Italian Peninsula are uncertain. It is possible that the Mycenaean Greeks had some influences through early settlements in southern Italy, but the earliest evidence of Greek influence dates to 800 BC. Before this, viticulture was widely entrenched in Etruscan civilization, which
13500-547: The term Meritage is allowed only via licensing agreements with the Meritage Association. France has various appellation systems based on the concept of terroir , with classifications ranging from Vin de Table ("table wine") at the bottom, through Vin de Pays and Appellation d'Origine Vin Délimité de Qualité Supérieure (AOVDQS), up to Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée (AOC) or similar, depending on
13625-474: The tomb of King Tutankhamun bearing the name "Kha'y", a royal chief vintner . Five of these amphoras were designated as originating from the king's personal estate, with the sixth from the estate of the royal house of Aten . Traces of wine have also been found in central Asian Xinjiang in modern-day China, dating from the second and first millennia BCE. The first known mention of grape -based wines in India
13750-566: The unusually high quality of wine produced, some of the vintage's best examples were being enjoyed over a century later. Pliny the Elder wrote extensively about the first growths of Rome—most notably Falernian , Alban and Caecuban wines. Other first-growth vineyards included Rhaeticum and Hadrianum from Atri of the Adriatic, along the Po in what are now the modern-day regions of Lombardy and Venice respectively; Praetutium (not related to
13875-408: The vine until late November when they become "stiff with frost ." This early version of ice wine would have produced sweet wines without the acidity of wine made from grapes harvested earlier. Virgil's contemporary Horace wrote often of wine, though no single work is devoted entirely to the subject. He espoused an Epicurean view of taking life's pleasures, including wine, in moderation . Among
14000-424: The vineyards of Baetica were famous for their beauty. The Roman agricultural writer Columella was a native of Cádiz and was duly influenced by the region's viticulture. In 2019, the oldest surviving liquid wine , dating to the 1st century, was discovered in the city of Carmona, Spain , part of Hispania Baetica, its contents were identified as a type of Sherry . There is archaeological evidence to suggest that
14125-429: The viticultural foundations laid by the Romans in lands that would become world-renowned wine regions . Through trade , military campaigns and settlements , Romans brought with them a taste for wine and the impetus to plant vines. Trade was the first and farthest-reaching arm of their influence, and Roman wine merchants were eager to trade with enemy and ally alike—from the Carthaginians and peoples of southern Spain to
14250-489: The warehouses that stored the 78 AD vintage were destroyed. Prices rose sharply, making wine unaffordable to all but the most affluent, at a time when wine-drinking habits and demand had percolated down to the less affluent majority. The wine shortage, and the potential for increased profits, led to the hurried planting of new vineyards nearer to Rome and the replanting of existing grain fields with grapevines. The subsequent wine surplus created by successful efforts to relieve
14375-477: The wine after fermentation, relative to the acidity present in the wine. Dry wine , for example, has only a small amount of residual sugar. Some wine labels suggest opening the bottle and letting the wine "breathe" for a couple of hours before serving, while others recommend drinking it immediately. Decanting (the act of pouring a wine into a special container just for breathing) is a controversial subject among wine enthusiasts. In addition to aeration, decanting with
14500-421: The wine shortage caused a depression in price, and in the medium term, damage to the interests of wine producers and traders. The loss of grain fields now contributed to a food shortage for the growing Roman population. In 92 AD, Roman Emperor Domitian issued an edict that not only banned new vineyards in Rome but ordered the uprooting of half of the vineyards in Roman wine-producing provinces. Although there
14625-492: The wine trade until the Imperial era. Works of classical Roman writers—most notably Cato, Columella, Horace, Palladius, Pliny, Varro and Virgil—shed light on the role of wine in Roman culture as well as contemporary winemaking and viticultural practices. Some of these influential techniques can be found in modern winemaking. These include the consideration of climate and landscape in deciding which grape varieties to plant,
14750-474: The yield of grapes from each jugerum of land and the pruning practices to ensure those yields. Many modern elements of vine training and trellising are evident in Columella's description of best practices. In his ideal vineyard, vines are planted two paces apart and fastened with willow withies to chestnut stakes about the height of a man. He also describes some of the wines of Roman provinces, noting
14875-489: Was a daily necessity made the drink " democratic " and ubiquitous; in various qualities, it was available to slaves, peasants and aristocrats , men and women alike. To ensure the steady supply of wine to Roman soldiers and colonists, viticulture and wine production spread to every part of the empire. The economic opportunities presented by trading in wine drew merchants to do business with tribes native to Gaul and Germania , bringing Roman influences to these regions even before
15000-404: Was an early advocate for hygiene in winemaking, recommending, for example, that wine jars be wiped clean twice a day with a new broom every time; thoroughly sealing the jars after fermentation to prevent the wine from spoiling and turning into vinegar; and not filling the amphoras to the top but leaving some head space, allowing a degree of oxidation . Cato's manual was fervently followed, becoming
15125-414: Was an introduction to basic farming principles. The 12 volumes following were dedicated to each month of the calendar and the specific agricultural tasks to be performed in that month. While Palladius deals with a variety of agricultural crops, he devotes more discussion to the practices of the vineyard than to any other. The last two volumes treat mostly veterinary medicine for farm animals but also include
15250-571: Was centered around the modern winemaking region of Tuscany . The ancient Greeks saw wine as a staple of domestic life and a useful trade commodity. Their colonies were encouraged to plant vineyards for local use and trade with Greek city-states . Southern Italy's abundance of indigenous vines provided an ideal opportunity for wine production, giving rise to the Greek name for the region: Oenotria ("land of vines"). The southern Greek colonies probably also brought their own wine pressing methods with them and influenced Italian production methods. In
15375-517: Was planting in regions with Mediterranean climates where olives and fig trees would also flourish. The Romans looked for hillside terrain in regions near a river and an important town. Their knowledge of the sciences included the tendency for cold air to flow down a hillside and to pool in frost pockets in the valley. As these are poor conditions under which to grow grapes, they were avoided in favor of sunny hillsides that could provide sufficient warmth to ripen grapes , even in northerly areas. When
15500-450: Was the first-growth estate of Mamertinum. Modern estimates of Roman wine consumption vary. All classes drank it, but not the very young. Women seem to have consumed less wine than men. Wine was almost always diluted before drinking, by as much as an equal volume of water, except for the elderly, libations to the gods, and alcoholics. Phillips estimates that on average, each member of Rome's urban population (man, woman or child) consumed half
15625-422: Was the preferred drink of poetic inspiration by enthusiastically siding with Cratinus and the wine drinkers. His affinity for wine was such that while contemplating his death, he expressed more dread at the thought of departing from his beloved wine cellar than his wife. Palladius was the 4th-century writer of the 15-volume agricultural treatise Opus agriculturae or De re rustica , the first volume of which
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