98-576: The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention ( CDC ) is the national public health agency of the United States. It is a United States federal agency under the Department of Health and Human Services , and is headquartered in Atlanta, Georgia . The agency's main goal is the protection of public health and safety through the control and prevention of disease, injury, and disability in
196-410: A biological agent , such as plague . Essentially, EW exists in three varieties. One type of EW involves infecting insects with a pathogen and then dispersing the insects over target areas. The insects then act as a vector , infecting any person or animal they might bite. Another type of EW is a direct insect attack against crops; the insect may not be infected with any pathogen but instead represents
294-535: A DNA sequence is cut off and replaced with a new sequence, e.g. one that codes for a particular protein, with the intent of modifying an organism's traits. Concerns have emerged regarding do-it-yourself biology research organizations due to their associated risk that a rogue amateur DIY researcher could attempt to develop dangerous bioweapons using genome editing technology. In 2002, when CNN went through Al-Qaeda's (AQ's) experiments with crude poisons, they found out that AQ had begun planning ricin and cyanide attacks with
392-453: A biological warfare operation codenamed "Cast Thy Bread" during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War . The Haganah initially used typhoid bacteria to contaminate water wells in newly cleared Arab villages to prevent the population including militiamen from returning. Later, the biological warfare campaign expanded to include Jewish settlements that were in imminent danger of being captured by Arab troops and inhabited Arab towns not slated for capture. There
490-648: A bioweapon such as anthrax, smallpox, and various other vaccines depending on the Area of Operations of the individual military units and commands. Most classical and modern biological weapons' pathogens can be obtained from a plant or an animal which is naturally infected. In the largest biological weapons accident known—the anthrax outbreak in Sverdlovsk (now Yekaterinburg ) in the Soviet Union in 1979—sheep became ill with anthrax as far as 200 kilometers from
588-627: A career employee, or as a political appointment that does not require Senate confirmation , with the latter method typically being used. The director serves at the pleasure of the President and may be fired at any time. On January 20, 2025, the CDC Director position will change to require Senate confirmation, due to a provision in the Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2023 . The CDC Director concurrently serves as
686-418: A comprehensive book, CDC Health Information for International Travel , which is commonly known as the "yellow book." The book is available online and in print as a new edition every other year and includes current travel health guidelines, vaccine recommendations, and information on specific travel destinations . The CDC also issues travel health notices on its website, consisting of three levels: The CDC uses
784-446: A credible threat of mass casualty has the ability to alter the terms under which other nations or groups interact with it. When indexed to weapon mass and cost of development and storage, biological weapons possess destructive potential and loss of life far in excess of nuclear, chemical or conventional weapons. Accordingly, biological agents are potentially useful as strategic deterrents, in addition to their utility as offensive weapons on
882-424: A fatality rate that is 90% or higher in untreated patients. Finally, friendly personnel and civilians can be protected with suitable antibiotics . Agents considered for weaponization, or known to be weaponized, include bacteria such as Bacillus anthracis , Brucella spp., Burkholderia mallei , Burkholderia pseudomallei , Chlamydophila psittaci , Coxiella burnetii , Francisella tularensis , some of
980-695: A measure against the spread of antibiotic resistance in the United States. This initiative has a budget of $ 161 million and includes the development of the Antibiotic Resistance Lab Network . Globally, the CDC works with other organizations to address global health challenges and contain disease threats at their source. They work with many international organizations such as the World Health Organization (WHO) as well as ministries of health and other groups on
1078-490: A new level of sophistication to the techniques for possible use of bio-agents in war. Biological sabotage in the form of anthrax and glanders was undertaken on behalf of the Imperial German government during World War I (1914–1918), with indifferent results. The Geneva Protocol of 1925 prohibited the first use of chemical and biological weapons against enemy nationals in international armed conflicts. With
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#17327726117701176-484: A number of notable training and fellowship programs, including those indicated below. The Epidemic Intelligence Service (EIS) is composed of "boots-on-the-ground disease detectives" who investigate public health problems domestically and globally. When called upon by a governmental body, EIS officers may embark on short-term epidemiological assistance assignments, or "Epi-Aids", to provide technical expertise in containing and investigating disease outbreaks. The EIS program
1274-457: A number of tools to monitor the safety of vaccines. The Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System (VAERS), a national vaccine safety surveillance program run by CDC and the FDA. "VAERS detects possible safety issues with U.S. vaccines by collecting information about adverse events (possible side effects or health problems) after vaccination." The CDC's Safety Information by Vaccine page provides a list of
1372-516: A party and depositary to the BWC, the Soviet Union continued and expanded its massive offensive biological weapons program , under the leadership of the allegedly civilian institution Biopreparat . The Soviet Union attracted international suspicion after the 1979 Sverdlovsk anthrax leak killed approximately 65 to 100 people. According to historians Benny Morris and Benjamin Kedar , Israel conducted
1470-468: A principal operating agency of PHS. It was renamed to the plural Centers for Disease Control effective October 14, 1980, as the modern organization of having multiple constituent centers was established. By 1990, it had four centers formed in the 1980s: the Center for Infectious Diseases, Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, the Center for Environmental Health and Injury Control, and
1568-671: A problem in areas where he went hunting. The same year, the PHS transferred its San Francisco based plague laboratory into the CDC as the Epidemiology Division, and a new Veterinary Diseases Division was established. In 1951, Chief Epidemiologist Alexander Langmuir's warnings of potential biological warfare during the Korean War spurred the creation of the Epidemic Intelligence Service (EIS) as
1666-609: A program called V-safe, a smartphone web application that allows COVID-19 vaccine recipients to be surveyed in detail about their health in response to getting the shot. The CDC Foundation operates independently from CDC as a private, nonprofit 501(c)(3) organization incorporated in the State of Georgia . The creation of the Foundation was authorized by section 399F of the Public Health Service Act to support
1764-428: A security clearance. Entomological warfare (EW) is a type of biological warfare that uses insects to attack the enemy. The concept has existed for centuries and research and development have continued into the modern era. EW has been used in battle by Japan and several other nations have developed and been accused of using an entomological warfare program. EW may employ insects in a direct attack or as vectors to deliver
1862-465: A series of extensive tests for the next 56 years. Although the UK never offensively used the biological weapons it developed, its program was the first to successfully weaponize a variety of deadly pathogens and bring them into industrial production. Other nations, notably France and Japan, had begun their own biological weapons programs. When the United States entered the war, Allied resources were pooled at
1960-476: A similar manner as biotoxins or bioregulators. The Army Biological Laboratory tested each agent and the Army's Technical Escort Unit was responsible for the transport of all chemical, biological, radiological (nuclear) materials. Biological warfare can also specifically target plants to destroy crops or defoliate vegetation. The United States and Britain discovered plant growth regulators (i.e., herbicides ) during
2058-436: A strategic or tactical advantage over the enemy, either by threats or by actual deployments. Like some chemical weapons , biological weapons may also be useful as area denial weapons . These agents may be lethal or non-lethal , and may be targeted against a single individual, a group of people, or even an entire population. They may be developed, acquired, stockpiled or deployed by nation states or by non-national groups. In
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#17327726117702156-474: A threat to agriculture. The final method uses uninfected insects, such as bees or wasps, to directly attack the enemy. Theoretically, novel approaches in biotechnology, such as synthetic biology could be used in the future to design novel types of biological warfare agents. Most of the biosecurity concerns in synthetic biology are focused on the role of DNA synthesis and the risk of producing genetic material of lethal viruses (e.g. 1918 Spanish flu, polio) in
2254-469: A two-year postgraduate training program in epidemiology. The success of the EIS program led to the launch of Field Epidemiology Training Programs (FETP) in 1980, training more than 18,000 disease detectives in over 80 countries. In 2020, FETP celebrated the 40th anniversary of the CDC's support for Thailand's Field Epidemiology Training Program. Thailand was the first FETP site created outside of North America and
2352-413: A weapon could "escape" the laboratory where it was developed, even if there was no intent to use it – for example by infecting a researcher who then transmits it to the outside world before realizing that they were infected. Several cases are known of researchers becoming infected and dying of Ebola , which they had been working with in the lab (though nobody else was infected in those cases) – while there
2450-736: Is a founding member of the International Association of National Public Health Institutes . The CDC's current Director is Mandy Cohen who assumed office on July 10, 2023. The Communicable Disease Center was founded July 1, 1946, as the successor to the World War II Malaria Control in War Areas program of the Office of National Defense Malaria Control Activities. Preceding its founding, organizations with global influence in malaria control were
2548-508: Is a model for the international Field Epidemiology Training Program . The CDC also operates the Public Health Associate Program (PHAP), a two-year paid fellowship for recent college graduates to work in public health agencies all over the United States. PHAP was founded in 2007 and currently has 159 associates in 34 states. The Director of CDC is a Senior Executive Service position that may be filled either by
2646-544: Is a subtype of biological warfare. Biological warfare is subject to a forceful normative prohibition. Offensive biological warfare in international armed conflicts is a war crime under the 1925 Geneva Protocol and several international humanitarian law treaties . In particular, the 1972 Biological Weapons Convention (BWC) bans the development, production, acquisition, transfer, stockpiling and use of biological weapons. In contrast, defensive biological research for prophylactic, protective or other peaceful purposes
2744-403: Is considered an effective agent for several reasons. First, it forms hardy spores , perfect for dispersal aerosols. Second, this organism is not considered transmissible from person to person, and thus rarely if ever causes secondary infections. A pulmonary anthrax infection starts with ordinary influenza -like symptoms and progresses to a lethal hemorrhagic mediastinitis within 3–7 days, with
2842-547: Is found in numerous countries, reflecting CDC's influence in promoting this model internationally. The Training Programs in Epidemiology and Public Health Interventions Network ( TEPHINET ) has graduated 950 students. The mission of the CDC expanded beyond its original focus on malaria to include sexually transmitted diseases when the Venereal Disease Division of the U.S. Public Health Service (PHS)
2940-509: Is no evidence that their work was directed towards biological warfare, it demonstrates the potential for accidental infection even of careful researchers fully aware of the dangers. While containment of biological warfare is less of a concern for certain criminal or terrorist organizations, it remains a significant concern for the military and civilian populations of virtually all nations. Rudimentary forms of biological warfare have been practiced since antiquity. The earliest documented incident of
3038-419: Is not prohibited by the BWC. Biological warfare is distinct from warfare involving other types of weapons of mass destruction (WMD), including nuclear warfare , chemical warfare , and radiological warfare . None of these are considered conventional weapons , which are deployed primarily for their explosive , kinetic , or incendiary potential. Biological weapons may be employed in various ways to gain
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3136-497: Is that they can easily escape before the government agencies or secret agencies have even started their investigation. This is because the potential organism has an incubation period of 3 to 7 days, after which the results begin to appear, thereby giving terrorists a lead. A technique called Clustered, Regularly Interspaced, Short Palindromic Repeat ( CRISPR-Cas9 ) is now so cheap and widely available that scientists fear that amateurs will start experimenting with them. In this technique,
3234-650: The Atlanta City Council had voted to do so the prior December. The CDC and Emory University had requested that the Atlanta city government annex the area, paving the way for a MARTA expansion through the Emory campus, funded by city tax dollars. The headquarters were located in an unincorporated area , statistically in the Druid Hills census-designated place . On August 17, 2022, Dr. Walensky said
3332-637: The Australia Group was established, a multilateral export control regime of 43 countries aiming to prevent the proliferation of chemical and biological weapons. In 2004, the United Nations Security Council passed Resolution 1540 , which obligates all UN Member States to develop and enforce appropriate legal and regulatory measures against the proliferation of chemical , biological, radiological , and nuclear weapons and their means of delivery, in particular, to prevent
3430-615: The Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation . Biological warfare Biological warfare , also known as germ warfare , is the use of biological toxins or infectious agents such as bacteria , viruses , insects , and fungi with the intent to kill, harm or incapacitate humans, animals or plants as an act of war . Biological weapons (often termed "bio-weapons", "biological threat agents", or "bio-agents") are living organisms or replicating entities (i.e. viruses , which are not universally considered "alive"). Entomological (insect) warfare
3528-511: The COVID-19 pandemic , may have significant impacts on the missions and structures of NPHIs. Although these functions are in many countries dispersed among several agencies, in recent years some countries have reorganized their public health systems to consolidate functions. For example, following the outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) in 2003, the Canadian government created
3626-592: The Cold War that used plant diseases ( bioherbicides , or mycoherbicides ) for destroying enemy agriculture. Biological weapons also target fisheries as well as water-based vegetation. It was believed that the destruction of enemy agriculture on a strategic scale could thwart Sino-Soviet aggression in a general war. Diseases such as wheat blast and rice blast were weaponized in aerial spray tanks and cluster bombs for delivery to enemy watersheds in agricultural regions to initiate epiphytotic (epidemics among plants). On
3724-535: The Continental Congress that he had heard a rumor from a sailor that his opponent during the Siege of Boston , General William Howe , had deliberately sent civilians out of the city in the hopes of spreading the ongoing smallpox epidemic to American lines; Washington, remaining unconvinced, wrote that he "could hardly give credit to" the claim. Washington had already inoculated his soldiers, diminishing
3822-601: The Ebola virus . The program, called the Federal Select Agent Program, calls for inspections of labs in the U.S. that work with dangerous pathogens. During the 2014 Ebola outbreak in West Africa , the CDC helped coordinate the return of two infected American aid workers for treatment at Emory University Hospital , the home of a special unit to handle highly infectious diseases. As a response to
3920-747: The Eelam War against Tamil insurgents. During World War I, German saboteurs used anthrax and glanders to sicken cavalry horses in U.S. and France, sheep in Romania, and livestock in Argentina intended for the Entente forces . One of these German saboteurs was Anton Dilger . Also, Germany itself became a victim of similar attacks – horses bound for Germany were infected with Burkholderia by French operatives in Switzerland. During World War II,
4018-566: The French and Indian War , in June 1763 a group of Native Americans laid siege to British-held Fort Pitt . Following instructions of his superior, Colonel Henry Bouquet , the commander of Fort Pitt, Swiss-born Captain Simeon Ecuyer, ordered his men to take smallpox-infested blankets from the infirmary and give it to a Lenape delegation during the siege. A reported outbreak that began
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4116-669: The Public Health Agency of Canada in order to ensure a more efficient and effective response in future outbreaks. The International Association of National Public Health Institutes (IANPHI) is a member organization of NPHIs that in the end of 2019 had members from 99 countries, benefitting more than 5 billion people. IANPHI helps link the NPHIs of the world, so that they can share knowledge and experiences, in addition to providing support for NPHI development in low-resources countries. The majority of funding for IANPHI comes from
4214-874: The Rickettsiaceae (especially Rickettsia prowazekii and Rickettsia rickettsii ), Shigella spp., Vibrio cholerae , and Yersinia pestis . Many viral agents have been studied and/or weaponized, including some of the Bunyaviridae (especially Rift Valley fever virus ), Ebolavirus , many of the Flaviviridae (especially Japanese encephalitis virus ), Machupo virus , Coronaviruses , Marburg virus , Variola virus, and yellow fever virus . Fungal agents that have been studied include Coccidioides spp. Toxins that can be used as weapons include ricin , staphylococcal enterotoxin B , botulinum toxin , saxitoxin , and many mycotoxins . These toxins and
4312-547: The State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR in the Russian Federation. In 2014, the CDC revealed they had discovered several misplaced smallpox samples while their lab workers were "potentially infected" with anthrax . The city of Atlanta annexed the property of the CDC headquarters effective January 1, 2018, as a part of the city's largest annexation within a period of 65 years;
4410-549: The Zhejiang-Jiangxi Campaign in 1942, around 1,700 Japanese troops died out of a total 10,000 Japanese soldiers who fell ill with disease when their own biological weapons attack rebounded on their own forces. During the final months of World War II, Japan planned to use plague as a biological weapon against U.S. civilians in San Diego , California , during Operation Cherry Blossoms at Night . The plan
4508-831: The offensive biological weapons program of the US , allowing only scientific research for defensive measures. This decision increased the momentum of the negotiations for a ban on biological warfare, which took place from 1969 to 1972 in the United Nation's Conference of the Committee on Disarmament in Geneva. These negotiations resulted in the Biological Weapons Convention , which was opened for signature on 10 April 1972 and entered into force on 26 March 1975 after its ratification by 22 states. Despite being
4606-451: The 1990s, the CDC focus has broadened to include chronic diseases , disabilities , injury control, workplace hazards , environmental health threats, and terrorism preparedness. CDC combats emerging diseases and other health risks, including birth defects , West Nile virus , obesity , avian , swine , and pandemic flu , E. coli , and bioterrorism , to name a few. The organization would also prove to be an important factor in preventing
4704-560: The 2014 Ebola outbreak, Congress passed a Continuing Appropriations Resolution allocating $ 30,000,000 towards CDC's efforts to fight the virus. The CDC also works on non-communicable diseases, including chronic diseases caused by obesity , physical inactivity and tobacco-use. The work of the Division for Cancer Prevention and Control, led from 2010 by Lisa C. Richardson , is also within this remit. The CDC implemented their National Action Plan for Combating Antibiotic Resistant Bacteria as
4802-647: The Administrator of the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry . Twenty directors have served the CDC or its predecessor agencies, including three who have served during the Trump administration (including Anne Schuchat who twice served as acting director) and three who have served during the Carter administration (including one acting director not shown here). Two served under Bill Clinton, but only one under
4900-476: The CDC made a token payment of $ 10 to Emory University for 15 acres (61,000 m) of land on Clifton Road in DeKalb County, still the home of CDC headquarters as of 2019. CDC employees collected the money to make the purchase. The benefactor behind the "gift" was Robert W. Woodruff , chairman of the board of The Coca-Cola Company . Woodruff had a long-time interest in malaria control, which had been
4998-484: The CDC would make drastic changes in the wake of mistakes during the COVID-19 pandemic. She outlined an overhaul of how the CDC would analyze and share data and how they would communicate information to the general public. In her statement to all CDC employees, she said: "For 75 years, CDC and public health have been preparing for COVID-19, and in our big moment, our performance did not reliably meet expectations." Based on
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#17327726117705096-445: The CDC's recommendations and publications may be influenced by donations received through the Foundation, which includes pharmaceutical companies. National public health institutes National public health institutes ( NPHIs ) are science-based governmental organizations that serve as a focal point for a country's public health efforts, as well as a critical component of global disease prevention and response systems. Among
5194-654: The Center for Prevention Services; as well as two centers that had been absorbed by CDC from outside: the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health in 1973, and the National Center for Health Statistics in 1987. An act of the United States Congress appended the words "and Prevention" to the name effective October 27, 1992. However, Congress directed that the initialism CDC be retained because of its name recognition. Since
5292-717: The Japanese effort lacked the technological sophistication of the American or British programs, it far outstripped them in its widespread application and indiscriminate brutality. Biological weapons were used against Chinese soldiers and civilians in several military campaigns. In 1940, the Japanese Army Air Force bombed Ningbo with ceramic bombs full of fleas carrying the bubonic plague. Many of these operations were ineffective due to inefficient delivery systems, although up to 400,000 people may have died. During
5390-739: The Malaria Commission of the League of Nations and the Rockefeller Foundation . The Rockefeller Foundation greatly supported malaria control, sought to have the governments take over some of its efforts, and collaborated with the agency. The new agency was a branch of the U.S. Public Health Service and Atlanta was chosen as the location because malaria was endemic in the Southern United States. The agency changed names (see infobox on top) before adopting
5488-545: The Nixon to Ford terms. The CDC's programs address more than 400 diseases, health threats, and conditions that are major causes of death, disease, and disability. The CDC's website has information on various infectious (and noninfectious) diseases, including smallpox , measles , and others. The CDC targets the transmission of influenza , including the H1N1 swine flu, and launched websites to educate people about hygiene. Within
5586-737: The Second World War, which were then used by the UK in the counterinsurgency operations of the Malayan Emergency . Inspired by the use in Malaysia, the US military effort in the Vietnam War included a mass dispersal of a variety of herbicides , famously Agent Orange , with the aim of destroying farmland and defoliating forests used as cover by the Viet Cong . Sri Lanka deployed military defoliants in its prosecution of
5684-726: The U.S. The CDC budget for fiscal year 2024 is $ 11.581 billion. As of 2021, CDC staff numbered approximately 15,000 personnel (including 6,000 contractors and 840 United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps officers) in 170 occupations. Eighty percent held bachelor's degrees or higher; almost half had advanced degrees (a master's degree or a doctorate such as a PhD, D.O. , or M.D. ). Common CDC job titles include engineer, entomologist , epidemiologist , biologist, physician, veterinarian , behavioral scientist , nurse , medical technologist , economist, public health advisor, health communicator, toxicologist , chemist, computer scientist , and statistician. The CDC also operates
5782-447: The U.S. and Canada secretly investigated the use of rinderpest , a highly lethal disease of cattle, as a bioweapon. In the 1980s Soviet Ministry of Agriculture had successfully developed variants of foot-and-mouth disease , and rinderpest against cows, African swine fever for pigs, and psittacosis for chickens. These agents were prepared to spray them down from tanks attached to airplanes over hundreds of miles. The secret program
5880-510: The US and worldwide. The CDC focuses national attention on developing and applying disease control and prevention. It especially focuses its attention on infectious disease , food borne pathogens , environmental health , occupational safety and health , health promotion , injury prevention , and educational activities designed to improve the health of United States citizens . The CDC also conducts research and provides information on non-infectious diseases , such as obesity and diabetes , and
5978-569: The US were described by the annual report of the Federal Select Agent Program. Though a verification system can reduce bioterrorism, an employee, or a lone terrorist having adequate knowledge of a bio-technology company's facilities, can cause potential danger by utilizing, without proper oversight and supervision, that company's resources. Moreover, it has been found that about 95% of accidents that have occurred due to low security have been done by employees or those who had
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#17327726117706076-717: The WHO to implement the International Health Regulations (IHR) , an agreement between 196 countries to prevent, control, and report on the international spread of disease, through initiatives including the Global Disease Detection Program (GDD). The CDC has also been involved in implementing the U.S. global health initiatives President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR) and President's Malaria Initiative . The CDC collects and publishes health information for travelers in
6174-468: The abuse of penicillin . In May 1994 the CDC admitted having sent samples of communicable diseases to the Iraqi government from 1984 through 1989 which were subsequently repurposed for biological warfare, including Botulinum toxin , West Nile virus , Yersinia pestis and Dengue fever virus. On April 21, 2005, then–CDC Director Julie Gerberding formally announced the reorganization of CDC to "confront
6272-403: The agency's activities in a particular area of expertise while also providing intra-agency support and resource-sharing for cross-cutting issues and specific health threats. As of the most recent reorganization in February 2023, the CIOs are: The Office of Public Health Preparedness was created during the 2001 anthrax attacks shortly after the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001. Its purpose
6370-535: The battlefield. As a tactical weapon for military use, a significant problem with biological warfare is that it would take days to be effective, and therefore might not immediately stop an opposing force. Some biological agents ( smallpox , pneumonic plague ) have the capability of person-to-person transmission via aerosolized respiratory droplets . This feature can be undesirable, as the agent(s) may be transmitted by this mechanism to unintended populations, including neutral or even friendly forces. Worse still, such
6468-417: The better known NPHIs are the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , and the Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention . Typical core functions of NPHIs include surveillance for diseases and injuries, as well as risk factors; epidemiologic investigations of health problems; public health research; and response to public health emergencies. Recent public health challenges, such as
6566-451: The biohacking space. Ideal characteristics of a biological agent to be used as a weapon against humans are high infectivity , high virulence , non-availability of vaccines and availability of an effective and efficient delivery system . Stability of the weaponized agent (the ability of the agent to retain its infectivity and virulence after a prolonged period of storage) may also be desirable, particularly for military applications, and
6664-427: The bodies of Mongol warriors of the Golden Horde who had died of plague were thrown over the walls of the besieged Crimean city of Kaffa . Specialists disagree about whether this operation was responsible for the spread of the Black Death into Europe, Near East and North Africa, resulting in the deaths of approximately 25 million Europeans. Biological agents were extensively used in many parts of Africa from
6762-419: The challenges of 21st-century health threats". She established four Coordinating Centers. In 2009 the Obama administration re-evaluated this change and ordered them cut as an unnecessary management layer. As of 2013, the CDC's Biosafety Level 4 laboratories were among the few that exist in the world. They included one of only two official repositories of smallpox in the world, with the other one located at
6860-453: The division are two programs: the Federal Select Agent Program (FSAP) and the Import Permit Program. The FSAP is run jointly with an office within the U.S. Department of Agriculture, regulating agents that can cause disease in humans, animals, and plants. The Import Permit Program regulates the importation of "infectious biological materials." The CDC runs a program that protects the public from rare and dangerous substances such as anthrax and
6958-464: The ease of creating one is often considered. Control of the spread of the agent may be another desired characteristic. The primary difficulty is not the production of the biological agent, as many biological agents used in weapons can be manufactured relatively quickly, cheaply and easily. Rather, it is the weaponization, storage, and delivery in an effective vehicle to a vulnerable target that pose significant problems. For example, Bacillus anthracis
7056-610: The effect of the epidemic. Some historians have claimed that a detachment of the Corps of Royal Marines stationed in New South Wales , Australia, deliberately used smallpox there in 1789. Dr Seth Carus states: "Ultimately, we have a strong circumstantial case supporting the theory that someone deliberately introduced smallpox in the Aboriginal population." By 1900 the germ theory and advances in bacteriology brought
7154-514: The findings of an internal report, Walensky concluded that "The CDC must refocus itself on public health needs, respond much faster to emergencies and outbreaks of disease, and provide information in a way that ordinary people and state and local health authorities can understand and put to use" (as summarized by the New York Times). The CDC is organized into "Centers, Institutes, and Offices" (CIOs), with each organizational unit implementing
7252-506: The front lines of outbreaks. The agency maintains staff in more than 60 countries, including some from the U.S. but more from the countries in which they operate. The agency's global divisions include the Division of Global HIV and TB (DGHT), the Division of Parasitic Diseases and Malaria (DPDM), the Division of Global Health Protection (DGHP), and the Global Immunization Division (GID). The CDC has been working with
7350-476: The help of a loose association of terrorist cells. The associates had infiltrated many countries like Turkey, Italy, Spain, France and others. In 2015, to combat the threat of bioterrorism, a National Blueprint for Biodefense was issued by the Blue-Ribbon Study Panel on Biodefense. Also, 233 potential exposures of select biological agents outside of the primary barriers of the biocontainment in
7448-514: The intention to use biological weapons is recorded in Hittite texts of 1500–1200 BCE, in which victims of an unknown plague (possibly tularemia ) were driven into enemy lands, causing an epidemic. The Assyrians poisoned enemy wells with the fungus ergot , though with unknown results. Scythian archers dipped their arrows and Roman soldiers their swords into excrements and cadavers – victims were commonly infected by tetanus as result. In 1346,
7546-505: The lab. Recently, the CRISPR/Cas system has emerged as a promising technique for gene editing. It was hailed by The Washington Post as "the most important innovation in the synthetic biology space in nearly 30 years." While other methods take months or years to edit gene sequences, CRISPR speeds that time up to weeks. Due to its ease of use and accessibility, it has raised a number of ethical concerns, especially surrounding its use in
7644-437: The latest safety information, side effects, and answers to common questions about CDC recommended vaccines. The Vaccine Safety Datalink (VSD) works with a network of healthcare organizations to share data on vaccine safety and adverse events. The Clinical Immunization Safety Assessment (CISA) project is a network of vaccine experts and health centers that research and assist the CDC in the area of vaccine safety. CDC also runs
7742-813: The latter case, or if a nation-state uses it clandestinely , it may also be considered bioterrorism . Biological warfare and chemical warfare overlap to an extent, as the use of toxins produced by some living organisms is considered under the provisions of both the BWC and the Chemical Weapons Convention . Toxins and psychochemical weapons are often referred to as midspectrum agents . Unlike bioweapons, these midspectrum agents do not reproduce in their host and are typically characterized by shorter incubation periods. A biological attack could conceivably result in large numbers of civilian casualties and cause severe disruption to economic and societal infrastructure. A nation or group that can pose
7840-445: The main jobs at CDC were originally entomology and engineering. In CDC's initial years, more than six and a half million homes were sprayed, mostly with DDT . In 1946, there were only seven medical officers on duty and an early organization chart was drawn. Under Joseph Walter Mountin , the CDC continued to be an advocate for public health issues and pushed to extend its responsibilities to many other communicable diseases . In 1947,
7938-748: The mission of CDC in partnership with the private sector, including organizations, foundations, businesses, educational groups, and individuals. From 1995 to 2022, the Foundation raised over $ 1.6 billion and launched more than 1,200 health programs. Bill Cosby formerly served as a member of the Foundation's Board of Directors, continuing as an honorary member after completing his term. The Foundation engages in research projects and health programs in more than 160 countries every year, including in focus areas such as cardiovascular disease , cancer , emergency response , and infectious diseases , particularly HIV/AIDS , Ebola , rotavirus , and COVID-19 . In 2015, BMJ associate editor Jeanne Lenzer raised concerns that
8036-495: The name Communicable Disease Center in 1946. Offices were located on the sixth floor of the Volunteer Building on Peachtree Street. With a budget at the time of about $ 1 million, 59 percent of its personnel were engaged in mosquito abatement and habitat control with the objective of control and eradication of malaria in the United States (see National Malaria Eradication Program ). Among its 369 employees,
8134-591: The onset of World War II , the Ministry of Supply in the United Kingdom established a biological warfare program at Porton Down , headed by the microbiologist Paul Fildes . The research was championed by Winston Churchill and soon tularemia , anthrax , brucellosis , and botulism toxins had been effectively weaponized. In particular, Gruinard Island in Scotland, was contaminated with anthrax during
8232-712: The organisms that produce them are sometimes referred to as select agents . In the United States, their possession, use, and transfer are regulated by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 's Select Agent Program. The former US biological warfare program categorized its weaponized anti-personnel bio-agents as either Lethal Agents ( Bacillus anthracis , Francisella tularensis , Botulinum toxin) or Incapacitating Agents ( Brucella suis , Coxiella burnetii , Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus, Staphylococcal enterotoxin B). The United States developed an anti-crop capability during
8330-463: The other hand, some sources report that these agents were stockpiled but never weaponized . When the United States renounced its offensive biological warfare program in 1969 and 1970, the vast majority of its biological arsenal was composed of these plant diseases. Enterotoxins and Mycotoxins were not affected by Nixon's order. Though herbicides are chemicals, they are often grouped with biological warfare and chemical warfare because they may work in
8428-597: The request of the British. The U.S. then established a large research program and industrial complex at Fort Detrick, Maryland , in 1942 under the direction of George W. Merck . The biological and chemical weapons developed during that period were tested at the Dugway Proving Grounds in Utah . Soon there were facilities for the mass production of anthrax spores, brucellosis , and botulism toxins, although
8526-434: The sixteenth century AD, most of the time in the form of poisoned arrows, or powder spread on the war front as well as poisoning of horses and water supply of the enemy forces. In Borgu, there were specific mixtures to kill, hypnotize , make the enemy bold, and to act as an antidote against the poison of the enemy as well. The creation of biologicals was reserved for a specific and professional class of medicine-men. During
8624-622: The spread of weapons of mass destruction to non-state actors . Biological weapons are difficult to detect, economical and easy to use, making them appealing to terrorists. The cost of a biological weapon is estimated to be about 0.05 percent the cost of a conventional weapon in order to produce similar numbers of mass casualties per kilometer square. Moreover, their production is very easy as common technology can be used to produce biological warfare agents, like that used in production of vaccines, foods, spray devices, beverages and antibiotics. A major factor in biological warfare that attracts terrorists
8722-738: The spring before left as many as one hundred Native Americans dead in Ohio Country from 1763 to 1764. It is not clear whether the smallpox was a result of the Fort Pitt incident or the virus was already present among the Delaware people as outbreaks happened on their own every dozen or so years and the delegates were met again later and seemingly had not contracted smallpox. During the American Revolutionary War , Continental Army officer George Washington mentioned to
8820-413: The treaty . The BWC is considered to have established a strong global norm against biological weapons, which is reflected in the treaty's preamble, stating that the use of biological weapons would be "repugnant to the conscience of mankind". The BWC's effectiveness has been limited due to insufficient institutional support and the absence of any formal verification regime to monitor compliance. In 1985,
8918-484: The war was over before these weapons could be of much operational use. The most notorious program of the period was run by the secret Imperial Japanese Army Unit 731 during the war , based at Pingfan in Manchuria and commanded by Lieutenant General Shirō Ishii . This biological warfare research unit conducted often fatal human experiments on prisoners, and produced biological weapons for combat use. Although
9016-598: Was also plans to expand the biological warfare campaign into other Arab states including Egypt, Lebanon and Syria, but they were not carried out. International restrictions on biological warfare began with the 1925 Geneva Protocol , which prohibits the use but not the possession or development of biological and chemical weapons in international armed conflicts. Upon ratification of the Geneva Protocol, several countries made reservations regarding its applicability and use in retaliation. Due to these reservations, it
9114-873: Was code-named "Ecology". During the Mau Mau Uprising in 1952, the poisonous latex of the African milk bush was used to kill cattle. In 2010 at The Meeting of the States Parties to the Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons and Their Destruction in Geneva the sanitary epidemiological reconnaissance
9212-469: Was in practice a " no-first-use " agreement only. The 1972 Biological Weapons Convention (BWC) supplements the Geneva Protocol by prohibiting the development, production, acquisition, transfer, stockpiling and use of biological weapons. Having entered into force on 26 March 1975, the BWC was the first multilateral disarmament treaty to ban the production of an entire category of weapons of mass destruction. As of March 2021, 183 states have become party to
9310-522: Was set to launch on 22 September 1945, but it was not executed because of Japan's surrender on 15 August 1945. In Britain, the 1950s saw the weaponization of plague , brucellosis , tularemia and later equine encephalomyelitis and vaccinia viruses, but the programme was unilaterally cancelled in 1956. The United States Army Biological Warfare Laboratories weaponized anthrax , tularemia , brucellosis , Q-fever and others. In 1969, US President Richard Nixon decided to unilaterally terminate
9408-599: Was suggested as well-tested means for enhancing the monitoring of infections and parasitic agents, for the practical implementation of the International Health Regulations (2005). The aim was to prevent and minimize the consequences of natural outbreaks of dangerous infectious diseases as well as the threat of alleged use of biological weapons against BTWC States Parties. Many countries require their active-duty military personnel to get vaccinated for certain diseases that may potentially be used as
9506-524: Was to coordinate among the government the response to a range of biological terrorism threats. Most CDC centers are located in Atlanta . Building 18, which opened in 2005 at the CDC's main Roybal campus (named in honor of the late Representative Edward R. Roybal ), contains the premier BSL4 laboratory in the United States. A few of the centers are based in or operate other domestic locations: In addition, CDC operates quarantine facilities in 20 cities in
9604-691: Was transferred to the CDC in 1957. Shortly thereafter, Tuberculosis Control was transferred (in 1960) to the CDC from PHS, and then in 1963 the Immunization program was established. It became the National Communicable Disease Center effective July 1, 1967, and the Center for Disease Control on June 24, 1970. At the end of the Public Health Service reorganizations of 1966–1973 , it was promoted to being
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