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61-532: Spain was formed as a dynastic union of two crowns rather than a unitary state, as Castile and Aragon remained separate kingdoms until the Nueva Planta decrees of 1707–16. The court of Ferdinand and Isabella was constantly on the move, in order to bolster local support for the crown from local feudal lords . The title of " Catholic King and Queen " was officially bestowed on Ferdinand and Isabella by Pope Alexander VI in 1494, in recognition of their defence of

122-754: A decree of expulsion of Jews, known formally as the Alhambra Decree , which gave Jews in Spain four months to either convert to Catholicism or leave Spain. Tens of thousands of Jews emigrated to other lands such as Portugal, North Africa, the Low Countries, Italy and the Ottoman Empire . Although the Catholic Monarchs pursued a partnership in many matters, because of the histories of their respective kingdoms, they did not always have

183-732: A facet which was somewhat at odds with Louis XIV 's aggressively Catholic foreign and domestic policy. The relationship was further weakened by the Union of the Crowns in 1603, which meant from then on that although still independent, executive power in the Scottish government, the Crown, was shared with the Kingdom of England and Scottish foreign policy came into line more with that of England than with France. When Elizabeth I of England died in 1603,

244-485: A few ways. One of those is that they traveled from town to town throughout the kingdom to promote loyalty, rather than possessing any single administrative center. Another is that each community and region was connected to them via loyalty to the crown, rather than bureaucratic ties. Along with the desire of the Catholic Monarchs to extend their dominion to all the kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula, their reign

305-668: A foothold in Scotland during the Davidian Revolution , when King David I introduced Continental-style reforms throughout all aspects of Scottish life: social, religious, economic and administrative. He also invited immigrant French and Anglo-French peoples to Scotland. This effectively created a Franco-Scottish aristocracy, with ties to the French aristocracy as well as many to the Franco-English aristocracy. From

366-655: A traditional rivalry with France , which had been a traditional allies with Castile. Castile's foreign interests were focused on the Atlantic, making Castile's funding of the voyage of Columbus an extension of existing interests. Castile had traditionally had good relations with the neighboring Kingdom of Portugal, and after the Portuguese lost the War of the Castilian Succession , Castile and Portugal concluded

427-817: A unified viewpoint in foreign policy. Despite that, they did have a successful expansionist foreign policy due to a number of factors. The victory over the Muslims in Granada allowed Ferdinand to involve himself in policy outside the Iberian peninsula. The diplomatic initiative of King Ferdinand continued the traditional policy of the Crown of Aragon, with its interests set in the Mediterranean, with interests in Italy and sought conquests in North Africa. Aragon had

488-500: Is a shaped wooden crosspiece bound to the necks of a pair of oxen (or occasionally to horses). It is held on the animals' necks by an oxbow , from which it gets its name. The oxbow is usually U-shaped and also transmits force from the animals' shoulders. A swivel between the animals, beneath the centre of the yoke, attaches to the pole of a vehicle or to chains ( traces ) used to drag a load. Bow yokes are traditional in Europe , and in

549-421: Is a type of union in which different states are governed beneath the same dynasty , with their boundaries, their laws, and their interests remaining distinct from each other. It is a form of association looser than a personal union , when several states share the same monarch, and a real union , when they have common institutions in addition to the same monarch. With the assassination of Sancho IV , Navarre

610-679: Is also a verb, as in "to yoke a pair of oxen". Other animals that may be yoked include horses , mules , donkeys , and water buffalo . The word "yoke" is believed to derive from Proto-Indo-European *yugóm (yoke), from root * yewg - (join, unite), and is thus cognate with yoga . This root has descendants in almost all known Indo-European languages including German Joch , Latin iugum , Ancient Greek ζυγόν ( zygon ), Persian یوغ ( yuğ ), Sanskrit युग ( yugá ), Hittite 𒄿𒌑𒃷 (iúkan), Old Church Slavonic иго ( igo ), Lithuanian jungas , Old Irish cuing , and Armenian լուծ ( luts ), all meaning "yoke". A bow yoke / ˈ b oʊ /

671-466: Is then raised between them and a backing bolt is dropped into the chains on the yoke irons in order to haul the wagon. Head yokes are used in southern Europe, much of South America and in Canada . A withers yoke is a yoke that fits just in front of the withers , or the shoulder blades, of the oxen. The yoke is held in position by straps, either alone or with a pair of wooden staves on either side of

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732-709: Is used, various lengths of yoke may be required for different agricultural implements or to adjust to different crop-row spacings. A yoke may be used with a single animal. Oxen are normally worked in pairs, but water buffalo in Asian countries are commonly used singly, with the aid of a bow-shaped withers yoke. Use of single bow or withers yokes on oxen is documented from North America, China, Zimbabwe, Tanzania and Switzerland, and several designs of single head or forehead yoke are recorded in Germany. The yoke has connotations of subservience and toiling; in some ancient cultures it

793-611: The Council of Castile established in 1480. The Council of Castile was intended "to be the central governing body of Castile and the linch-pin of their governmental system" with wide powers and with royal officials who were loyal to them and excluded the old nobility from exercising power in it. The monarchs created the Spanish Inquisition in 1478 to ensure that individuals converting to Christianity did not revert to their old faith or continue practising it. The Council of

854-518: The Council of the Indies , the Council of Finance , and the Council of State . The Catholic Monarchs set out to restore royal authority in Spain. To accomplish their goal, they first created a group named the Holy Brotherhood . These men were used as a judicial police force for Castile, as well as to attempt to keep Castilian nobles in check. To establish a more uniform judicial system ,

915-586: The Holy Roman Empire , a powerful, far-reaching European territory which assured Spain's future political security. Their only son, John , married Margaret of Austria , seeking to maintain ties with the Habsburg dynasty, on which Spain relied heavily. Their fourth child, Maria , married Manuel I of Portugal , strengthening the link forged by Isabella's elder sister's marriage. Their fifth child, Catherine , married Arthur, Prince of Wales and heir to

976-526: The Treaty of the Bulls of Guisando . Henry instead recognised Joanna of Castile , born during his marriage to Joanna of Portugal , but whose paternity was in doubt, since Henry was rumoured to be impotent. When Henry died in 1474, Isabella asserted her claim to the throne, which was contested by thirteen-year-old Joanna. Joanna sought the aid of her husband (who was also her uncle), Afonso V of Portugal , to claim

1037-643: The Union of Krewo . That union laid the foundations for the eventual formation of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth . Following Salic law , Henry III, King of Navarre , a member of the House of Bourbon , succeeded to the French throne in 1589 upon the extinction of the male line of the House of Valois . Both houses were cadet branches of the Capetian dynasty, the ruling house of the kingdom of France since 987. Norman or French culture first gained

1098-478: The United States , Australia , and Africa . A head yoke fits onto the head of the oxen. It usually fits behind the horns , and has carved-out sections into which the horns fit; it may be a single beam attached to both oxen, or each ox may have a separate short beam. The yoke is then strapped to the horns of the oxen with yoke straps. Some types fit instead onto the front of the head, again strapped to

1159-691: The Wars of Scottish Independence , as common enemies of England and its ruling House of Plantagenet , Scotland and France started to enjoy a close diplomatic relationship, the Auld Alliance , from 1295 to 1560. From the Late Middle Ages and into the Early Modern Period Scotland and its burghs also benefited from close economic and trading links with France in addition to its links to the Low Countries, Scandinavia and

1220-513: The Baltic. The prospect of dynastic union came in the 15th and 16th centuries, when Margaret , eldest daughter of James I of Scotland , married the future Louis XI of France . James V of Scotland married two French brides in succession. His infant daughter, Mary I , succeeded him on his death in 1542. For many years thereafter the country was ruled under a regency led by her French mother, Mary of Guise , who succeeded in marrying her daughter to

1281-594: The Catholic Monarchs an efficient army loyal to the Crown was created, commanded by Castilian Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba , known as the Great Captain . Fernández de Córdoba reorganised the military troops on a new combat unit, tercios reales , which entailed the creation of the first modern army dependent on the crown, regardless of the pretensions of the nobles. Through the Capitulations of Santa Fe , navigator Christopher Columbus received finances and

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1342-664: The Catholic Monarchs created the Royal Council , and appointed magistrates (judges) to run the towns and cities. This establishment of royal authority is known as the Pacification of Castile and can be seen as one of the crucial steps toward the creation of one of Europe's first strong nation-states. Isabella also sought various ways to diminish the influence of the Cortes Generales in Castile, though Ferdinand

1403-583: The Catholic faith within their realms. At the time of their marriage on October 19, 1469, Isabella was eighteen years old and the heiress presumptive to the Crown of Castile , while Ferdinand was seventeen and heir apparent to the Crown of Aragon . They met for the first time in Valladolid in 1469 and married within a week. From the start, they had a close relationship and worked well together. Both knew that

1464-466: The Crusade was created under their rule to administer funds from the sale of crusading bulls. In 1498 after Ferdinand had gained control of the revenues of the wealthy and powerful Spanish military orders , he created the Council of Military Orders to oversee them. The conciliar model was extended beyond the rule of the Catholic Monarchs, with their grandson, Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor establishing

1525-557: The Pope, refused to grant one, so they falsified a papal bull of their own. Even though the bull is known to be false, it is uncertain who was the material author of the falsification. Some experts point at Carrillo de Acuña , Archbishop of Toledo , and others point at Antonio Veneris. Isabella's claims to it were not secure, since her marriage to Ferdinand enraged her half-brother Henry IV of Castile and he withdrew his support for her being his heiress presumptive that had been codified in

1586-501: The Treaty of Alcáçovas. The treaty set boundaries for overseas expansion which were at the time disadvantageous to Castile, but the treaty resolved any further Portuguese claims on the crown of Castile. Portugal did not take advantage of Castile's and Aragon's focus on the reconquest of Granada. Following the reestablishment of good relations, the Catholic Monarchs made two strategic marriages to Portuguese royalty. The matrimonial policy of

1647-492: The animals' horns as they grow; unlike other types, a single-beam head yoke fixes the heads of the oxen apart, helping them to stand quietly without fighting. A single-beam head yoke may offer better braking ability on downhill grades and appears to be preferred in rugged mountainous areas such as Switzerland, Spain and parts of Italy. Bow yokes need to be the correct size for the animal, and new ones are often made as an animal grows, but they need no adjustment in use. Whichever type

1708-419: The annexation of Hanover by Prussia in 1866. Yoke A yoke is a wooden beam used between a pair of oxen or other animals to enable them to pull together on a load when working in pairs, as oxen usually do; some yokes are fitted to individual animals. There are several types of yoke, used in different cultures, and for different types of oxen. A pair of oxen may be called a yoke of oxen , and yoke

1769-431: The bottom of the coat of arms, were a yoke ( yugo ) and a sheaf of arrows ( haz de flechas ). Y and F are the initials of Ysabel (spelling at the time) and Fernando. A double yoke is worn by a team of oxen, emphasizing the couple's cooperation. Isabella's emblem of arrows showed the armed power of the crown, "a warning to Castilians not acknowledging the reach of royal authority or that greatest of royal functions,

1830-646: The coast of present-day Venezuela . The colonies Columbus established, and conquests in the Americas in later decades, generated an influx of wealth into the new unified state of Spain , leading it to be the major power of Europe from the end of the fifteenth century until the mid-seventeenth century, and the largest empire until 1810. Isabella's death in 1504 ended the remarkably successful political partnership and personal relationship of their marriage. Ferdinand remarried Germaine of Foix in 1505, but they produced no living heir. Had there been one, Aragonese opposed to

1891-477: The crown of Castile was "the prize, and that they were both jointly gambling for it". However, it was a step toward the unification of the lands on the Iberian peninsula , which would eventually become Spain. They were second cousins; to marry they needed a papal dispensation . Pope Paul II , an Italian pope opposed to Aragon's influence on the Mediterranean and to the rise of monarchies strong enough to challenge

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1952-575: The expulsion of Jews who refused to convert to Christianity. After a number of revolts, Ferdinand and Isabella ordered the expulsion of all Jews from Spain. People who converted to Catholicism were not subject to expulsion, but between 1480 and 1492 hundreds of those who had converted ( conversos and moriscos ) were accused of secretly practising their original religion ( crypto-Judaism or crypto-Islam ) and arrested, imprisoned, interrogated under torture, and in some cases burned to death , in both Castile and Aragon. The Inquisition had been created in

2013-538: The foundations for the kingdom of Spain. They did not ascend to their respective thrones until 1474 and 1479 respectively. Dynastic union between Spain (the union between the Crowns of Castile and Aragon) and Portugal (1580–1640), generally called the Iberian Union by modern historians, under the Philippine Dynasty . Marriage of Jogaila and Queen Jadwiga of Poland on 1385, generally called

2074-482: The funding and authorization for the voyage, the benefits accrued to the Kingdom of Castile. "Although the subjects of the Crown of Aragon played some part in the discovery and colonization of the New World, the Indies were formally annexed not to Spain but to the Crown of Castile." He landed on the island of Guanahani , and called it San Salvador . He continued onto Cuba , naming it Juana, and finished his journey on

2135-471: The future Francis II of France . The young couple were king and queen of France and Scotland from 1559 until Francis died in 1560. Mary returned to a Scotland heaving with political revolt and religious revolution, which made a continuation of the alliance impossible. Cordial economic and cultural relations did continue however, although throughout the 17th century, the Scottish establishment became increasingly Presbyterian , often belligerent to Catholicism ,

2196-550: The head of the House of Hanover since 1707, ended with the death of William IV in 1837, and was replaced with a dynastic union: due to the different laws of succession, he was succeeded by two members of the dynasty, in the United Kingdom by his niece Victoria , the daughter of his late next brother Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn , and in Hanover by his second next brother Ernest Augustus . This lasted until

2257-583: The heir to the English throne was King James VI of Scotland. Generally called the Union of the Crowns , this dynastic union was in place from 1603 until 1653 (when the monarchy was officially abolished ) and again from 1659 until the two nations were politically united in 1707 . The personal union between the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and the Kingdom of Hanover , jointly ruled by

2318-401: The horns, and ox pads are then used for cushioning the forehead of the ox (see picture). A tug pole is held to the bottom of the yoke using yoke irons and chains. The tug pole can either be a short pole with a chain attached for hauling, or a long pole with a hook on the end that has no chain at all. Sometimes the pole is attached to a wagon and the oxen are simply backed over this pole, the pole

2379-601: The island of the Dominican Republic and Haiti, calling it Hispaniola , or La Isla Española ("the Spanish [Island]" in Castilian). On his second trip, begun in 1493, he found more Caribbean islands including Puerto Rico . His main goal was to colonize the existing discoveries with the 1500 men that he had brought the second time around. Columbus finished his last expedition in 1498 and discovered Trinidad and

2440-517: The monarchs sought advantageous marriages for their five children, forging royal alliances for the long-term benefit of Spain. Their first-born, a daughter named Isabella , married Afonso of Portugal , forging important ties between these two neighboring kingdoms that would lead to enduring peace and future alliance. Joanna , their second daughter, married Philip the Handsome , the son of Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I . This ensured an alliance with

2501-495: The other"), came to signify their cooperation." The motto was originally used by Ferdinand as an allusion to the Gordian knot : Tanto monta, monta tanto, cortar como desatar ("It's one and the same, cutting or untying"), but later adopted as an expression of equality of the monarchs: Tanto monta, monta tanto, Isabel como Fernando ("It's one and the same, Isabella the same as Ferdinand"). Their emblems or heraldic devices, seen at

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2562-574: The ox's withers; the pull is however from the yoke itself, not from the staves. Withers yokes particularly suit zebu cattle, which have high humps on their withers. Withers yokes are widely used in Africa and India , where zebu cattle are common. Although all three yoke types are effective, each has its advantages and disadvantages. As noted above, withers yokes suit zebu cattle, and head yokes can of course only be used for animals with suitable horns. Head yokes need to be re-shaped frequently to fit

2623-487: The papacy retained the right to formally appoint the royal nominees. The Inquisition did not have jurisdiction over Jews and Muslims who did not convert. Since the kingdom of Aragon had existed since 1248, the Spanish Inquisition was the only common institution for the two kingdoms. Pope Innocent VIII confirmed Dominican Tomás de Torquemada , a confessor of Isabella, as Grand Inquisitor of Spain, following in

2684-465: The right to mete out justice" by force of violence. The iconography of the royal crest was widely reproduced and was found on various works of art. These badges were later used by the fascist Spanish political party Falange , which claimed to represent the inherited glory and the ideals of the Catholic Monarchs. Isabella succeeded to the throne of Castile in 1474 when Ferdinand was still heir-apparent to Aragon, and with Aragon's aid, Isabella's claim to

2745-563: The scene of their great triumph in 1492. Joanna's son Charles I of Spain (also Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor) came to Spain, and she kept confined in Tordesillas , was nominal co-ruler of both Castile and Aragon until her death. With her death, Charles succeeded to the territories that his grandparents had accumulated and brought the Habsburg territories in Europe to the expanding Spanish Empire. Dynastic union A dynastic union

2806-614: The state of being linked or chained together by contract or marriage, similar to a pair of oxen. This sense is also the source of the word yoga , as linking with the divine. The yoke is frequently used metaphorically in the Bible , first in Genesis regarding Esau . In the Ancient Greek play The Persians by Aeschylus (5th century BC) it also makes an appearance. The 1st century BC Roman poets Catullus and Horace also used

2867-466: The throne in January 1479. In September 1479, Portugal and the Catholic Monarchs of Aragon and Castile resolved major issues between them through the Treaty of Alcáçovas , including the issue of Isabella's rights to the crown of Castile. Through close cooperation, the royal couple were successful in securing political power in the Iberian peninsula. Ferdinand's father had advised the couple that "neither

2928-415: The throne of England, in 1501; he died at the age of 15 a few months later, and she married his younger brother shortly after he became King Henry VIII of England in 1509. These alliances were not all long-lasting, with their only son and heir-apparent John dying young; Catherine was divorced by Henry VIII; and Joanna's husband Philip dying young, with the widowed Joanna deemed mentally unfit to rule. Under

2989-490: The throne was secured. As Isabella's husband was king of Castile by his marriage and his father still ruled in Aragon, Ferdinand spent more time in Castile than Aragon at the beginning of their marriage. His pattern of residence in Castile persisted even when he succeeded to the throne in 1479, and the absenteeism caused problems for Aragon. These were remedied to an extent by the creation of the Council of Aragon in 1494, joining

3050-423: The throne. This dispute between rival claimants led to the War of 1475–79 . Isabella called on the aid of Aragon, with her husband, the heir apparent, and his father, Juan II of Aragon providing it. Although Aragon provided support for Isabella's cause, Isabella's supporters had extracted concessions, Isabella was acknowledged as the sole heir to the crown of Castile. Juan II died in 1479, and Ferdinand succeeded to

3111-555: The tradition in Aragon of Dominican inquisitors. Torquemada pursued aggressive policies toward converted Jews ( conversos ) and moriscos . The pope also granted the Catholic Monarchs the right of patronage over the ecclesiastical establishment in Granada and the Canary Islands, which meant the control of the state in religious affairs. The monarchs began a series of campaigns known as the Granada War (1482–92), which

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3172-480: The twelfth century by Pope Lucius III to fight heresy in the south of what is now France and was constituted in a number of European kingdoms. The Catholic Monarchs decided to introduce the Inquisition to Castile and requested the Pope's assent. On 1 November 1478, Pope Sixtus IV published the papal bull Exigit Sinceras Devotionis Affectus , by which the Inquisition was established in the Kingdom of Castile; it

3233-484: The union would have likely backed their succession as a chance to re-establish independence, leading to civil war. The Catholic Monarchs' daughter Joanna succeeded to the crown of Castile, but was deemed unfit to rule following the death of her husband Phillip the Fair, Ferdinand retained power in Castile as regent until his death, with Joanna confined. He died in 1516 and is buried alongside his first wife Isabella in Granada,

3294-618: Was aided by Pope Sixtus IV's granting the tithe revenue and implementing a crusade tax so that the monarchs could finance the war. After 10 years of fighting the Granada War ended in 1492 when Emir Boabdil surrendered the keys of the Alhambra Palace in Granada to the Castilian soldiers. With the fall of Granada in January 1492, Isabella and Ferdinand pursued further policies of religious unification of their realms, in particular

3355-641: Was authorised to sail west and claim lands for Spain. The monarchs accorded him the title of Admiral of the Ocean Sea and he was given broad privileges. His voyage west resulted in the European colonization of the Americas and brought the knowledge of its existence to Europe. Columbus' first expedition to the supposed Indies actually landed in the Bahamas on October 12, 1492. Since Queen Isabella had provided

3416-415: Was characterised by the religious unification of the peninsula through militant Catholicism. On receiving a petition for authority, Pope Sixtus IV issued a bull in 1478 to establish a Holy Office of the Inquisition in Castile. This was to ensure that Jews and Muslims who converted to Christianity did not revert to their previous faiths. The papal bull gave the sovereigns full powers to name inquisitors, but

3477-441: Was invaded by his cousins Alfonso VI of Castile and Sancho V Ramirez of Aragon , and the latter was made king in 1076, which led to more than half a century (1076–1134) of Aragonese control. Marriage of Count of Barcelona Raymond Berengar IV of Barcelona and future Queen of Aragon Petronila of Aragon in 1137 that formed the Crown of Aragon . Marriage of Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon in 1469 that laid

3538-409: Was later extended to all of Spain. The bull gave the monarchs exclusive authority to name the inquisitors. During the reign of the Catholic Monarchs and long afterwards the Inquisition was active in prosecuting people for violations of Catholic orthodoxy such as crypto-Judaism, heresy, Protestantism, blasphemy, and bigamy. The last trial for crypto-Judaism was held in 1818. In 1492 the monarchs issued

3599-453: Was powerful without the other". Though their marriage united the two kingdoms, leading to the beginnings of modern Spain, they ruled independently and their kingdoms retained part of their own regional laws and governments for the next centuries. The coat of arms of the Catholic Monarchs was designed by Antonio de Nebrija with elements to show their cooperation and working in tandem. The royal motto they shared, Tanto monta ("as much one as

3660-468: Was too thoroughly Aragonese to do anything of the sort with the equivalent systems in the Crown of Aragon. Even after his death and the union of the crowns under one monarch, the Aragonese, Catalan, and Valencian Corts (parliaments) retained significant power in their respective regions. Further, the monarchs continued ruling through a form of medieval contractualism, which made their rule pre-modern in

3721-567: Was traditional to force a vanquished enemy to pass beneath a symbolic yoke of spears or swords. The yoke may be a metaphor for something oppressive or burdensome, such as feudalism , imperialism , corvée , tribute , or conscription , as in the expressions the " Norman Yoke " (in England), the " Tatar Yoke " (in Russia), or the " Turkish Yoke " (in the Balkans). The metaphor can also refer to

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