Misplaced Pages

#689310

131-754: Although revolutionary fighters helped bring Francisco I. Madero to power, Madero retained the Federal Army rather than the revolutionaries. Madero used the Federal Army to suppress rebellions against his government by Pascual Orozco and Emiliano Zapata . Madero placed General Victoriano Huerta as interim commander of the military during the Ten Tragic Days of February 1913 to defend his government. Huerta changed sides and ousted Madero's government. Rebellions broke out against Huerta's regime. When revolutionary armies succeeded in ousting Huerta in July 1914,

262-728: A Department of Labor and a National Agrarian Commission, but organized labor and peasants seeking land did not have their fundamental situations changed. Madero retained the Mexican Federal Army and ordered the demobilization of revolutionary forces. For revolutionaries who considered themselves the reason that Díaz resigned, this was a hard course to follow. Since Madero did not implement immediate, radical reforms that many of those had supported him had expected, he lost control of those areas in Morelos and Chihuahua. A series of internal rebellions challenged Madero's presidency before

393-403: A Mexican and a U.S. president and also the first time a U.S. president would cross the border into Mexico. At the meeting, Diaz told John Hays Hammond , "Since I am responsible for bringing several billion dollars in foreign investments into my country, I think I should continue in my position until a competent successor is found." The summit was a great success for Díaz, but it could have been

524-456: A Mexican businessman, revolutionary, writer and statesman , who served as the 37th president of Mexico from 1911 until he was deposed in a coup d'état in February 1913 and assassinated. He came to prominence as an advocate for democracy and as an opponent of President and de facto dictator Porfirio Díaz . After Díaz claimed to have won the fraudulent election of 1910 despite promising

655-519: A band of revolutionaries, but was defeated in the Battle of Casas Grandes by the Federal Army, which led him to abandon military command roles. Concerned the Battle of Ciudad Juárez would cause casualties in the American city of El Paso and prompt foreign intervention, Madero ordered Villa and Orozco to retreat, but they disobeyed and captured Juárez. Díaz resigned on 25 May 1911 after the signing of

786-492: A civil ceremony, and then a Catholic nuptial mass celebrated by the archbishop. On 2 April 1903, Bernardo Reyes , governor of Nuevo León , violently crushed a political demonstration, an example of the increasingly authoritarian policies of president Porfirio Díaz . Madero was deeply moved and, believing himself to be receiving advice from the spirit of his late brother Raúl, he decided to act. The spirit of Raúl told him, "Aspire to do good for your fellow citizens...working for

917-414: A combination of bribes and other economic lures for those he could not confront militarily. He divided Mexico into eleven military zones, whose boundaries did not correspond to state boundaries. To prevent collusion between the state governors, whom he appointed, and military commanders, he rotated commanders on a regular basis so that they could not build a local power base. By a variety of means, he reduced

1048-524: A destabilized Mexico would threaten international order. In February 1913, a coup d'état backed by the United States and led by conservative Generals Félix Díaz (a nephew of Porfirio Díaz), Bernardo Reyes , and general Victoriano Huerta was staged in Mexico City, with the latter taking the presidency. Madero was captured and assassinated along with vice-president José María Pino Suárez in

1179-712: A dramatic change in direction, on 6 June 1910, the Porfirian regime arrested Madero in Monterrey and sent him to a prison in San Luis Potosí . Approximately 5,000 other members of the Anti-Re-electionist movement were also jailed. Francisco Vázquez Gómez took over the nomination, but during Madero's time in jail, a fraudulent election was held on 21 June 1910 that gave Díaz an unbelievably large margin of victory. Madero's father used his influence with

1310-556: A falsified election. Madero's earlier vague promises of agrarian reforms had attracted many supporters. He himself escaped from prison and fled to Texas , from where he issued his famous Plan of San Luis Potosí . This manifesto called for an armed uprising against the Porfiriato and establishment of free and democratic elections. As a response to Madero's proclamation, violent clashes began throughout Mexico in November 1910. In

1441-667: A free election or retire. Madero's book was well received, and widely read. Many people began to call Madero the Apostle of Democracy . Madero sold off much of his property – often at a considerable loss – to finance anti-re-election activities throughout Mexico. He founded the Anti-Re-election Center in Mexico City in May 1909, and soon thereafter lent his backing to the periodical El Antirreeleccionista , which

SECTION 10

#1732764888690

1572-630: A hero to ordinary people throughout Mexico and new corridos were written about him. After Zapata's taking of Cuautla the federal government controlled only five states and some urban areas. Porfirio Díaz himself later stated that, while he felt he could defend against Villa and Orozco in Chihuahua, the fall of Cuautla was the event that persuaded him to agree to peace with Madero. As early as March 1911 Madero's representatives met in New York with Díaz's finance minister , José Yves Limantour , and

1703-574: A lofty ideal that will raise the moral level of society, that will succeed in liberating it from oppression, slavery, and fanaticism." Madero founded the Benito Juárez Democratic Club and ran for municipal office in 1904, though he lost the election narrowly. In addition to his political activities, Madero continued his interest in Spiritualism, publishing a number of articles under the pseudonym of Arjuna (a prince from

1834-471: A major tragedy. On the day of the summit, Frederick Russell Burnham , the celebrated scout, and Private C.R. Moore, a Texas Ranger , discovered a man holding a concealed palm pistol along the procession route and they disarmed the assassin within only a few feet of Díaz and Taft. The Porfirian regime reacted to Madero by placing pressure on the Madero family's banking interests, and at one point even issued

1965-621: A mass conscription ( leva ), of men on the streets by his press-gangs. Press-gangs would capture men as they left church or pull them from cinemas. Very few of the men under his command were volunteers and many deserted the army. Huerta tried improving morale by increasing pay in May 1913 by 50%. At the same time 382 military cadets were given commissions and attempts were made to increase the number of cadets in training. Federal army generals were often corrupt and guilty of undermining morale with poor leadership. Some were so corrupt their dealings extended as far as selling ammunition, food and uniforms to

2096-480: A meeting between Madero and Díaz, Teodoro Dehesa , and took place in Díaz's residence on 16 April 1910. Only the candidate and the president were present for the meeting, so the only account of it is Madero's correspondence. A political solution and compromise might have been possible, with Madero withdrawing his candidacy. It became clear to Madero that Díaz was a decrepit old man, out of touch politically, and unaware of

2227-472: A member of the upper class; the middle class saw that he sought to gain entry into political processes; the lower class saw that he promised fairer politics and a much more substantial, equitable economic system. The family drew on its financial resources to make regime change possible, with Madero's brother Gustavo A. Madero hiring the law firm of Washington lawyer Sherburne Hopkins , the "world's best rigger of Latin American revolutions" to foment support in

2358-466: A military intervention by the United States. Estañol's views represented those of the portion of the upper class which was willing to come to terms with at least a portion of the middle class in order to crush the peasant uprisings, as exemplified by those of Zapata, which were erupting throughout Mexico. Limantour, who broadly agreed with Estañol, had the support of the Mexican financiers , who feared

2489-411: A moderate democrat and follow the course outlined in treaty bringing about exile of Díaz, but by calling for the disarming and demobilization of his revolutionary base, he undermined his support. The Mexican Federal Army, just defeated by the revolutionaries, was to continue as the armed force of the Mexican state. Madero argued that the revolutionaries should henceforth proceed solely by peaceful means. In

2620-657: A new political party, the Constitutionalist Progressive party, which replaced the Anti-Reelectionist Party. He ousted leftist Emilio Vázquez Gómez from his cabinet, brother of Francisco Vázquez Gómez, whom Madero had replaced as his vice presidential candidate with Pino Suárez. Madero made gestures of reform to those who had helped bring him to power, but his aim was a democratic transition to power, fulfilled by his election. His supporters were offered mild gestures of reform, creating

2751-459: A number of important accomplishments, including freedom of the press. He freed political prisoners and abolished the death penalty. He did away with the practice of the Díaz government, which appointed local political bosses ( jefes políticos ), and instead set up a system of independent municipal authorities. State elections were free and fair. He was concerned about the improvement of education, establishing new schools and workshops. An important step

SECTION 20

#1732764888690

2882-568: A number of small rebellions against the Madero's regime breaking out in December 1911. Although Madero sent the Federal Army, he then sent Orozco to put down the rebellion. Rebels had captured and looted Ciudad Juáréz. Orozco arrived with a contingent of troops. Still popular in Chihuahua, Orozco persuaded rebels to lay down their arms against Madero. Madero was delighted that Orozco had been so successful in dealing with two rebellions. Treaty of Ciudad Ju%C3%A1rez The Treaty of Ciudad Juárez

3013-461: A promised demand from conflict participation. Workers also became disillusioned by his moderate policies. Former supporter Emiliano Zapata declared himself in rebellion against Madero in the Plan of Ayala , and in the north, Pascual Orozco led an insurrection against him. Foreign investors became concerned that Madero could not maintain political stability, while foreign governments were concerned that

3144-528: A return to democracy, Madero started the Mexican Revolution to oust Díaz. The Mexican revolution would continue until 1920, well after Madero and Díaz's deaths, with hundreds of thousands dead. A member of one of Mexico's wealthiest families, Madero studied business at the École des Hautes Études Commerciales de Paris . An advocate for social justice and democracy, his 1908 book The Presidential Succession in 1910 called Mexican voters to prevent

3275-526: A series of events now called the Ten Tragic Days , where his brother Gustavo was tortured and killed. After his assassination, Madero became a unifying force among revolutionary factions against the Huerta regime. In the north, Venustiano Carranza , then Governor of Coahuila , led the nascent Constitutionalist Army ; meanwhile, Zapata continued his rebellion against the Federal Government under

3406-400: A social revolution whose aim was " anarchy ", which was spreading throughout the countryside. Estañol recommended coming to terms with the first group of revolutionaries by agreeing to the principle of no re-election and a general amnesty, in order to prevent the second group from succeeding. In addition to his fear of "anarchy", Estañol was also worried that the social revolution would lead to

3537-421: A supporter of Reyes, and Madero was concerned that Huerta would join with Reyes rather than suppress the rebellion. In one historian's assessment, "President Madero played his political cards perfectly this occasion. Had he dispatched a large force to the north under the command of either Huerta of [General] Blanquet, it is quite possible that a major military defection, seriously threatening the government." Reyes

3668-492: A warrant for Madero's arrest on the grounds of "unlawful transaction in rubber". Madero was not arrested, though, apparently due in part to the intervention of Díaz's finance minister, José Yves Limantour , a friend of the Madero family. In April 1910, the Anti-Re-electionist Party met and selected Madero as their nominee for President of Mexico . During the convention, the governor of Veracruz arranged

3799-495: A young man and briefly served as Governor of Coahuila , from 1880 to 1884, during the four-year interregnum of Porfirio Díaz's rule (1880–1884), when Díaz's right-hand man General Manuel González served as president, doing a poor job in Díaz's opinion. Díaz returned to the presidency in 1884 and did not relinquish the office until 1911, when Francisco Madero's revolutionary movement forced him to resign. Díaz had permanently sidelined Evaristo Madero from further political office. He

3930-623: Is directly across the Rio Grande from Ciudad Juárez, where two railway Mexican lines, the Mexican National Railroad and the Mexican Northwest Railroad, are connected with the U.S. Southern Pacific Railroad. El Paso was the site of a historic meeting between Mexican President Porfirio Díaz and U.S. President William Howard Taft in 1909. The population of the twin border cities increased dramatically in

4061-419: Is that almost immediately after taking office in November, Madero became the first head of state in the world to fly in an airplane, which the Mexican press was later to mock. Madero was unable to achieve the reconciliation he desired since conservative Porfirians had organized themselves during the interim presidency and now mounted a sustained and effective opposition to Madero's reform program. Conservatives in

Federal Army - Misplaced Pages Continue

4192-820: The Mahabharata ). In 1905, Madero became increasingly involved in opposition to the Díaz government, which had excluded his family from political power. He organized political clubs and founded a political newspaper ( El Demócrata ) and a satirical periodical ( El Mosco , "The Fly"). Madero's preferred candidate, Frumencio Fuentes, was defeated by that of Porfirio Díaz in Coahuila's 1905 gubernatorial elections. Díaz considered jailing Madero, but Bernardo Reyes suggested that Francisco's father be asked to control his increasingly political son. In an interview with journalist James Creelman published on 17 February 1908 issue of Pearson's Magazine , President Díaz said that Mexico

4323-537: The Guggenheim family in Mexico. The family was organized on patriarchal principles, so that even though young Francisco was wealthy in his own right, his father and especially his grandfather Evaristo viewed him as someone who should be under the authority of his elders. As the eldest sibling, Francisco exercised authority over his younger brothers and sisters. In January 1903, he married Sara Pérez Romero , first in

4454-568: The Plan of San Luis Potosí in San Antonio, but back dated and situated in to last place he had been in Mexico. Madero set up shop in San Antonio , Texas, and quickly issued his Plan of San Luis Potosí , which had been written during his time in prison, partly with the help of Ramón López Velarde . The plan proclaimed the elections of 1910 null and void, and called for an armed revolution to begin at 6 pm on 20 November 1910, against

4585-579: The Porfiristas , in fact, expected that Zapata would soon march on Mexico City itself, unless peace was concluded with Madero. The moderate view within the Díaz government was represented by Jorge Vera Estañol, who in a memo to the minister of foreign affairs wrote that there were two revolutions taking place in Mexico: a political revolution , based mostly in the north whose main aim was to establish free elections and remove Díaz himself from power, and

4716-666: The Treaty of Ciudad Juárez and went into exile. Madero retained the Federal Army and dismissed the revolutionary fighters who had forced Díaz's resignation. Madero was enormously popular among many sectors but did not immediately assume the presidency. An interim president was installed, and elections were scheduled. Madero was elected in a landslide and sworn into office on 6 November 1911. The Madero administration soon encountered opposition from conservatives and more radical revolutionaries. Hesitation to implement large-scale land reform efforts upset many of his followers, who viewed it as

4847-459: The Treaty of Ciudad Juárez was signed. Under the terms of the Treaty of Ciudad Juárez, Díaz and Corral agreed to resign by the end of May 1911, with Díaz's Minister of Foreign Affairs , Francisco León de la Barra , becoming interim president solely for the purpose of calling general elections. Madero did not want to come to power by force of arms, but by a democratic election. This first phase of

4978-402: The "illegitimate presidency/dictatorship of Díaz". At that point, Madero declared himself provisional President of Mexico, and called for a general refusal to acknowledge the central government, restitution of land to villages and Indian communities, and freedom for political prisoners. Madero's policies painted him as a leader of each of the different sectors of Mexican society at the time. He was

5109-584: The 1890s into the production of guayule rubber plants. Unusually for a Mexican landowner, many of whom stayed close to home, the patriarch Evaristo traveled to Europe, as did Francisco's father. Francisco's father was interested in the increasingly popular philosophical movement of spiritism , founded by Allan Kardec , and subscribed to the La Revue Spirite and the Société Parisienne d'Études Spirites, whilst completing his studies at

5240-453: The 1910 presidential elections. A rich hacienda owner from Coahuila, Francisco I. Madero , published a book entitled The Presidential Succession of 1910 , excoriating militarism in Mexico and calling for democracy. Madero's ideal was civilian rule. Only when it became more than clear that Díaz would remain in power by any means did Madero call for an armed rebellion against him in the 1910 Plan of San Luis Potosí . Minor rebellions broke out on

5371-454: The 20 November 1910 date he set, which the Federal Army suppressed. But more a more serious rebellion in Chihuahua led by Pascual Orozco and Pancho Villa demonstrated the weakness of the Federal forces, surprising the rebels. More rebellions in various parts of Mexico broke out, forcing Díaz to resign in May 1911. "Considering the small number of battles actually fought, [the rebel] triumph

Federal Army - Misplaced Pages Continue

5502-586: The Congress, therefore, decided to send regular troops under Victoriano Huerta to suppress Zapata's revolutionaries. Madero once again traveled south to urge Zapata to disband his supporters peacefully, but Zapata refused on the grounds that Huerta's troops were advancing on Yautepec . Zapata's suspicions proved accurate as Huerta's Federal soldiers moved violently into Yautepec. Madero wrote to De la Barra, saying that Huerta's actions were unjustified and recommending that Zapata's demands be met. However, when he left

5633-471: The Díaz regime still in power, he was caused difficulties in the short and long term. The German ambassador to Mexico, Paul von Hintze , who associated with the Interim President, said of him that "De la Barra wants to accommodate himself with dignity to the inevitable advance of the ex-revolutionary influence, while accelerating the widespread collapse of the Madero party...." Madero sought to be

5764-452: The February 1913 coup that deposed him. In Morelos, Emiliano Zapata proclaimed the Plan of Ayala on 25 November 1911, which excoriated Madero's slowness on land reform and declared the signatories in rebellion. Zapata's plan recognized Pascual Orozco as fellow revolutionary, although Orozco was for the moment loyal to Madero, until 1912. Madero sent the Federal Army to suppress the rebellion, but failed to do so. For Madero's opponents this

5895-405: The Federal Army at Linares, Nuevo León . When the rebellion broke out, Madero made a calculated decision to entrust Pascual Orozco to put it down. In the fight against Dįaz, Orozco had led revolutionary forces in the north capturing Ciudad Juárez, against Madero's orders. Madero had not treated him well after he was elected, but entrusted him over General Victoriano Huerta. Huerta had previously been

6026-663: The Federal Army ceased to exist as an entity, with the signing of the Teoloyucan Treaties . The Federal Army in Mexico had long been an interventionist force in Mexican politics, with notable generals becoming Presidents of Mexico. After the War of the Reform and the successful ouster of the French empire in Mexico in 1867, the soldiers who defeated them were adherents of the liberalism . General Porfirio Díaz rose through

6157-465: The Federal Army to Morelos. In February 1912, the Federal army consisted of 32,594 regulars and 15,550 irregulars. This was far below the official number of 80,000 as stated by the army executive. By September of the same year the official strength of the army was 85,000 men. In addition there were 16,000 Rurales , 4,000 Urban Police and 16,200 Militia, rural guards and other pro-government men under arms. In April 1914 Huerta claimed his army had reached

6288-547: The Guerrero district of Chihuahua , Pascual Orozco attacked federal troops and sent dead soldiers' clothing back to Díaz with the message, "Ahí te van las hojas, mándame más tamales" ("Here are the wrappers, send me more tamales.") He then began operations that threatened Ciudad Juárez . Additionally, political support for Madero's rebellion came from Gov. Abraham González , who accepted the Plan of San Luis Potosí. At roughly

6419-717: The Madero family's hacienda at San Pedro, Coahuila . Well-traveled and well-educated, he was now in robust health. Proving an enlightened and progressive member of the Madero commercial complex, Francisco installed new irrigation, introduced American-made cotton and cotton machinery, and built a soap factory and also an ice factory. He embarked on a lifelong commitment to philanthropy. His employees were well paid and received regular medical exams; he built schools, hospitals, and community kitchens; and he paid to support orphans and award scholarships. He also taught himself homeopathy and offered medical treatments to his employees. Francisco became increasingly engaged with Spiritism and in 1901

6550-409: The Madero family's power and wealth. For many years despite their exclusion from political office, the family prospered during Porfirio Díaz 's regime, and by 1910 the family was one of the richest in Mexico, worth 30 million pesos ($ 15 million U.S. dollars of the day, and almost $ 500 million U.S. dollars in today's money). Much of this wealth arose from the diversification of Madero lands during

6681-542: The Maderos themselves more than $ 400,000 gold", with the aggregate cost being $ 1,500,000US. Madero supposedly initiated the Mexican Revolution with guidance from spirits (Madero identified as a medium who communicated with ghosts, including historical figures like Benito Juarez and even his deceased younger brother.) El Paso, Texas, became a major staging point for Madero's insurrection against Díaz. It

SECTION 50

#1732764888690

6812-578: The Maderos, the descendants of Evaristo Madero make up some of Mexico's most influential families today. Thus, young Francisco was a member of an extended and powerful northern Mexican clan with a focus on commercial rather than political interests. Francisco and his younger brother Gustavo A. Madero attended the Jesuit college of San Juan in Saltillo and wanted to then become a Jesuit. He and his brother Gustavo briefly attended another religious school in

6943-459: The Mexican Revolution thus ended with Díaz leaving for exile in Europe at the end of May 1911. He was escorted to the port of Veracruz by General Victoriano Huerta . On 7 June 1911, Madero entered Mexico City in triumph where he was greeted with huge crowds shouting " ¡Viva Madero! " Madero was arriving not as the conquering hero, but as a presidential candidate who now embarked on campaigning for

7074-700: The Mexican ambassador to the US in order to discuss the possibility of peace between the two sides. Limantour proposed an end to hostilities and offered an amnesty for all revolutionaries, the resignation of the then-vice president Ramón Corral , the replacement of four Díaz cabinet ministers and ten state governors by ones chosen by Madero and the establishment of the principle of "no-reelection", which would prevent Díaz from seeking yet another term as president (which would have been his ninth). Madero responded positively, although he also stated that any kind of peace deal had to include an immediate resignation by Díaz. Faced with

7205-594: The Plan of Ayala. Once Huerta was ousted in July 1914, the revolutionary coalitions met in the Convention of Aguascalientes , where disagreements persisted, and Mexico entered a new stage of civil war. Francisco Ignacio Madero González was born in 1873 into a large and extremely wealthy family in northeastern Mexico at the hacienda of El Rosario, in Parras de la Fuente , Coahuila . His grandfather Evaristo Madero Elizondo had built an enormous and diversified fortune as

7336-512: The Senate refused to pass the reforms he advocated. At the same time, several of Madero's allies denounced him for being overly conciliatory with the Porfirians and with not moving aggressively forward with reforms. After years of censorship, Mexican newspapers took advantage of their newly found freedom of the press to harshly criticize Madero's performance as president. Gustavo A. Madero ,

7467-425: The U.S. A strategy to discredit Díaz with U.S. business and the U.S. government did meet some success, with Standard Oil engaging in talks with Gustavo Madero, but more importantly, the U.S. government "bent neutrality laws for the revolutionaries." The U.S. Senate held hearings in 1913 as to whether the U.S. had any role in fomenting revolution in Mexico, Hopkins gave testimony that "he did not believe that it cost

7598-583: The U.S. His English was poor, so he learned little in his short time there, and he abandoned any notion of a religious vocation. Between 1886 and 1892, Madero was educated in France and then the United States, attending the Lycée Hoche de Versailles, HEC Paris and UC Berkeley . At the Lycée Hoche in Versailles , France, he completed the classe préparatoire aux grandes écoles program. Soon after, he

7729-582: The Zapatistas, the Villistas, and other rebels, following the expulsion of Huerta, the Federist force disbanded and disappeared." At the time the full strength of the Federal army was 10 Generals of Division, 61 Generals of Brigade, 1,006 Jefes, 2,446 Officers, 24,800 other ranks and 7,058 horses. In addition there were 21 regiments of Rurales with 500 men in each, a total of 10,500 men. The Federal army

7860-492: The armed struggle". In the end, however, Díaz dismissed the advice from his generals as " Custer -like bluster" and chose to seek peace with the moderate wing of the revolution. Limantour had finally managed to persuade him to resign. At the same time there was also disagreement among the rebels. The "left wing" of the revolutionary movement, represented by Zapata and Orozco (Villa, for the time being, tended to support Madero), warned against any possible compromises with Díaz. In

7991-482: The arts of modern warfare. By 1900, some 9,000 graduates were officers in the Federal Army. Military training prepared cadets for war with foreign invaders, when the reality was the army dealt with internal order, along with the rural police force . By early 1900, the majority of generals in the military were not trained at the military academy, but had participated in the war against the French, that had ended some 35 years previously. The generals were old. The Federal Army

SECTION 60

#1732764888690

8122-453: The border and planned to meet up with 400 men raised by his uncle Catarino Benavides Hernández to launch an attack on Ciudad Porfirio Díaz (modern-day Piedras Negras, Coahuila ). However, his uncle arrived late and brought only ten men. Madero decided to postpone the revolution. Instead, he and his brother Raúl (who had been given the same name as his late brother) traveled incognito to New Orleans, Louisiana. On 14 February 1911, Madero crossed

8253-421: The border into Chihuahua state from Texas, and on 6 March 1911 led 130 men in an attack on Casas Grandes, Chihuahua . Although holding democratic ideals that attracted many to his movement, Madero learned he was not a military leader. "Madero didn't know the first thing about warfare," initially capturing the town from the Federal Army, but he did not realize he needed to scout whether Federal reinforcements were on

8384-468: The border into the United States , which could provoke an outside intervention, and faced with a series of peace proposals from Díaz, Madero hesitated in attacking the city. He in fact ordered his commanders to lift the siege. Orozco, however disregarded the order and, joined by Villa, attacked. After two days of fighting the city fell to the insurrectionists. Madero intervened personally to spare

8515-619: The brutal treatment of the Yaqui people , the repression of workers in Cananea , excessive concessions to the United States, and an unhealthy centralization of politics around the person of the president. Madero called for a return of the Liberal 1857 Constitution . To achieve this, Madero proposed organizing a Democratic Party under the slogan Sufragio efectivo, no reelección ("Effective Suffrage. No Re-election"). Porfirio Díaz could either run in

8646-507: The bureaucrats of the various federal agencies. Venustiano Carranza , who was going to become a major revolutionary in his own right and a future president of Mexico, stated that, after the treaty, Madero had "deliver[ed] to the reactionaries a dead revolution which will have to be fought over again". Díaz, after leaving for exile in France, observed that "Madero has unleashed a tiger, let us see if he can control him". Orozco, who saw himself as being instrumental in Madero's victory over Díaz,

8777-411: The concentration of absolute power in the hands of one man – Porfirio Díaz – for so long had made Mexico sick. Madero pointed out the irony that in 1871, Porfirio Díaz's political slogan had been "No Re-election". Madero acknowledged that Porfirio Díaz had brought peace and a measure of economic growth to Mexico. However, Madero argued that this was counterbalanced by the dramatic loss of freedom, including

8908-473: The downgrading of Mexican international credit and a general economic crisis as a result of ongoing social unrest, as well as that of the large landowners who were willing to come to terms with Madero if it would put an end to the agrarian uprisings. These social group were in turn opposed by the more reactionary elements within Díaz's government, mostly concentrated in the Federal Army , who thought that

9039-415: The end their suspicions proved correct, as the treaty that was eventually signed neglected issues of social and agrarian land reform that were central to their struggle. The most significant point of the treaty was that Porfirio Díaz , and his vice president, Ramón Corral , resign and that Francisco León de la Barra , acting as Interim President, organize free elections as soon as possible. Additionally,

9170-434: The enemy. Also guilty of this corruption were Huerta's two sons, Victoriano Jr. and Jorge, both of whom had been placed in important positions overseeing the procurement of arms, supplies, uniforms and ammunition. Despite these problems Huerta worked at creating an army capable of keeping him in power. He tried to expand the army by creating new units to distance them from the defeatism of the former Porfirista army. To bolster

9301-423: The extent of formal political opposition. The meeting was important for strengthening Madero's resolve that political compromise was not possible and he is quoted as saying "Porfirio is not an imposing chief. Nevertheless, it will be necessary to start a revolution to overthrow him. But who will crush it afterwards?" Madero was worried that Porfirio Díaz would not willingly relinquish office, warned his supporters of

9432-523: The fall presidential election. He left in place all but the top political figures of the Díaz regime as well as the Federal Army, which had just been defeated by revolutionary forces. The Governor of Coahuila , Venustiano Carranza , and Luis Cabrera had strongly advised Madero not to sign the treaty, since it gave away the power the revolutionary forces had won. For Madero, that was not the only consideration. Madero saw that revolutionaries like Orozco were not going to docilely obey his orders not to attack and

9563-542: The fighting, shown bandaged in a photograph. Madero was saved by his personal bodyguard and Revolutionary general Máximo Castillo . He remained head of the movement in the north to oust Díaz. Madero movement successfully imported arms from the United States, procured by agents in the United States. Some were shipped directly from New York, disguised so that they would not be intercepted by the U.S. government. There were two businesses in El Paso that sold arms and ammunition to

9694-506: The goals of "his revolution" were not being fulfilled. He was particularly angry that Madero did not plan on carrying out any kind of agrarian reform, or the breakup of large haciendas. Additionally, the press in Mexico City--controlled by the landowners--began referring to Zapata as a bandit and federal generals, such as Huerta, continued attacking his troops under the pretext that Zapata failed to demobilize in violation of

9825-518: The hub of insurrectionist activity. Villa and Orozco had increasing success against the Federal Army, which drew more recruits to Madero's cause since it seemed to have a real chance at success. Antonio I. Villareal  [ es ] , a follower of Ricardo Flores Magón , who forbade members of the Magonista movement to have anything to do with the Madero movement, but the pragmatist Villareal joined Madero. On 20 November 1910, Madero arrived at

9956-470: The late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries with legal commerce and considerable smuggling, "a time-honored occupation along the border." As the political tensions in Mexico increased, the smuggling of guns and ammunition to insurrectionists was big business. Madero remained in San Antonio, Texas, but his main man in Chihuahua, Abraham González had recruited gifted, natural military leaders, Pancho Villa and Pascual Orozco, to Madero's cause. Chihuahua became

10087-482: The later part of the nineteenth century. After Rafaela Hernández's death at age 38, Evaristo married Manuela Farías y Benavides (1870–1893), producing eleven children. She was a member of one of northern Mexico's most influential families, daughter of Juan Francisco Farías , founder of the Rio Grande Republic . The surviving children of Evaristo's marriages also married into prominent families and expanded

10218-462: The life of the city's commander, Gen. Navarro, whom both Orozco and Villa wanted executed for his previous killing of rebel POWs . This, coupled with the fact that both leaders were ignored by Madero in his political appointments, outraged and estranged them from him. At about the same time that Villa and Orozco were marching on Ciudad Juárez, the Zapatista revolt gathered strength and spread to

10349-476: The major urban centers in the region, only Cuautla and the capital of Morelos, Cuernavaca , remained outside his control. Zapata began the attack on Cuautla on May 13 with 4000 troops against 400 elite soldiers of the so-called "Golden Fifth"; the Fifth Cavalry Regiment of the Federal Army . The battle took almost a week and has been described as "six of the most terrible days of battle in

10480-471: The moral transformation I have experienced is due to my becoming a medium.'" Francisco I. Madero was the first-born son of Evaristo's first-born son of his first marriage, Francisco Ignacio Madero Hernández and Mercedes González Treviño, and was Evaristo's first-born grandson. Young Francisco was the first of his father's eleven children. This wealthy and prolific extended family could provide vast resources to young Francisco when he challenged Porfirio Díaz for

10611-649: The officer corps by 500, including 25 generals. Díaz also sought to professionalize the army. He moved the Mexican Military Academy back to Chapultepec Castle , the Presidential residence. In 1847, cadets at the academy resisted the invading U.S. forces , in their deaths called the Niños Héroes , but the academy was relocated and lost prestige. Díaz revived it, with cadets to be sons of "good families" (code for "white"). They were taught

10742-506: The overthrow of his regime in the Plan of San Luis Potosí , sparking the Mexican Revolution . Madero's armed support was concentrated in northern Mexico and was aided by access to arms and finances in the United States. In Chihuahua , Madero recruited wealthy landowner Abraham González to his movement, appointing him provisional governor of the state. González then enlisted Pancho Villa and Pascual Orozco as revolutionary leaders. Madero crossed from Texas into Mexico and took command of

10873-468: The possibility of electoral fraud and proclaimed that "Force shall be met by force!" Madero campaigned across the country on a message of reform and met with numerous supporters. Resentful of the "peaceful invasion" from the United States "which came to control 90 percent of Mexico's mineral resources, its national railroad, its oil industry and, increasingly, its land," Mexico's poor and middle-class overwhelmingly showed their support for Madero. Fearful of

11004-511: The presidency in 1910. He was a sickly child and was small in stature as an adult. It is widely believed that Madero's middle initial, I, stood for Indalecio, but according to his birth certificate it stood for Ignacio. On the birth certificate, Ignacio was written with the archaic spelling of Ygnacio . After winning election to the presidency in 1911, Francisco confirmed his uncle Ernesto Madero Farías , from his grandfather's second marriage, as his Minister of Finance (a post which he had since

11135-465: The presidency, which he was expected to win, several landowners from Zapata's state of Morelos took advantage of his not being head of state and appealed to President De la Barra and the Congress to restore their lands which had been seized by Zapatista revolutionaries. They spread exaggerated stories of atrocities committed by Zapata's irregulars, calling Zapata the " Attila of the South". De la Barra and

11266-408: The president's brother, remarked that "the newspapers bite the hand that took off their muzzle." President Madero refused the recommendation of some of his advisors that he bring back censorship. The press was particularly critical of Madero's handling of rebellions that broke out against his rule shortly after he became president. Despite internal and external opposition, the Madero administration had

11397-448: The previous presidency), which was used to accuse him of nepotism. Francisco was close to his brother Gustavo A. Madero as a trusted advisor when president. His brother Gustavo was murdered during the coup that overthrew Francisco from the presidency. His brothers Emilio, Julio, and Raúl fought in the Mexican Revolution. Although Francisco I. Madero's marriage to Sara Pérez was childless and there are no direct descendants of his line of

11528-490: The ranks without formal military training, and was a hero of the Battle of Puebla on 5 May 1862. He came to power by coup in 1876, ousting the civilian President Sebastián Lerdo . Díaz knew the power and the danger of a strong military and once he became President of Mexico, he sought to curtail the power of the generals, who held provincial power and were not under control of the central government. It took him "nearly fifteen years to achieve full military control." He did so by

11659-430: The rebels should be dealt with through brute force. This faction was represented by Gen. Victoriano Huerta , who would later carry out an attempted coup d'état against Madero. Likewise, Gen.--and potential successor to Díaz-- Bernardo Reyes stated in a letter to Limantour that "the repression [against the insurrectionists] should be carried out with the greatest energy, punishing without any pity anyone participating in

11790-474: The rebels. The U.S. government of President William Howard Taft hired agents to surveil insurrectionists, fairly openly operated in El Paso. But the U.S. government efforts to halt the flow of arms to the Mexican revolutionaries failed. By April the Revolution had spread to eighteen states , including Morelos where the leader was Emiliano Zapata . On 1 April 1911, Porfirio Díaz claimed that he had heard

11921-425: The reelection of Porfirio Díaz , whose regime had become increasingly authoritarian. Bankrolling the opposition Anti-Reelectionist Party , Madero's candidacy garnered widespread support in the country. He challenged Díaz in the 1910 election , which resulted in his arrest. After Díaz declared himself winner for an eighth term in a rigged election , Madero escaped from jail, fled to the United States, and called for

12052-645: The release of political prisoners; and the right of the revolutionaries to name several members of cabinet. Madero was moderate, however. He believed that the revolutionaries should proceed cautiously so as to minimize bloodshed and should strike a deal with Díaz if possible. In early May, Madero wanted to extend a ceasefire, but his fellow revolutionaries Pascual Orozco and Pancho Villa disagreed and went ahead without orders on 8 May to attack Ciudad Juárez . It surrendered after two days of bloody fighting. The revolutionaries won this battle decisively, making it clear that Díaz could no longer retain power. On 21 May 1911,

12183-664: The resolve of the population he militarized society in the Prussian style, including military-style uniforms for all government employees and schoolboys and military drills on Sundays. Huerta and his general also sent 31 cadets to Europe to study military aviation in order to increase Mexico's air power. Huerta's greatest success was attracting the support of many former rebels, such as Benjamin Argumedo, "Cheche" Campos and, most notably, Pascual Orozco , whom Huerta had fought against when serving Madero's government. Orozco offered Huerta

12314-573: The same time, agrarian unrest in the state of Morelos turned into a full-blown rebellion under the leadership of the Zapata brothers, Emiliano and Eufemio . Encouraged by the news of the uprisings, Madero crossed the border back into Mexico in February 1911. He was joined by Pancho Villa and Orozco and in April the army began approaching Ciudad Juárez. Orozco and Villa led the way with 500 men each, while Madero followed up with 1,500 riders. The city

12445-500: The services of his 3,000–4,000 seasoned men, who proved essential in the fight against the Constitutionalist armies. When not helping the defense of Federal garrisons and towns, Orozco's men acted as very effective guerrillas. The Federal Army was disbanded on August 13, 1914, a month after Huerta's exile in the Teoloyucan Treaties . "Totally discredited, the old Federal army had come to the end of its run. Unable to control

12576-402: The siege of Ciudad Juárez and the outbreak of rebellion in Morelos, Díaz and members of his cabinet became more willing to negotiate and launched a "skillful peace offensive" aimed at Madero. This was largely a result of panic among the large landowners associated with the Díaz regime (the hacendados ) and the financial elite, which represented a "moderate" wing within the government. Some among

12707-554: The situation could get even more out of hand when Díaz resigned. Madero recognized the legitimacy of the Federal Army and called on revolutionary forces to disband. "Having removed Díaz, it appeared that Madero was trying to contain the Revolutionary tiger before it had time to enjoy its liberty." Although Madero and his supporters had forced Porfirio Díaz from power, he did not assume the presidency in June 1911. Instead, following

12838-409: The size of 250,000 men, with 31 regiments of Rurales and 31,000 Militia. A more realistic assessment of his men by that July was 71,000, while U.S. observers said it was closer to 40,000. Specific numbers aside, the rapid expansion of the army had led to a deterioration in the quality of the average recruit, or more accurately, conscript. Huerta made an attempt to increase the size of the army by ordering

12969-482: The south, he had achieved nothing. Nevertheless, he promised the Zapatistas that once he became president, things would change. Most Zapatistas had grown suspicious of Madero, however. Madero became president in November 1911, and, intending to reconcile the nation, appointed a cabinet that included many of Porfirio Díaz's supporters, as well as Madero's uncle Ernesto Madero , as Minister of Finance. A curious fact

13100-440: The south, revolutionary leader Emiliano Zapata was skeptical about disbanding his troops, especially since the Federal Army from the Díaz era remained essentially intact. However, Madero traveled south to meet with Zapata at Cuernavaca and Cuautla, Morelos . Madero assured Zapata that the land redistribution promised in the Plan of San Luis Potosí would be carried out when Madero became president. With Madero now campaigning for

13231-423: The state governor and posted bond to give Madero the right to move about the city on horseback during the day. On 4 October 1910, Madero galloped away from his guards and took refuge with sympathizers in a nearby village. Three days later he was smuggled across the U.S. border , hidden in a baggage car by sympathetic railway workers. He took up residence in San Antonio, Texas, where he plotted his next moves. He wrote

13362-459: The states of Puebla , Tlaxcala , Mexico , Michoacán and Guerrero . On April 14 Madero had Emiliano Zapata officially designated as his representative in the region. However, Zapata was worried that if he did not fully control all the major towns in Morelos by the time Madero concluded negotiations with Díaz, the demands of his agrarian movement and the issue of the autonomy of Morelos would be ignored or sidelined. Zapata's first military action

13493-465: The terms of the Treaty of Ciudad Juárez, he was a candidate for president and had no formal role in the interim presidency of Francisco León de la Barra , a diplomat and lawyer. Left in place was the Congress of Mexico , which was full of candidates whom Díaz had handpicked for the 1910 election. By doing this, Madero was true to his ideological commitment to constitutional democracy, but with members of

13624-463: The treaty did not mention or institute any social reforms that Madero had vaguely promised on previous occasions. It also left the Porfirian state essentially intact. Additionally, Madero supported the unpopular idea that all land disputes were to be settled through the courts, staffed by the old judges, a decision that led to outbreaks of sporadic violence, particularly in rural areas. On June 7, 1911, Madero entered Mexico City . In October 1911 he

13755-474: The treaty stipulated that: The treaty was signed on May 21. Díaz resigned accordingly on May 25. Francisco de la Barra became the interim president. Madero entered Mexico City on June 7. Zapata, however, refused to recognize the interim government of de la Barra, and for the time being the fighting in Morelos continued. Madero met with Zapata on several occasions during June. While initially Zapata trusted Madero, with time he became increasingly concerned that

13886-474: The treaty was signed was a gesture of reconciliation with the Díaz regime. As a result of the treaty he was given the right to appoint members of the la Barra cabinet. He chose mostly upper-class Maderistas , including his wife for the post in the treasury. He also maintained the existing federal system by keeping the sitting judges of the Supreme Court, the legislators in federal and state assemblies and

14017-417: The treaty. Sporadic fighting in southern Mexico continued. In November 1911, shortly after Madero's inauguration, Zapata issued the famous Plan of Ayala , in which the Zapatistas denounced Madero and instead recognized Pascual Orozco as the rightful president and leader of the revolution. Madero also incurred the great displeasure of other revolutionaries, including Pascual Orozco . Madero's first act after

14148-487: The victory of his cause. Revolutionary Pascual Orozco rebelled against Madero in 1912, and Madero sent the Federal Army to quash his burgeoning rebellion. Madero also sent troops to fight Emiliano Zapata , whose revolutionary forces had never demobilized and remained in rebellion until 1920. Shortly after Madero was elected president, Zapata and others issued the Plan of Ayala , declaring themselves in rebellion against Madero, since he had not moved on land reform. Madero sent

14279-405: The voice of the people of Mexico, replaced his cabinet, and agreed to restitution of the lands of the dispossessed. Madero did not believe this statement and instead demanded the resignation of President Díaz and Vice-president Ramón Corral . Madero then attended a meeting with the other revolutionary leaders – they agreed to a fourteen-point plan which called for pay for revolutionary soldiers;

14410-584: The way. There were heavy casualties among the insurrectionists, a number of whom were foreigners, including many from the U.S. and some from Germany. Two survivors of the Casas Grandes debacle were Giuseppe Garibaldi II , grandson of the famous Italian revolutionary, and General Benjamin Johannis Voljoen , an Afrikaner veteran of the Boer War . Madero was slightly wounded in his right arm in

14541-479: The whole Revolution". It consisted of house-to-house fighting, hand-to-hand combat and no quarter given by either side. Gen. Victoriano Huerta arrived in nearby Cuernavaca with 600 reinforcements but decided not to come to the relief of Cuautla, as he was afraid that the capital would revolt in his absence. On May 19 the remains of the "Golden Fifth" pulled out of the town, which was then occupied by Zapata's soldiers. The successful capture of Cuautla made Zapata

14672-562: The École Commercial in Antwerp ( Belgium ). Back in Mexico, he hired Thomas Edison to electrify his hacienda and neighboring town of Parras . Young Francisco was sent to Paris to study business alongside his brother Gustavo and became a devotee of spiritism himself. He wrote extensively about spiritism in his diaries. "He was searching for ethical connections between Spiritualism and the Christian Gospels. 'I have no doubts that

14803-461: Was a medium . Following business school, Madero studied at the University of California, Berkeley , to pursue courses in agricultural techniques and to improve his English. During his time there, he was influenced by the theosophist ideas of Annie Besant , which were prominent at nearby Stanford University . In 1893, the 20-year-old Madero returned to Mexico and assumed management of one of

14934-477: Was a peace treaty signed between the President of Mexico, Porfirio Díaz , and the revolutionary Francisco Madero on May 21, 1911. The treaty put an end to the fighting between forces supporting Madero and those of Díaz and thus concluded the initial phase of the Mexican Revolution . The treaty stipulated that Díaz, as well as his vice president Ramón Corral , were to step down by the end of May, and that he

15065-540: Was admitted to study business at the prestigious École des Hautes Études Commerciales de Paris (HEC). His father's subscription to the magazine Revue Spirite awakened in the young Madero an interest in Spiritism , an offshoot of Spiritualism . During his time in Paris, Madero made a pilgrimage to the tomb of Allan Kardec , the founder of Spiritism, and became a passionate advocate of the belief, soon coming to believe he

15196-486: Was besieged by the end of the month, after Madero's army encountered some resistance in the Chihuahuan countryside. Madero asked the commander of the city's garrison to surrender but the latter refused, hoping that the fortifications he had constructed would allow him to defend the city until reinforcements arrived. Concerned also with the possibility that a direct attack on the town would cause artillery shells to cross

15327-492: Was convinced that the spirit of his brother Raúl, who had died at age 4, was communicating with him, urging him to do charity work and practice self-discipline and self-abnegation. Madero became a vegetarian and stopped drinking alcohol and smoking. Already well-connected to a wealthy family and now well-educated in business, he had built a personal fortune of over 500,000 pesos by 1899. He invested in mines with other members of his family, which came to compete with interests of

15458-569: Was elected president, under the banner of the Partido Constitucional Progresista, along with José María Pino Suárez , his new running mate as vice-president. Madero pushed aside Francisco Vázquez Gómez , the vice presidential candidate for the Anti-Reelectionist Party in 1910, as being too moderate. The rebellion against the government of Porfirio Díaz broke out in late 1910, after Díaz had rival Francisco I. Madero imprisoned and had announced his own victory in

15589-516: Was evidence of his ineffectiveness as a leader. In December 1911, General Bernardo Reyes , whom Porfirio Díaz had sent to Europe on a diplomatic mission because Díaz worried that Reyes was going to challenge him for the presidency, launched a rebellion in Nuevo León , where he had previously served as governor. He called for "the people" to rise against Madero. "His rebellion was a total failure", lasting only eleven days before Reyes surrendered to

15720-482: Was greeted by crowds of thousands. His candidacy cost him financially, since he sold much of his property at a loss to back his campaign. In spite of the attacks by Madero and his earlier statements to the contrary, Díaz ran for re-election. In a show of U.S. support, Díaz and William Howard Taft planned a summit in El Paso , Texas, and Ciudad Juárez , Chihuahua, for 16 October 1909, a historic first meeting between

15851-488: Was more directly attributable to the weakness of the federales than to the strength of the Ejército Libertador." Although the revolutionaries supporting Francisco I. Madero had shown the weakness of the Federal Army and forced Díaz to resign and go into exile, by the Treaty of Ciudad Juárez in May 1911, Madero retained the Federal Army and called for the demobilization of the revolutionaries who had enabled

15982-531: Was of Portuguese -Jewish descent Evaristo was the founder of a commercial transport business. Taking advantage of economic opportunity, he transported cotton from the Confederate states to Mexican ports during the U.S. Civil War (1861–65). Evaristo married twice, with the first marriage before he made his fortune to sixteen-year-old María Rafaela Hernádez Lombaraña (1847–1870), the daughter of an influential landowner, together producing seven children. She

16113-432: Was overstaffed, with far more officers commanding too few recruits, with 9,000 officers and ostensibly 25,000 enlisted men. Many who were counted as enlisted men did not exist, but were on the muster rolls because the officers received a stipend to provide food for their men. Officers pocketed the difference between the 25,000 enrolled and the 18,000 or so who actually served. Díaz had initially said that he would not run in

16244-489: Was ready for a democracy and that the 1910 presidential election would be a free election. Madero spent the bulk of 1908 writing a book, which he believed was at the direction of spirits, now including that of Benito Juárez himself. This book, published in January 1909, was titled La sucesión presidencial en 1910 ( The Presidential Succession of 1910 ). The book quickly became a bestseller in Mexico. The book proclaimed that

16375-473: Was replaced by the Constitutionalist Army of Venustiano Carranza under the terms of the Teoloyucan Treaties , signed by Constitutionalist general Alvaro Obregón with the commander of the Federal Army. Francisco I. Madero Francisco Ignacio Madero González ( Spanish pronunciation: [fɾanˈsisko jɣˈnasjo maˈðeɾo ɣonˈsales] ; 30 October 1873 – 22 February 1913) was

16506-414: Was run by the young lawyer/philosopher José Vasconcelos and another intellectual, Luis Cabrera Lobato . In Puebla, Aquiles Serdán , from a politically engaged family, contacted Madero and as a result, formed an Anti-Re-electionist Club to organize for the 1910 elections, particularly among the working classes. Madero traveled throughout Mexico giving anti-reelectionist speeches, and everywhere he went he

16637-550: Was sent to the Santiago Tlatelolco military prison in Mexico City . Madero allowed Reyes privileges while in prison, which allowed him to organize subsequent conspiracies from jail. Nearly simultaneous with Reyes's rebellion, Emilio Vázquez Gómez , rose in rebellion. Emilio was the brother of Francisco Vázquez Gómez whom Madero replaced as the vice presidential candidate Pino Suárez when he successfully ran for president. Emilio gathered supporters in Chihuahua, with

16768-470: Was the creation of a federal department of labor, limited the workday to 10 hours, and set in place regulations on women's and children's labor. Unions were granted the right to freely organize. The Casa del Obrero Mundial ("House of the World Worker"), an organization with anarcho-syndicalist was founded during his presidency. Madero alienated a number of his political supporters when he created

16899-520: Was the half-sister of the powerful miner and banker Antonio V. Hernández Benavides , a close friend of José Yves Limantour , Secretary of Finance. Alongside his brother-in-law and others of his new political family's relations, Evaristo founded the Compañía Industrial de Parras , initially involved in commercial vineyards, cotton, and textiles, and later also in mining, cotton mills, ranching, banking, coal, guayule rubber, and foundries in

17030-454: Was to be replaced by Francisco León de la Barra as interim president and hold presidential elections. Those who had suffered losses due to the revolution would be indemnified, and there would be a general amnesty. Díaz resigned on May 25, and interim president Francisco León de la Barra was the new incumbent. Díaz and his family, his vice president Corral, plus José Yves Limantour and Rosendo Pineda left Mexico for exile. Significantly,

17161-523: Was to take the town of Chinameca , where he obtained essential supplies. Subsequently, Zapata, for political and strategic reasons, decided to attack the city of Cuautla . In order to mislead his opponents, however, he initially attacked and captured the towns of Izúcar de Matamoros (which was subsequently retaken by federal forces) and Chietla . From there he made a wide circle around Cuautla and captured Yautepec and Jonacatepec , where he gathered more supplies, munitions and soldiers. By May, out of all

#689310