Misplaced Pages

#261738

178-773: Corporate average fuel economy ( CAFE ) standards are regulations in the United States, first enacted by the United States Congress in 1975, after the 1973–74 Arab Oil Embargo , to improve the average fuel economy of cars and light trucks (trucks, vans and sport utility vehicles ) produced for sale in the United States. More recently, efficiency standards were developed and implemented for heavy-duty pickup trucks and commercial medium-duty and heavy-duty vehicles. CAFE neither directly offers incentives for customers to choose fuel efficient vehicles nor directly affects fuel prices. Rather, it attempts to accomplish

356-462: A Ford F-150 with its footprint of 65–75 sq ft (6.0–7.0 m) has a fuel economy target of 22 miles per US gallon (11 L/100 km), i.e., 17 miles per US gallon (14 L/100 km) published. Individual vehicles do not have to meet their fuel economy targets; CAFE compliance is enforced at the fleet level. CAFE 2016 target fuel economy of 34.0 MPG (44 sq. ft. footprint) compares to 2012 advanced vehicle performance of Prius hybrid on

534-640: A U.S. citizen for seven years for the House and nine years for the Senate, and be an inhabitant of the state which they represent. Members in both chambers may stand for re-election an unlimited number of times. The Congress was created by the U.S. Constitution and first met in 1789, replacing the Congress of the Confederation in its legislative function. Although not legally mandated, in practice since

712-478: A federal structure with two overlapping power centers so that each citizen as an individual is subject to the powers of state government and national government. To protect against abuse of power, each branch of government – executive, legislative, and judicial – had a separate sphere of authority and could check other branches according to the principle of the separation of powers . Furthermore, there were checks and balances within

890-430: A "backstop" to prevent trucks from emitting more CO 2 than in previous years; failed to set standards for vehicles in the 8,500 to 10,000 lb (4,500 kg) range; and failed to prepare a full Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) rather than a more abbreviated environmental impact assessment. The Court directed NHTSA to prepare a new standard as quickly as possible and to fully evaluate that new standard's impact on

1068-438: A State may not adopt or enforce a law or regulation related to fuel economy standards or average fuel economy standards", and explained that laws or regulations applicable to motor vehicle greenhouse gas emissions are related to fuel economy standards. In mid-October 2008, DOT completed and released a final environmental impact statement in anticipation of issuing standards for model years 2011–2015. Based on its consideration of

1246-459: A SuperCrew was added for 2011. Also for 2010, Ford shifted its electronics from a general electric module base to the computerized and programmable body control module, allowing for fewer parts differences and programmable upgrade options from the dealer or factory. As part of a major focus on fuel economy, the entire engine lineup for the F-150 was updated for the 2011 model year. Ford reintroduced

1424-402: A certain set of assumptions which include: gas prices in 2016 will be $ 2.25 a U.S. gallon (59.4¢/L), all new car purchasers will pay 7% interest rates on their vehicles purchases, and only care about fuel costs for the first 5 years of a vehicle's life, and that the social cost of carbon is $ 7 per tonne of CO 2 . This corresponds to a global warming value of $ 4.31 savings a year per car under

1602-443: A combined standard to be applied to the entire fleet of light trucks they sold that model year. In 1980 and 1981, respectively, a manufacturer whose light truck fleet was powered exclusively by basic engines which were not also used in passenger cars could meet standards of 14 mpg and 14.5 mpg. Since 1980, the traditional Japanese manufacturers have increased their combined fleet average fuel economy by 1.6 miles per gallon according to

1780-560: A committee of the National Academy of Sciences wrote a report on the effects of the CAFE standard. The report's conclusions include a finding that in the absence of CAFE, and with no other fuel economy regulation substituted, motor vehicle fuel consumption would have been approximately 14 percent higher than it actually was in 2002. However, due to the effect of these standards on the types and weights of vehicles sold, it has increased

1958-482: A foreign fleet (everything else). Each of these fleets must separately meet the requirements. The two-fleet requirement was developed by the United Automobile Workers (UAW) as a means to ensure job creation in the United States. The UAW successfully lobbied Congress to write this provision into the enabling legislation – and continues to advocate this position. The two fleet rule for light trucks

SECTION 10

#1732771772262

2136-473: A given fleet of vehicles in a given model year is the production-weighted harmonic mean fuel economy, expressed in miles per US gallon ( mpg ), of a manufacturer's fleet of current model year passenger cars or light trucks with a gross vehicle weight rating (GVWR) of 8,500 pounds (3,856 kg) or less (but also including medium-duty passenger vehicles, such as large sport-utility vehicles and passenger vans, with GVWR up to 10,000 pounds), produced for sale in

2314-594: A gross vehicle weight rating (GVWR) of 6000 pounds or less. The GVWR threshold was raised to 8500 pounds in 1980 and has remained at that level through 2010. Thus certain large trucks and SUV's were exempt, such as the Hummer and the Ford Excursion . From 1979 to 1991, separate standards were established for two-wheel drive (2WD) and four-wheel drive (4WD) light trucks, but for most of this period, car makers were allowed to choose between these separate standards or

2492-452: A higher standard. Unlike previous CAFE standards there was no requirement for a manufacturer or the industry as a whole to meet any particular overall actual MPG target, since that will depend on the mix of sizes of trucks manufactured and ultimately purchased by consumers. Some critics pointed out that this might have had the unintended consequence of pushing manufacturers to make ever-larger vehicles to avoid strict economy standards. However,

2670-406: A joint venture with Navistar International. For the 2004 model year, the F-150 was redesigned on an all-new platform, which has a fully boxed-in frame and introduced rear shocks to mount outside of the frame for decreased wheel hop and improved ride quality. This new body style kept the fully independent front suspension introduced in the last generation, but added vacuum-driven front wheel hubs for

2848-414: A jump from the 2009 average for all vehicles of 25 miles per gallon. Obama said, "The status quo is no longer acceptable." The higher fuel economy was projected to reduce oil consumption by approximately 1.8 billion barrels (290,000,000 m) over the life of the program and reduce greenhouse gas emissions by approximately 900 million metric tons ; the expected consumer costs in terms of higher car prices

3026-545: A long-running high-performance off-road trim level introduced for 2010, the (SVT) Raptor currently consisting of three generations. Production of the F-150 SVT Raptor ended in 2014 and it was planned to be succeeded by a new F-150 Raptor, which is based on the thirteenth and fourteenth generation F-150. The F-Series trucks have been developed into a wide range of design configurations. Alongside medium-duty trucks and "Big Job" conventional trucks (the forerunners of

3204-418: A lower fuel economy requirement than a vehicle with a smaller footprint. For example, the fuel economy target for the 2012 Honda Fit with a footprint of 40 sq ft (3.7 m) is 36 miles per US gallon (6.5 L/100 km), equivalent to a published fuel economy of 27 miles per US gallon (8.7 L/100 km) (see #Calculations of MPG overestimated for information regarding the difference), and

3382-603: A much larger grille and headlamps . Previously available only as a chassis-cab model, the F-450 now was available as a pickup directly from Ford. The twelfth-generation F-150 was introduced for the 2009 model year as an update of the Ford full-size truck platform. Similar to its predecessor, these trucks are distinguished by their Super Duty–style grilles (adding a third horizontal bar) and Edge / Expedition -style headlights. Regular Cab models now have two doors again instead of four from

3560-578: A nearly 20-year run, replaced by the more modern 335 and 385 series engines. In 1975, the F-150 was introduced in between the F-100 and the F-250 to avoid certain emission control restrictions. For 1978, square headlights replaced the previous models' round ones on higher-trim-package models, such as Lariat and Ranger, and became standard equipment for 1979. Also for 1978, the Ford Bronco was redesigned into

3738-574: A new CAFE standard, NHTSA must assess the environmental impacts of each new standard and the effect of this standard on employment. With the EISA, NHTSA needed to take new analysis including taking a fresh look at the potential impacts under the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) and assessing whether or not the impacts are significant within the meaning of NEPA. NHTSA has to issue its new standards eighteen months before

SECTION 20

#1732771772262

3916-444: A powerful effect of waking up a somewhat dormant Congress which investigated presidential wrongdoing and coverups; the scandal "substantially reshaped" relations between the branches of government, suggested political scientist Bruce J. Schulman . Partisanship returned, particularly after 1994; one analyst attributes partisan infighting to slim congressional majorities which discouraged friendly social gatherings in meeting rooms such as

4094-536: A rear-hinged third door (curbside) was introduced for the SuperCab; following its popularity, the SuperCab received a fourth door for 1999. For 2001, the F-150 became the first " 1 ⁄ 2 -ton" truck offered as a crew cab with full-sized doors; produced with a slightly shortened bed, the F-150 SuperCrew shared the length of a standard-bed SuperCab. The SVT Lightning made its return for 1999, powered by

4272-457: A redesign. The long-running Flareside bed design was retired (until its return in the 1992 ninth-generation ), with all examples produced with Styleside beds (except for a very small number of 1987 models). Following the 1986 transition of the 5-liter V8 to fuel injection, the 4.9-liter inline-six followed suit for 1987, with the 5.8- and 7.5-liter engines doing so for 1988; the F-Series became

4450-524: A revised constitution with a two-chamber or bicameral Congress. Smaller states argued for equal representation for each state. The two-chamber structure had functioned well in state governments. A compromise plan, the Connecticut Compromise , was adopted with representatives chosen by population (benefiting larger states) and exactly two senators chosen by state governments (benefiting smaller states). The ratified constitution created

4628-468: A second car. To further expand its growing market share, Ford sought to develop vehicles for both types of buyers, repackaging the F-150 in a more contemporary design (as a larger version of the Ranger ) while retaining the heavier-duty F-250 and F-350 for customers interested in a work-use vehicle. The tenth-generation F-Series was introduced on January 25, 1996 as a 1997 model. Initially released solely as

4806-551: A single-rear-wheel chassis. Also unlike previously, dual tanks became available on Flareside models, but only on 2WD models, and the Flareside bed was available with the SuperCab in addition to the regular cab. To commemorate the 75th anniversary of the first Ford factory-produced truck (the 1917 Ford Model TT ), Ford offered a 75th-anniversary package on its 1992 F-Series, consisting of a stripe package, an argent-colored step bumper, and special 75th-anniversary logos. In response to

4984-401: A six-year term, with terms staggered , so every two years approximately one-third of the Senate is up for election. Each state, regardless of population or size, has two senators, so currently, there are 100 senators for the 50 states. Article One of the U.S. Constitution requires that members of Congress be at least 25 years old for the House and at least 30 years old for the U.S. Senate, be

5162-529: A state's at-large representation to the federal government by senators. Most incumbents seek re-election, and their historical likelihood of winning subsequent elections exceeds 90 percent. The historical records of the House of Representatives and the Senate are maintained by the Center for Legislative Archives, which is a part of the National Archives and Records Administration . Congress

5340-598: A supercharged version of the 5.4L V8; over 28,000 were produced from 1999 to 2004. For 2002, Lincoln-Mercury introduced the Lincoln Blackwood, the first Lincoln pickup. Sharing the front bodywork of the Lincoln Navigator SUV and the same cab and chassis as the F-150 SuperCrew, the Blackwood was designed with a model-exclusive bed and was sold only in black. Due to very poor sales, the model line

5518-686: A variant of the F-Series pickup; 1979 was the last year that the 460 engine was available in a half-ton truck. The seventh-generation F-Series was introduced for 1980, marking the first ground-up redesign of the model line since 1965. Alongside an all-new chassis, the pickup trucks received a completely new body. While distinguished by straighter body lines, the aerodynamics of the exterior were optimized to improve fuel economy. Sharing their cab structure with F-Series pickup trucks, medium-duty trucks (F-600 through F-800) underwent their first redesign since 1967. The powertrain line of this generation underwent multiple revisions through its production. At its launch,

Corporate average fuel economy - Misplaced Pages Continue

5696-403: A wraparound windshield, the cab was given new doors, a redesigned dashboard, and an (optional) panoramic rear window. In line with Ford cars, the 1956 F-Series offered seat belts as an option. This was the final generation with separate front fenders. Introduced in 1957, the third generation F-Series was a significant modernization and redesign. Front fenders became integrated into the body, and

5874-412: Is also the second-to-last vehicle sold in the United States with this configuration. The eighth-generation F-Series was introduced for 1987 as a major revision of the 1980–1986 generation. While the cab's sheet metal was carried over, many body panels were revised, including a completely new front fascia; composite headlights, the first full size American truck to feature them; the interior also underwent

6052-510: Is directed based on National Academy of Sciences studies to set medium and heavy-duty truck MPG standards to the "maximum feasible". Additionally, the law phases out the mpg credit previously granted to E85 flexible-fuel vehicle manufacturers and adds in one for biodiesel , and it adds a requirement that NHTSA publish replacement tire fuel efficiency ratings. The bill also adds support for initial state and local infrastructure for plug-in electric vehicles . On April 22, 2008, NHTSA responded to

6230-693: Is directly responsible for the governing of the District of Columbia , the current seat of the federal government. The First Continental Congress was a gathering of representatives from twelve of the Thirteen Colonies . On July 4, 1776, the Second Continental Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence , referring to the new nation as the "United States of America". The Articles of Confederation in 1781 created

6408-568: Is due primarily to increased fuel efficiency of imported cars. Similarly, the law of supply and demand predicts that due to the United States' large percentage consumption of the world's oil supply, that increasing fuel economy would drive down the gasoline prices that U.S. consumers would otherwise have to pay. Reductions in petroleum demand in the United States helped create the collapse of OPEC market power in 1986. The "CAFE" and "CAFE standard" shown here only regards new model passenger car fuel economy and target fuel economy (respectively) rather than

6586-440: Is elected and gives each House the power to create its own structure. Section Seven lays out the process for creating laws, and Section Eight enumerates numerous powers. Section Nine is a list of powers Congress does not have, and Section Ten enumerates powers of the state, some of which may only be granted by Congress. Constitutional amendments have granted Congress additional powers. Congress also has implied powers derived from

6764-493: Is essentially charged with reconciling our many points of view on the great public policy issues of the day. Congress is constantly changing and is constantly in flux. In recent times, the American South and West have gained House seats according to demographic changes recorded by the census and includes more women and minorities . While power balances among the different parts of government continue to change,

6942-433: Is extraordinarily sensitive to public pressure. Several academics described Congress: Congress reflects us in all our strengths and all our weaknesses. It reflects our regional idiosyncrasies, our ethnic, religious, and racial diversity, our multitude of professions, and our shadings of opinion on everything from the value of war to the war over values. Congress is the government's most representative body   ... Congress

7120-597: Is quite uncommon. Article One of the United States Constitution states, "All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives." The House and Senate are equal partners in the legislative process – legislation cannot be enacted without the consent of both chambers. The Constitution grants each chamber some unique powers. The Senate ratifies treaties and approves presidential appointments while

7298-759: Is the legislature of the federal government of the United States . It is bicameral , composed of a lower body, the United States House of Representatives , and an upper body, the United States Senate . It meets in the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C. Members are chosen through direct election , though vacancies in the Senate may be filled by a governor 's appointment. Congress has 535 voting members: 100 senators and 435 representatives. The vice president of

Corporate average fuel economy - Misplaced Pages Continue

7476-529: The tabloidization of media coverage. Others saw pressure to squeeze a political position into a thirty-second soundbite. A report characterized Congress in 2013 as unproductive, gridlocked, and "setting records for futility". In October 2013, with Congress unable to compromise, the government was shut down for several weeks and risked a serious default on debt payments, causing 60% of the public to say they would "fire every member of Congress" including their own representative. One report suggested Congress posed

7654-544: The Board of Education . Congress began reasserting its authority. Lobbying became a big factor despite the 1971 Federal Election Campaign Act . Political action committees or PACs could make substantive donations to congressional candidates via such means as soft money contributions. While soft money funds were not given to specific campaigns for candidates, the money often benefited candidates substantially in an indirect way and helped reelect candidates. Reforms such as

7832-541: The Commerce Clause , the enumerated power to regulate commerce, in rulings such as McCulloch v. Maryland , have effectively widened the scope of Congress's legislative authority far beyond that prescribed in Section Eight. Constitutional responsibility for the oversight of Washington, D.C. , the federal district and national capital, and the U.S. territories of Guam , American Samoa , Puerto Rico ,

8010-469: The Congress of the Confederation , a unicameral body with equal representation among the states in which each state had a veto over most decisions. Congress had executive but not legislative authority, and the federal judiciary was confined to admiralty and lacked authority to collect taxes, regulate commerce, or enforce laws. Government powerlessness led to the Convention of 1787 which proposed

8188-609: The Conservative Coalition . Democrats maintained control of Congress during World War II . Congress struggled with efficiency in the postwar era partly by reducing the number of standing congressional committees. Southern Democrats became a powerful force in many influential committees although political power alternated between Republicans and Democrats during these years. More complex issues required greater specialization and expertise, such as space flight and atomic energy policy. Senator Joseph McCarthy exploited

8366-487: The Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 with proposed new fuel economy standards for cars and trucks effective model year 2011. The new rules also introduce the "footprint" model for cars as well as trucks, where if a manufacturer makes more large cars and trucks they will be allowed to meet a lower standard for fuel economy. This means that an overall fuel efficiency for a particular manufacturer nor

8544-528: The European Union and was even higher in Japan, according to data as of 2008. Furthermore, despite general opinion that larger and heavier (and therefore relatively fuel-uneconomical) vehicles are safer, the U.S. traffic fatality rate—and its trend over time —is higher than some other western nations, although it has recently started to gradually decline at a faster rate than in previous years. In 2002,

8722-737: The Ford L-series ), the model line has been marketed as a chassis-cab truck and a panel van (a predecessor of the Ford E-Series ). The F-Series has served as the platform for various full-sized Ford SUVs, including the Ford Bronco , Ford Expedition / Lincoln Navigator , and Ford Excursion . The F-Series has been marketed by its three North American brands: by Mercury as the M-Series (in Canada from 1948 to 1968), and by Lincoln in

8900-523: The Northern Mariana Islands . These six members of Congress enjoy floor privileges to introduce bills and resolutions, and in recent Congresses they vote in permanent and select committees, in party caucuses and in joint conferences with the Senate. They have Capitol Hill offices, staff and two annual appointments to each of the four military academies. While their votes are constitutional when Congress authorizes their House Committee of

9078-493: The U.S. Virgin Islands , and the Northern Mariana Islands rests with Congress. The republican form of government in territories is devolved by congressional statute to the respective territories including direct election of governors, the D.C. mayor and locally elective territorial legislatures. Ford F-150 The Ford F-Series is a series of light-duty trucks marketed and manufactured by Ford Motor Company since

SECTION 50

#1732771772262

9256-449: The second-wave feminism movement , when activists moved into electoral politics. Beginning in the 1970s, donors and political action committees like EMILY's List began recruiting, training and funding women candidates. Watershed political moments like the confirmation of Clarence Thomas and the 2016 presidential election created momentum for women candidates, resulting in the Year of

9434-484: The "biggest risk to the U.S. economy" because of its brinksmanship , "down-to-the-wire budget and debt crises" and "indiscriminate spending cuts", resulting in slowed economic activity and keeping up to two million people unemployed. There has been increasing public dissatisfaction with Congress, with extremely low approval ratings which dropped to 5% in October 2013. In 2009, Congress authorized another delegate for

9612-538: The "maximum feasible level" given consideration for: Historically, the EPA has encouraged consumers to buy more fuel efficient vehicles, while the NHTSA expressed concerns that smaller, more fuel efficient vehicles may lead to increased traffic fatalities. Thus higher fuel efficiency was associated with lower traffic safety, intertwining the issues of fuel economy , road-traffic safety , air pollution, and carbon emissions . In

9790-458: The 0.15 fuel divisor, but are not subject to the 1.2 mpg cap like dual-fuel vehicles. Manufacturers are also allowed to earn CAFE "credits" in any year they exceed CAFE requirements, which they may use to offset deficiencies in other years. CAFE credits can be applied to the three years before or the five years after the year in which they are earned. The reason for this flexibility is so manufacturers are penalized only for persistent failure to meet

9968-477: The 11th-generation model was different from its predecessor, with sharper-edged styling; a major change was the adoption of the stepped driver's window from the Super Duty trucks. Regardless of cab type, all F-150s were given four doors, with the rear doors on the regular cab providing access to behind-the-seat storage. Ford also introduced additional variants of the F-150. The FX4 Off-Road package available since

10146-449: The 1948 model year. The F-Series is marketed as a range of full-sized pickup trucks positioned above the midsize Ranger but below the larger Super Duty in the Ford truck lineup. Alongside the F-150 (introduced in 1975), the F-Series also includes the Super Duty series (introduced in 1999), which includes the heavier-duty F-250 through F-450 pickups, F-450/F-550 chassis cabs, and F-600/F-650/F-750 Class 6–8 commercial trucks. The F-Series

10324-469: The 1953 model year, Ford introduced a second generation of the F-Series trucks. Increased dimensions, improved engines, and an updated chassis were features of the second generation. In another change, the model nomenclature of the F-Series was expanded to three numbers; this remains in use in the present day. The half-ton F-1 became the F-100; the F-2 and F-3 were combined into the 3 ⁄ 4 -ton F-250, while

10502-439: The 1960s opened the possibility for Black, Asian American, Latina and other non-white women candidates to run for Congress. Racially polarized voting, racial stereotypes and lack of institutional support still prevent women of color from reaching Congress as easily as white people . Senate elections, which require victories in statewide electorates, have been particularly difficult for women of color. Carol Moseley Braun became

10680-488: The 1961–1963 models offered an optional unibody design with the cab and bed integrated. The traditional separate cab/bed was offered concurrently. The unibody proved unpopular, and Ford discontinued the option after the 1963 model year. In 1965, the F-Series was given a significant mid-cycle redesign. A completely new platform, including the " Twin I-Beam " front suspension, was introduced, and continued to be used until 1996 on

10858-463: The 1990s, the impact of which is not reflected in this chart. In the case of passenger cars, U.S. average fuel economy did not fall as economic theory would predict, suggesting that CAFE standards maintained the higher fuel economy of the passenger car fleet during the long period from the end of the 1979 energy crisis to the rise of gasoline prices in the early 2000s. Most recently, fuel economy has increased about one mpg from 2006 to 2007. This increase

SECTION 60

#1732771772262

11036-544: The 1997 F-150 received a range of engines new to the F-Series, including a 4.2L V6 and 4.6L V8; a 5.4L V8 was added during 1997. Introduced in the full-sized Crown Victoria/Grand Marquis/Town Car sedans, the Modular/Triton V8 was the first overhead-camshaft engine to be installed in a full-size pickup truck. Distinguished by its rounded exterior, the tenth generation was again offered in standard- and extended-cab (SuperCab) configurations. To improve rear-seat access,

11214-501: The 1999 model year exceeded the 8,500 lb (3,900 kg) GVWR cutoff and were thus omitted from CAFE calculations. More recently, coverage of medium duty trucks has been added to the CAFE regulations starting in 2012, and heavy duty commercial trucks starting in 2014. The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) regulates CAFE standards and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) measures vehicle fuel efficiency. Congress specifies that CAFE standards must be set at

11392-591: The 19th century, members of Congress are typically affiliated with one of the two major parties , the Democratic Party or the Republican Party , and only rarely with a third party or independents affiliated with no party. In the case of the latter, the lack of affiliation with a political party does not mean that such members are unable to caucus with members of the political parties. Members can also switch parties at any time, although this

11570-577: The 2000s, as the Blackwood and the later Mark LT (2010s for the latter in Mexico only). Since 1977, the F-Series has remained the best-selling pickup truck line in the United States; it has been the best-selling vehicle overall since 1981. The F-Series has been the best-selling truck in Canada for over 50 years. As of the 2018 model year, the F-Series generated $ 41 billion (~$ 49 billion in 2023) in annual revenue for Ford. By January 2022,

11748-846: The 2002 Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act limited campaign donations but did not limit soft money contributions. One source suggests post-Watergate laws amended in 1974 meant to reduce the "influence of wealthy contributors and end payoffs" instead "legitimized PACs" since they "enabled individuals to band together in support of candidates". From 1974 to 1984, PACs grew from 608 to 3,803 and donations leaped from $ 12.5   million to $ 120   million along with concern over PAC influence in Congress. In 2009, there were 4,600 business, labor and special-interest PACs including ones for lawyers , electricians , and real estate brokers . From 2007 to 2008, 175 members of Congress received "half or more of their campaign cash" from PACs. From 1970 to 2009,

11926-542: The 2002 model year became its own trim level. A sportier version of the F-150 became available as STX, replaced by FX2 Sport in 2007. From 2005 to 2008, Lincoln-Mercury dealers sold this version of the F-150 as the Lincoln Mark LT , replacing the Blackwood. In late 2007 for the 2008 model year, the Super Duty trucks were given an all-new platform. While using the same bed and cabin as before, these are distinguished from their predecessors by an all-new interior and

12104-496: The 2011 model year standard by the end of March. This single-model year standard was issued March 27, 2009, and is about one mpg lower than the fuel economy standards previously recommended under the Bush Administration. "These standards are important steps in the nation's quest to achieve energy independence and bring more fuel efficient vehicles to American families", said Secretary LaHood. The new standards will raise

12282-462: The 2017–2020 timeframe, and are granted numerous ways to mathematically meet targets in the outlying years without significant real-world gains. The proposal encourages manufacturers and customers to shift toward larger, less efficient vehicles, defeating the goal of reduced greenhouse gas emissions." Additionally, Volkswagen has since approached U.S. lawmakers about lowering their proposal to double fuel efficiency for passenger cars by 2025. Volkswagen at

12460-465: The 2022 model year, is typically 76 percent of f {\displaystyle f} , and has gotten worse over its decades of use. f {\displaystyle f} is not the same as the Monroney window sticker value for consumer information. Fleet fuel economy is calculated using a harmonic mean , not a simple arithmetic mean (average) – namely, the reciprocal of the average of

12638-425: The 4.2L V8 and 3.8L V6 were phased out in 1982 and 1983, respectively. For the F-250 and F-350, a 6.9L diesel V8 (sourced from a partnership with International Harvester ) became an option for 1983. For 1984, a high-output version of the 5.8L V8 was introduced. The 5.0L V8 was fitted with fuel injection as standard equipment for 1986, becoming the first fuel-injected engine in an American-market pickup truck. The 4.9L

12816-458: The 5.0L V8 in the F-Series with its new Coyote dual overhead cam TiVVT engine producing up to 360 hp. The F-150 also gained a new 3.7L base V6 engine, and a powerful twin-turbocharged 3.5L V6, dubbed EcoBoost . A six-speed automatic transmission became the only version. Other modifications include the addition of a Nexteer Automotive electric power steering system on most models. A recent study conducted by iSeeCars.com and published on

12994-574: The American response as a "police action". According to Time magazine in 1970, "U.S. presidents [had] ordered troops into position or action without a formal congressional declaration a total of 149 times." In 1993, Michael Kinsley wrote that "Congress's war power has become the most flagrantly disregarded provision in the Constitution," and that the "real erosion [of Congress's war power] began after World War   II." Disagreement about

13172-415: The CAFE standards are newly expressed as mathematical functions depending on vehicle footprint, a measure of vehicle size determined by multiplying the vehicle's wheelbase by its average track width. A complicated 2011 mathematical formula was replaced starting in 2012 with a simpler inverse-linear formula with cutoff values. CAFE footprint requirements are set up such that a vehicle with a larger footprint has

13350-621: The Center for Biological Diversity as not addressing the inadequacies found by the previous court rulings. On May 19, 2009, President Barack Obama proposed a new national fuel economy program which adopts uniform federal standards to regulate both fuel economy and greenhouse gas emissions while preserving the legal authorities of DOT, EPA and California. The program covered model year 2012 to model year 2016 and ultimately required an average fuel economy standard of 35.5 miles per US gallon (6.63 L/100 km; 42.6 mpg ‑imp ) in 2016 (of 39 miles per gallon for cars and 30 mpg for trucks),

13528-572: The Chevrolet 454SS pickup truck, Ford introduced the SVT Lightning, powered by a 240 hp 5.8L V8. For 1993, a turbocharger became available on the 7.3L "IDI" diesel. In the middle of the 1994 model year (referred to as "1994.5"), International replaced the IDI with the new 7.3L T444E turbo diesel, the first engine branded as a Ford Power Stroke . While sharing its predecessor's displacement,

13706-462: The Constitution's Necessary and Proper Clause . Congress has authority over financial and budgetary policy through the enumerated power to "lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay the Debts and provide for the common Defence and general Welfare of the United States". There is vast authority over budgets, although analyst Eric Patashnik suggested that much of Congress's power to manage

13884-545: The Detroit Three. In the years 2021 to 2030, the standards requires MPG to be the "maximum feasible" fuel economy. The law allows NHTSA to issue additional requirements for cars and trucks based on the footprint model or other mathematical standard. Additionally, each manufacturer must meet a minimum standard of the higher of either 27.5 mpg for passenger automobiles or 92% of the projected average for all manufacturers. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA)

14062-666: The Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 (EISA). The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration has done significant work that will position the next Transportation Secretary to finalize a rule before the April 1, 2009 deadline." On January 27, 2009, President Barack Obama directed the Department of Transportation to review relevant legal, technological, and scientific considerations associated with establishing more stringent fuel economy standards, and to finalize

14240-531: The F-150, a higher-GVWR F-250 was released in 1997. The model line was marketed alongside its predecessor, pared down to the F-250HD and F-350; for 1999, these were replaced by the Super Duty trucks. In the most extensive redesign of the F-Series in 17 years, the chassis received fully independent front suspension, ending the use of Twin-I-Beam front axles. Sharing only the transmissions with its predecessor,

14418-518: The F-150, and is still used today in the F-250 and F-350 4×2. Additionally, the Ranger name made its first appearance in 1965 on a Ford pickup; previously, the Ranger denoted a base model of the Edsel , but starting in 1965, it was used to denote a high-level styling package for F-Series pickups. Introduced in 1967, the fifth-generation F-Series pickup was built on the same platform as the 1965 revision of

14596-501: The F-4 became the one-ton F-350. Conventional F-Series trucks were F-500 to F-900; COE chassis were renamed C-Series trucks. While the cabs, doors, radiator support, inner fenders, and hoods are the same from 1953 to 1956 F-100 and F-250s (the fenders varied on F-250, F-350, and F-500, and long boxes were only available on the F-250), in 1956, the cab underwent a major revision. Centered around

14774-558: The F-Series models have sold over 40 million units. Currently, Ford manufactures the F-Series in four facilities in the United States. The first-generation F-Series pickup (known as the Ford Bonus-Built) was introduced in 1948 as a replacement for the previous car-based pickup line introduced in 1942. The F-Series was sold in eight different weight ratings, with pickup, panel truck, parcel delivery, cab-over engine (COE), conventional truck, and school-bus chassis body styles. For

14952-413: The F-Series received a slightly lower hood line, rounding the front fenders, bumper, and grille. The light-duty F-Series received a driver-side airbag starting in the 1994 model year. After a six-year hiatus, the Flareside bed made its return, becoming a sub-model of the F-150. To appeal to younger buyers, the bodywork of the Flareside bed was modernized, adapting the fenders of the dual-rear-wheel F-350 to

15130-706: The Ford Motor Company website listed the Ford F-250 Super Duty as the longest-lasting vehicle and Expedition, Explorer, and F-150 among the top-20 longest-lasting vehicles. Ford introduced the 13th-generation F-Series for model year 2015. Previewed by the Ford Atlas concept vehicle at the 2013 Detroit Auto Show, the new design was noted for its extensive use of aluminum to reduce curb weight by nearly 750 pounds without reducing its exterior footprint. Aluminum body stampings replaced steel with

15308-518: The Ford Super Duty line of pickups and chassis-cabs. For the 1997 model year, Ford made a substantial change to the F-Series range of trucks, splitting its pickup line into two vehicle families. From the 1970s to the 1990s, pickup trucks had transitioned in usage. Alongside vehicles designed exclusively for work use, the market segment saw a major increase in demand for dual-purpose vehicles for both work and personal use, effectively serving as

15486-604: The Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof". Article Four gives Congress the power to admit new states into the Union. One of Congress's foremost non-legislative functions is the power to investigate and oversee the executive branch. Congressional oversight is usually delegated to committees and is facilitated by Congress's subpoena power. Some critics have charged that Congress has in some instances failed to do an adequate job of overseeing

15664-491: The House expanded delegates, along with their powers and privileges representing U.S. citizens in non-state areas, beginning with representation on committees for Puerto Rico's resident commissioner in 1970. In 1971, a delegate for the District of Columbia was authorized, and in 1972 new delegate positions were established for U.S. Virgin Islands and Guam . In 1978, an additional delegate for American Samoa were added. In

15842-448: The House initiates revenue -raising bills. The House initiates impeachment cases, while the Senate decides impeachment cases. A two-thirds vote of the Senate is required before an impeached person can be removed from office. The term Congress can also refer to a particular meeting of the legislature. A Congress covers two years; the current one, the 118th Congress , began on January 3, 2023, and will end on January 3, 2025. Since

16020-477: The House of Representatives have equal legislative authority, although only the House may originate revenue and appropriation bills . Congress has an important role in national defense , including the exclusive power to declare war, to raise and maintain the armed forces , and to make rules for the military. Some critics charge that the executive branch has usurped Congress's constitutionally defined task of declaring war. While historically presidents initiated

16198-625: The Jeffersonian Republican Party and began the era of the First Party System . In 1800, Thomas Jefferson 's election to the presidency marked a peaceful transition of power between the parties. John Marshall , 4th chief justice of the Supreme Court , empowered the courts by establishing the principle of judicial review in law in the landmark case Marbury v. Madison in 1803, effectively giving

16376-536: The March 30, 2009, Summary of Fuel Economy Performance published annually by NHTSA. During this time, they also increased their sales in the United States by 221%. The traditional European manufacturers actually decreased their fleet average fuel economy by 2 miles per gallon while increasing their sales volume by 91%. The traditional U.S. manufacturers, Chrysler, Ford, and General Motors, increased their fleet average fuel economy by 4.1 miles per gallon since 1980 according to

16554-586: The Ninth Circuit agreed with NHTSA that economic benefit-cost analysis (maximizing net economic benefits to the Nation) is, under the Energy Policy and Conservation Act (EPCA), an appropriate method to select the maximum feasible stringency of CAFE standards, but nonetheless found that NHTSA incorrectly set a value of zero dollars to the global warming damage caused by CO 2 emissions; failed to set

16732-646: The Raptor). The same year, the Ranger trims was dropped; the name shifted to the Ford Ranger compact pickup (replacing the Ford Courier). After 30 years as the smallest F-Series truck, the F-100 was dropped after 1983, eliminating model overlap with the F-150 (and payload overlap with the Ranger). This generation was the final version of the F-Series to offer a three-speed, column-shifted manual transmission; it

16910-635: The Supreme Court a power to nullify congressional legislation. The Civil War , which lasted from 1861 to 1865, which resolved the slavery issue and unified the nation under federal authority but weakened the power of states' rights . The Gilded Age (1877–1901) was marked by Republican dominance of Congress. During this time, lobbying activity became more intense, particularly during the administration of President Ulysses S. Grant in which influential lobbies advocated for railroad subsidies and tariffs on wool. Immigration and high birth rates swelled

17088-500: The Uniform Congressional Redistricting Act requires that they be elected from single-member constituencies or districts . It is also required that the congressional districts be apportioned among states by population every ten years using the U.S. census results, provided that each state has at least one congressional representative. Each senator is elected at-large in their state for

17266-476: The United States , as President of the Senate, has a vote in the Senate only when there is a tie. The House of Representatives has six non-voting members . Congress convenes for a two-year term , commencing every other January. Elections are held every even-numbered year on Election Day . The members of the House of Representatives are elected for the two-year term of a Congress. The Reapportionment Act of 1929 established that there be 435 representatives, and

17444-487: The United States billions of gallons of fuel. The requirement applies to all passenger automobiles, including "light trucks." President Bush faced serious pressure to reduce the Nation's dependency on oil and this was part of his initiative to do so. Under the new final light truck CAFE standard 2008–2011, fuel economy standards would have been restructured so that they are based on a measure of vehicle size called "footprint",

17622-453: The United States. The CAFE standards in a given model year define the CAFE levels that manufacturers' fleets are required to meet in that model year, specific levels depending on the characteristics and mix of vehicles produced by each manufacturer. If the average fuel economy of a manufacturer's annual fleet of vehicle production falls below the applicable requirement, the manufacturer must either apply sufficient CAFE credits (see below) to cover

17800-554: The White House a little more in favor of the executive branch", according to one account. Past presidents, including Ronald Reagan , George H. W. Bush , Bill Clinton , and George W. Bush , have made public statements when signing congressional legislation about how they understand a bill or plan to execute it, and commentators, including the American Bar Association , have described this practice as against

17978-504: The Whole votes, recent Congresses have not allowed for that, and they cannot vote when the House is meeting as the House of Representatives. On January 6, 2021, the Congress gathered to confirm the election of Joe Biden, when supporters of the outgoing president Donald Trump attacked the building . The session of Congress ended prematurely, and Congress representatives evacuated. Trump supporters occupied Congress until D.C police evacuated

18156-552: The Woman and the election of members of The Squad , respectively. Women of color faced additional challenges that made their ascension to Congress even more difficult. Jim Crow laws , voter suppression and other forms of structural racism made it virtually impossible for women of color to reach Congress prior to 1965. The passage of the Voting Rights Act that year , and the elimination of race-based immigration laws in

18334-544: The adoption of the Twentieth Amendment to the United States Constitution , the Congress has started and ended at noon on the third day of January of every odd-numbered year. Members of the Senate are referred to as senators; members of the House of Representatives are referred to as representatives, congressmen, or congresswomen. Scholar and representative Lee H. Hamilton asserted that the "historic mission of Congress has been to maintain freedom" and insisted it

18512-662: The area. The event was the first time since the Burning of Washington by the British during the War of 1812 that the United States Congress was forcefully occupied. Various social and structural barriers have prevented women from gaining seats in Congress. In the early 20th century, women's domestic roles and the inability to vote forestalled opportunities to run for and hold public office. The two party system and

18690-516: The average, for CAFE purposes, despite perhaps only one percent of the fuel used in E85-capable vehicles is actually E85, is computed as 100 mpg for E-85 and the standard 25 mpg for gasoline, or 62.5 mpg. However, the total increase in a manufacturer's average fuel economy rating due to dual-fueled vehicles cannot exceed 1.2mpg. Section 32906 reduces the increase due to dual-fueled vehicles to 0 through 2020. Electric vehicles are also incentivized by

18868-417: The budget has been lost when the welfare state expanded since "entitlements were institutionally detached from Congress's ordinary legislative routine and rhythm." Another factor leading to less control over the budget was a Keynesian belief that balanced budgets were unnecessary. The Sixteenth Amendment in 1913 extended congressional power of taxation to include income taxes without apportionment among

19046-691: The changes in the structure of CAFE create a need for research that incorporates the demand and supply sides of the new vehicle market in a more detailed manner than was needed with static fuel economy standards. Volkswagen responded to the July 29, 2011, agreement with the following statement: "Volkswagen does not endorse the proposal under discussion. It places an unfairly high burden on passenger cars, while allowing special compliance flexibility for heavier light trucks. Passenger cars would be required to achieve 5% annual improvements, and light trucks 3.5% annual improvements. The largest trucks carry almost no burden for

19224-688: The compliance test cycles: 70.7 MPG, Plug-in Prius hybrid: 69.8 MPGe and LEAF electric vehicle: 141.7 MPGe. The compliance fuel economy of plug-in electric vehicles such as the Plug-in Prius or LEAF is complicated by accounting for the energy used in generating electricity. CAFE has separate standards for "passenger cars" and "light trucks" even if the majority of "light trucks" are being used as passenger vehicles. The market share of "light trucks" grew steadily from 9.7% in 1979 to 47% in 2001, remained in 50% numbers up to 2011. More than 500,000 vehicles in

19402-480: The costs of vehicles and may have led to an estimated 1,300 to 2,600 increased fatalities in the year 1993 alone, though certain members of the committee dissented from the latter opinion. A plot of average overall vehicle fuel economy (CAFE) for new model year passenger cars, the required by law CAFE standard target fuel economy value (CAFE standard) for new model year passenger cars, and fuel prices, adjusted for inflation, shows that there has been little variation over

19580-572: The demand for electric vehicles . CAFE standards are administered by the secretary of transportation via the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration . The Energy Policy and Conservation Act (EPCA), as amended by the 2007 Energy Independence and Security Act (EISA), requires that the U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) establish standards separately for passenger automobiles (passenger cars) and nonpassenger automobiles (light trucks) at

19758-612: The early years as political parties became pronounced. With the passage of the Constitution and the Bill of Rights , the anti-federalist movement was exhausted. Some activists joined the Anti-Administration Party that James Madison and Thomas Jefferson were forming about 1790–1791 to oppose policies of Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton ; it soon became the Democratic-Republican Party or

19936-487: The electorate. Lame duck reforms according to the Twentieth Amendment reduced the power of defeated and retiring members of Congress to wield influence despite their lack of accountability. The Great Depression ushered in President Franklin Roosevelt and strong control by Democrats and historic New Deal policies. Roosevelt 's election in 1932 marked a shift in government power towards

20114-458: The engine line was largely carried over from 1979. While the 7.5L V8 was dropped entirely (in half-tons), a 4.2L V8 was introduced as the smallest V8 engine. For 1982, a 3.8L V6 became the standard engine for the F-100. For 1983, to improve the fuel efficiency of the model line, the M-Series engines (the 5.8L 351M and 6.6L 400 V8s) were dropped; the latter was replaced by the return of the 7.5L V8. In response to low demand and poor performance,

20292-545: The engine was an entirely new design. For the 1997 model year, the ninth generation was gradually phased out of production; the F-150 was replaced by the tenth-generation F-Series (see below), with the F-250 (rebranded as the F-250 Heavy Duty) and F-350 remaining in production through the 1997 model year. Introduced in mid-1998 (as 1999 models), the larger F-Series trucks (and the F-Super Duty) were replaced by

20470-410: The environment. In 2007, the House and Senate passed the Energy Independence and Security Act (EISA) with broad support, setting a goal for the national fuel economy standard of 35 miles per gallon (mpg) by 2020 and rendering the court judgment obsolete. On December 19, 2007, President George W. Bush signed the bill. The bill's standard would increase the fuel economy standards by 40 percent and save

20648-430: The equation used to calculate the fuel economy target had a built in mechanism that provides an incentive to reduce vehicle size to about 52 square feet (the approximate midpoint of the current light truck fleet.) In 2006, the rule making for light trucks for model years 2008–2011 included a reform to the structure for CAFE standards for light trucks and gave manufacturers the option for model years 2008–2010 to comply with

20826-473: The exception of the firewall. The frame itself remained high-strength steel. To test the durability of the aluminum-intensive design during development, Ford entered camouflaged prototypes into the Baja 1000 endurance race, where the vehicles finished. The 2015 F-150 was the first pickup truck with adaptive cruise control , using radar sensors on the front of the vehicle to maintain a set following distance from

21004-425: The exclusive power of removal , allowing impeachment and removal of the president, federal judges and other federal officers. There have been charges that presidents acting under the doctrine of the unitary executive have assumed important legislative and budgetary powers that should belong to Congress. So-called signing statements are one way in which a president can "tip the balance of power between Congress and

21182-595: The executive branch. Numerous New Deal initiatives came from the White House rather initiated by Congress. President Roosevelt pushed his agenda in Congress by detailing Executive Branch staff to friendly Senate committees (a practice that ended with the Legislative Reorganization Act of 1946). The Democratic Party controlled both houses of Congress for many years. During this time, Republicans and conservative southern Democrats formed

21360-463: The extent of congressional versus presidential power regarding war has been present periodically throughout the nation's history. Congress can establish post offices and post roads, issue patents and copyrights , fix standards of weights and measures, establish Courts inferior to the Supreme Court , and "make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in

21538-564: The fear of communism during the Second Red Scare and conducted televised hearings. In 1960, Democratic candidate John F. Kennedy narrowly won the presidency and power shifted again to the Democrats who dominated both chambers of Congress from 1961 to 1980, and retained a consistent majority in the House from 1955 to 1994. Congress enacted Johnson's Great Society program to fight poverty and hunger. The Watergate Scandal had

21716-463: The first American pickup truck model line sold without a carbureted engine option. The same year, the 6.9-liter diesel V8 was increased in size to 7.3 liters. Following the discontinuation of the three-speed manual, a five-speed manual became standard equipment (a four-speed remained a special-order option until 1992). For 1989, an E4OD four-speed automatic (overdrive version of the C6 heavy-duty three-speed)

21894-412: The first woman of color to reach the Senate in 1993. The second, Mazie Hirono , won in 2013. In 2021, Kamala Harris became the first female President of the Senate , which came with her role as the first female Vice President of the United States . Article One of the Constitution creates and sets forth the structure and most of the powers of Congress. Sections One through Six describe how Congress

22072-466: The fleet as a whole cannot be predicted with certainty since it will depend on the actual product mix manufactured. However, if the product mix is as NHTSA predicts, car fuel economy would increase from a current standard of 27.5 mpg ‑US (8.6 L/100 km; 33.0 mpg ‑imp ) to 31.0 mpg ‑US (7.6 L/100 km; 37.2 mpg ‑imp ) in 2011. The new regulations are designed to be "optimized" with respect to

22250-563: The footprint model. Secretary LaHood also noted that work on the multi-year fuel economy plan for model years after 2011 is already well underway. The review will include an evaluation of fuel-saving technologies, market conditions and future product plans from the manufacturers. The effort will be coordinated with interested stakeholders and other federal agencies, including the Environmental Protection Agency. The new rules were immediately challenged in court again by

22428-434: The form of greenhouse gas emissions and other conventional pollutants, one national policy for all automakers instead of three standards (a DOT standard, an EPA standard and a California standard that would apply to 13 other states), and industry desires: clarity, predictability and certainty concerning the rules while giving them flexibility on how to meet the expected outcomes and the lead time they need to innovate. The policy

22606-441: The four-wheel drive (4WD) versions. The previous generation had full-time connected front axles. The improvement saves fuel and by default goes into a wheel-locked position. Should a failure occur in the vacuum solenoid, system, or hoses, the wheel hub defaults to a 4WD position to keep from leaving a driver stranded. Internally, a three-valve version of the 5.4L V8 was introduced and replaced the previous two-valve version. Externally,

22784-428: The fourth generation. Dimensions were increased, engine options were expanded, and plusher trim levels became available during the fifth generation's production run. Changes during the 1967–1972 run were minimal, but notable. In 1968, to comply with FMVSS (Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards), marker lights were added to the rear bedside and front sides of the hood. 1970 saw a switch from metal bar style grillwork to

22962-490: The fuel economy of driving each car in the fleet for the same number of miles, while the arithmetic mean captures the fuel economy of driving each car using the same amount of gas (i.e., the 13 mpg vehicle would travel 13 miles (21 km) with one gallon while the 100 mpg vehicle would travel 100 miles). For the purposes of CAFE, a manufacturer's car output is divided into a domestic fleet (vehicles with more than 75 percent U.S., Canadian or post- NAFTA Mexican content) and

23140-421: The goals indirectly, by making it more expensive for automakers to build inefficient vehicles by introducing penalties. The original CAFE standards sought to drive automotive innovation to curtail fuel consumption, and now the aim is also to create domestic jobs and cut global warming . Stringent CAFE standards together with government incentives for fuel efficient vehicles in the United States should accelerate

23318-478: The government figures. During this time the sales of U.S. manufacturers decreased by 29%. A number of manufacturers choose to pay CAFE penalties rather than attempt to comply with the regulations. These tend to be companies with small U.S. market share and expensive, high-performance vehicles, such as Porsche , Mercedes , and Fiat . In model year 2012, Jaguar ( Land Rover ) and Volvo did not meet CAFE requirements. They paid fines totaling 15 million dollars for

23496-682: The industry-wide combined average to 27.3 miles per US gallon (8.6 L/100 km; 32.8 mpg ‑imp ) (a 2.0 mpg ‑US (2.4 mpg ‑imp ) increase over the 2010 model year average), as estimated by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA). It will save about 887,000,000 U.S. gallons (3.36 × 10 L) of fuel and reduce carbon dioxide emissions by 8.3 million metric tons. This 2011 single-year standard will use an attribute-based system, which sets fuel economy standards for individual vehicle models, based on

23674-402: The internal structure of Congress is important to understand along with its interactions with so-called intermediary institutions such as political parties , civic associations , interest groups , and the mass media . The Congress of the United States serves two distinct purposes that overlap: local representation to the federal government of a congressional district by representatives and

23852-486: The lack of term limits favored incumbent white men, making the widow's succession – in which a woman temporarily took over a seat vacated by the death of her husband – the most common path to Congress for white women. Women candidates began making substantial inroads in the later 20th century, due in part to new political support mechanisms and public awareness of their underrepresentation in Congress. Recruitment and financial support for women candidates were rare until

24030-602: The last generation. The manual transmission was dropped for the first time, and the Flareside bed was continued until the end of 2009 (thus making it the very last factory stepside-style pickup truck to date). Outside of Mexico, the Lincoln Mark LT was replaced by the F-150 Platinum. A new model for 2010 included the SVT Raptor , a dedicated off-road model. Initially only available in a SuperCab configuration,

24208-430: The late 20th century, the media became more important in Congress's work. Analyst Michael Schudson suggested that greater publicity undermined the power of political parties and caused "more roads to open up in Congress for individual representatives to influence decisions". Norman Ornstein suggested that media prominence led to a greater emphasis on the negative and sensational side of Congress, and referred to this as

24386-488: The law. Generally militia forces are controlled by state governments, not Congress. Congress also has implied powers deriving from the Constitution's Necessary and Proper Clause which permit Congress to "make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof". Broad interpretations of this clause and of

24564-441: The legislature since there were two separate chambers. The new government became active in 1789. Political scientist Julian E. Zelizer suggested there were four main congressional eras, with considerable overlap, and included the formative era (1780s–1820s), the partisan era (1830s–1900s), the committee era (1910s–1960s), and the contemporary era (1970–present). Federalists and anti-federalists jostled for power in

24742-443: The long run to an increase in the average fuel economy of the U.S. passenger car fleet, and that a drop in gasoline prices would be associated with a reduction in the average fuel economy of the entire U.S. fleet. There is some evidence that this happened with an increase in market share of lower fuel economy light trucks and SUVs and decline in passenger car sales, as a percentage of total fleet sales, as car buying trends changed during

24920-487: The maximum feasible levels in each model year, and requires that DOT enforce compliance with the standards. DOT has delegated the responsibilities to the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA). Through EPCA and EISA, U.S. law (49 U.S. Code § 32919) also preempts state or local laws: "a State or a political subdivision of a State may not adopt or enforce a law or regulation related to fuel economy standards or average fuel economy standards." The CAFE achieved by

25098-468: The mid-2000s, increasing safety of smaller cars and the poor safety record of light trucks began to reverse this association. Nevertheless, in 2008, the on-road vehicle fleets in the United States and Canada had the lowest overall average fuel economy among first world nations: 25 miles per US gallon (9.4 L/100 km) in North America, versus 45 miles per US gallon (5.2 L/100 km) in

25276-597: The minimum standard in the domestic passenger car fleet, however they may be used to meet the "attribute standard". This latter allowance has drawn criticism from the UAW which fears it will lead manufacturers to increase the importation of small cars to offset shortfalls in the domestic market. These new flexibilities were implemented by regulation on March 23, 2009, in the Final Rule for 2011 Model Year Passenger Cars and Light Trucks. Calculations using official CAFE data, and

25454-527: The model year for fleet. According to NHTSA report, to achieve this industry wide combined fleet of at least 35mpg, NHTSA must set new standards well in advance of the model year so as to provide the automobile manufacturers with lead time enough to make extensive necessary changes in their automobiles. The EISA also called for a reform where the standards set by the Transportation Department would be are "attribute based" so as to ensure that

25632-474: The new "Styleside" bed continued the smooth lines to the rear of the pickup. The cab-over F-Series was discontinued, having been replaced by the tilt-cab C-Series . In 1959, Ford began its first production of factory four-wheel-drive pickups. Ford introduced a dramatically new style of pickup in 1961 with the fourth-generation F-Series. Longer and lower than its predecessors, these trucks had increased dimensions and new engine and gearbox choices. Additionally,

25810-424: The new regulations. Further, the new regulations assume that no advanced hybrids ( Toyota Prius ), plug-in hybrids and extended range electric vehicles ( Chevrolet Volt ), electric cars ( Th!nk City ), nor alternative fuel vehicles ( Honda Civic GX ) will be used to achieve these fuel economies. The proposal again explained that U.S. law (49 U.S. Code § 32919) requires that "a State or a political subdivision of

25988-487: The newly proposed credit trading flexibility contained in the September 28, 2009, Notice of Proposed Rulemaking show that ninety-eight percent of the benefit derived from just the cross fleet credit trading provision flows to Toyota. According to these calculations 75% of the benefit from the two new CAFE credit trading provisions, cross fleet trading and five-year carry-forward, falls to foreign manufacturers. Toyota can use

26166-584: The other branches of government. In the Plame affair , critics including Representative Henry A. Waxman charged that Congress was not doing an adequate job of oversight in this case. There have been concerns about congressional oversight of executive actions such as warrantless wiretapping , although others respond that Congress did investigate the legality of presidential decisions. Political scientists Ornstein and Mann suggested that oversight functions do not help members of Congress win reelection. Congress also has

26344-557: The overall U.S. fuel economy average which tends to be dominated by used vehicles manufactured in previous years, new model light truck CAFE standards, light truck CAFE averages, or aggregate data. Under CAFE regulations, a light vehicle's fuel economy, f {\displaystyle f} , is determined as the weighted harmonic average of the values measured on the “city” ( FTP-75 ) and “highway” ( HWFET ) drive cycles. f {\displaystyle f} has long been known to overestimate real-world fuel economy which, as of

26522-523: The past 20 years. Within this period, there are three distinct periods of fuel economy change: before returning to 1986 levels in 1990. These are following by an extended period during which the passenger car CAFE standard, the observed average passenger car fuel economy, and the price of gasoline remained stable, and finally a period starting about 2003 when prices rose dramatically and fuel economy has slowly responded. The law of supply and demand would predict that an increase in gasoline prices would lead in

26700-423: The plastic eggcrate style. The sixth-generation F-Series was introduced in 1973. This version of the F-Series continued to be built on the 1965 fourth-generation's revised platform, but with significant modernization and refinements, including front disc brakes, increased cabin dimensions, full double-wall bed construction, and increased use of galvanized steel. The FE engine series was discontinued in 1976 after

26878-597: The process for going to war, they asked for and received formal war declarations from Congress for the War of 1812 , the Mexican–American War , the Spanish–American War , World War I , and World War II , although President Theodore Roosevelt 's military move into Panama in 1903 did not get congressional approval. In the early days after the North Korean invasion of 1950 , President Truman described

27056-465: The product of multiplying a vehicle's wheelbase by its track width. A target level of fuel economy would have been established for each increment in footprint using a continuous mathematical formula. Smaller footprint light trucks had higher fuel economy targets and larger trucks lower targets. Manufacturers who made more large trucks would have been allowed to meet a lower overall CAFE target, manufacturers who make more small trucks would have needed to meet

27234-406: The provision to avoid or reduce compliance on average by 0.69 mpg per year through 2020, The estimated value of the CAFE exemption gained by Toyota is $ 2.5 billion; Honda's benefit is worth $ 800 million, and Nissan's benefit is valued at $ 900 million in reduced CAFE compliance costs. Foreign companies gained $ 5.5 billion in benefits compared with the $ 1.8 billion that went to

27412-456: The public comments and other available information, including information on the financial condition of the automotive industry, the agency adjusted its analysis and the standards and prepared a final rule and Final Regulatory Impact Analysis (FRIA) for MYs 2011–2015. On November 14, 2008, the Office of Management and Budget concluded review of the rule and FRIA. However, issuance of the final rule

27590-703: The ranks of citizens and the nation grew at a rapid pace. The Progressive Era was characterized by strong party leadership in both houses of Congress and calls for reform; sometimes reformers said lobbyists corrupted politics. The position of Speaker of the House became extremely powerful under leaders such as Thomas Reed in 1890 and Joseph Gurney Cannon . By the beginning of the 20th century, party structures and leadership emerged as key organizers of Senate proceedings. A system of seniority, in which long-time members of Congress gained more and more power, encouraged politicians of both parties to seek long terms. Committee chairmen remained influential in both houses until

27768-436: The reciprocal values. For a fleet composed of four different kinds of vehicle A, B, C and D, produced in numbers n A , n B , n C and n D , with fuel economies f A , f B , f C and f D , the CAFE would be: For example, a fleet of 4 vehicles getting 15, 13, 17, and 100 mpg has a CAFE of slightly less than 19 mpg: While the arithmetic mean fuel economy of the fleet is just over 36 mpg: The harmonic mean captures

27946-424: The reformed standard or to comply with the unreformed standard. The reformed standard was based on the vehicle footprint. The unreformed standard for MY 2008 was set to be 22.5mpg, 23.1mpg for MY 2009, and 23.5mpg for MY 2010. To achieve the target of 35mpg authorized under EISA for the combined fleet of passenger cars and light truck for MY2020, NHTSA is required to continue raising the CAFE standards. In determining

28124-504: The reforms of the 1970s. Important structural changes included the direct popular election of senators according to the Seventeenth Amendment , ratified on April 8, 1913. Supreme Court decisions based on the Constitution's commerce clause expanded congressional power to regulate the economy. One effect of popular election of senators was to reduce the difference between the House and Senate in terms of their link to

28302-406: The requirements, not for transient non-compliance due to market conditions. Fuel economy regulations were first introduced in 1978, only for passenger vehicles. NHTSA kept CAFE standards for cars the same from 1985 to 2010, except for a slight decrease in required mpg from 1986 to 1989. The next year, a second category was defined for light trucks. These were distinguished from heavy duty vehicles by

28480-477: The safety of vehicles is not compromised for higher standards. The 2007 Energy Independence and Security Act also instructed NHTSA to establish a credit trading and transferring scheme to allow manufacturers to transfer credits between categories, as well as sell them to other manufacturers or non-manufacturers. In addition, the period over which credits could be carried forward was extended from three years to five. Traded or transferred credits may not be used to meet

28658-413: The several States, and without regard to any census or enumeration. The Constitution also grants Congress the exclusive power to appropriate funds, and this power of the purse is one of Congress's primary checks on the executive branch. Congress can borrow money on the credit of the United States, regulate commerce with foreign nations and among the states, and coin money. Generally, the Senate and

28836-515: The shortfall or pay a penalty , currently $ 14 per 0.1 mpg under the standard, multiplied by the manufacturer's total production for the U.S. domestic market. Congress established both of these provisions explicitly in EPCA, as amended in 2007 by EISA. In addition, a Gas Guzzler Tax is levied on individual passenger car models (but not trucks, vans, minivans, or SUVs) that get less than 22.5 miles per US gallon (10.5 L/100 km). Starting in 2011,

29014-736: The spirit of the Constitution. There have been concerns that presidential authority to cope with financial crises is eclipsing the power of Congress. In 2008, George F. Will called the Capitol building a "tomb for the antiquated idea that the legislative branch matters". The Constitution enumerates the powers of Congress in detail. In addition, other congressional powers have been granted, or confirmed, by constitutional amendments. The Thirteenth (1865), Fourteenth (1868), and Fifteenth Amendments (1870) gave Congress authority to enact legislation to enforce rights of African Americans, including voting rights , due process , and equal protection under

29192-641: The time claimed that the new plan was unfair, but the company was later revealed to have been systematically cheating emissions tests . As a result, Volkswagen is one of the only major auto manufacturers to not sign the agreement that has led to the current proposal from the Obama administration. Daimler, producer of Mercedes-Benz brand automobiles, expressed similar views, saying it "clearly favors large SUVs and pickup trucks." United States Congress Minority (49) Minority (212) Vacant (3) [REDACTED] [REDACTED] The United States Congress

29370-414: The vehicle ahead, decreasing speed if necessary. The 3.7L V6 was dropped, replaced by a naturally-aspirated 3.5L V6 as the standard engine, with a 2.7L EcoBoost V6 added alongside the 3.5L EcoBoost V6. While the 6.2L V8 was withdrawn, the 5.0L V8 continued as an option, with a six-speed automatic as the sole transmission. For the 2017 model year, Ford debuted the second-generation 3.5L EcoBoost along with

29548-405: The year. For the 2014 model year, Mercedes SUVs followed by GM and Ford light trucks had the lowest fleet average while Tesla followed by Toyota and Mazda had the highest. Before the oil price increases of the 2000s, overall fuel economy for both cars and light trucks in the U.S. market reached its highest level in 1987, when manufacturers managed 26.2 mpg (8.98 L/100 km). The average in 2004

29726-757: Was 24.6 mpg. In that time, vehicles increased in size from an average of 3,220 pounds to 4,066 pounds (1,461 kg to 1,844 kg), in part due to an increase in truck ownership from 28% to 53%. The CAFE rules for trucks were officially amended at the end of March 2006. However, the 9th Circuit Court of Appeals has overturned the rules, returning them to NHTSA, as discussed below. These changes would have segmented truck fleets by vehicle size and class as of 2011. All SUVs and passenger vans up to 10,000 pounds GVWR would have had to comply with CAFE standards regardless of size, but pickup trucks and cargo vans over 8500 pounds gross vehicle weight rating (GVWR) would have remained exempt. The United States Court of Appeals for

29904-599: Was 30.7 mpg (35.6 mpg for cars and 25.5 mpg for trucks) and for the years 2012–2015, auto industry outperformed the GHG standard by a substantial margin. Consumers are expected to save an estimated 16.6 billion gallons of fuel over the lifetime of model year 2011 to 2014 vehicles due to the manufacturers exceeding the CAFE standards in those years. On July 29, 2011, President Obama announced an agreement with thirteen large automakers to increase fuel economy to 54.5 miles per gallon for cars and light-duty trucks by model year 2025. He

30082-540: Was a "driving force in American government" and a "remarkably resilient institution". Congress is the "heart and soul of our democracy", according to this view, even though legislators rarely achieve the prestige or name recognition of presidents or Supreme Court justices ; one wrote that "legislators remain ghosts in America's historical imagination." One analyst argues that it is not a solely reactive institution but has played an active role in shaping government policy and

30260-531: Was discontinued after 2002. For 1999, Ford redesigned the F-250 and F-350, introducing them as the first generation of the Ford F-Series Super Duty model line. While remaining part of the F-Series, the Super Duty trucks were designed with a different chassis, powertrain, and body design, as they are developed for heavier-duty work use. For 2000, the Super Duty line was expanded to include the medium-duty truck (F-650/F-750) series, designed in

30438-404: Was expected to result in yearly 5% increases in efficiency from 2012 through 2016, 1.8 billion barrels (290,000,000 m) of oil saved cumulatively over the lifetime of the program and significant reductions in greenhouse gas emissions equivalent to taking 177 million of today's cars off the road. By model year 2014, many of the program's goals were being met. The average new vehicle fuel economy

30616-403: Was first introduced in 1948 as a replacement for a previous pickup model line based on car platforms. The most popular version of the model line is the F-150 pickup truck, currently in its fourteenth generation (introduced for the 2021 model year). From 1953 to 1983, the entry-level F-Series pickup was the 1 ⁄ 2 ton F-100. Starting in 1984, the F-150 became the entry-level. The F-150 has

30794-562: Was fuel injected on 1987 models. In line with the previous generation, the SuperCab and four-door crew cab made their return in 1980 and 1982, respectively. For the first time, a dual-rear-wheel version of the F-350 was offered as a pickup truck. For 1982, Ford revised the badging of the model line, replacing the "FORD" hood lettering with the Ford Blue Oval grille emblem, a design that remains in use on all F-Series trucks today (except

30972-430: Was held in abeyance. On January 7, 2009, the Department of Transportation announced that the final rule would not be issued, writing: "The Bush Administration will not finalize its rulemaking on Corporate Fuel Economy Standards. The recent financial difficulties of the automobile industry will require the next administration to conduct a thorough review of matters affecting the industry, including how to effectively implement

31150-502: Was introduced. Slotted between the F-350 and F-600, the F-Super Duty was introduced in 1987 for the 1988 model year; an ancestor of the current F-450/F-550, the F-Super Duty was designed exclusively for chassis-cab applications. The ninth-generation F-Series was introduced for 1992 as the second redesign of the 1980 F-Series architecture. Adapting design elements from the newly introduced Explorer and redesigned E-Series and Ranger,

31328-656: Was joined by Ford, GM, Chrysler, BMW, Honda, Hyundai, Jaguar/Land Rover, Kia, Mazda, Mitsubishi, Nissan, Toyota, and Volvo—which together accounted for over 90% of all vehicles sold in the United States—as well as the United Auto Workers (UAW), and the State of California, who were all participants in the deal. The agreement resulted in new CAFE regulations for model year 2017–2025 vehicles, which were finalized on August 28, 2012. The major increases in stringency and

31506-626: Was removed in 1996. For the fuel economy calculation for alternative fuel vehicles, a gallon of alternative fuel is deemed to contain 15% fuel (which is approximately the amount of gasoline in a gallon of E85) as an incentive to develop alternative fuel vehicles . The mileage for dual-fuel vehicles, such as E85 capable models and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, is computed as the average of its alternative fuel rating—divided by 0.15 (equal to multiplying by 6.666)—and its gasoline rating. Thus an E85-capable vehicle that gets 15 mpg on E-85 and 25 mpg on gasoline might logically be rated at 20 mpg. But in fact

31684-600: Was unknown. Ten car companies and the UAW embraced the national program because it provided certainty and predictability to 2016 and included flexibilities that would significantly reduce the cost of compliance. Stated goals for the program included: saving consumers money over the long term in increased fuel efficiency, preserving consumer choice (the new rules do not dictate the size of cars, trucks and SUVs that manufacturers can produce; rather it requires that all sizes of vehicles become more energy efficient), reduced air pollution in

#261738