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89-550: They are mentioned as Kaouárōn ( Καουάρων ) by Strabo (early 1st c. AD), Cavarum by Pliny (1st c. AD), Cavarum and Cavaras by Pomponius Mela (mid-1st c. AD), Kaúaroi ( Καύαροι ) by Ptolemy (2nd c. AD), and as Cavares on the Tabula Peutingeriana (5th c. AD).  The ethnonym Cavarī is a latinized form of Gaulish * Cauaroi ( sing. * Cauaros ), meaning "the heroes", or "the mighty men". It derives from

178-754: A Gallic people dwelling in a large territory between the Rhône river and the Alps during the Iron Age and the Roman period . The Allobroges came relatively late to Gaul compared to most other tribes of Gallia Narbonensis ; they first appear in historical records in connection with Hannibal's crossing of the Alps in 218 BC. Their territory was subsequently annexed to Rome in 121 BC by Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and Quintus Fabius Maximus Allobrogicus . An attempted revolt

267-689: A civil war and Caesar's assassination in March 44. Although the Helvetii thought that they could persuade the Allobroges to let them go through their territory in 58 BC because of their antipathy to Rome, the Gallic tribe, presumably led at that time by Adbucillus, remained loyal to Caesar during all the Gallic Wars (58–50 BC). The Roman general used Vienna in particular as a strategic outpost during

356-606: A Celtic-Germanic correspondence of the term. A mountain in the Mont Blanc massif is still called Pointe Allobrogia , which could be the remnant of an ancient territorial claim made by the Gallic people. The territory of the Allobroges, which is known as Allobrogia , stretched between the Isère and the Rhône rivers, the Lacus Lemannus (Lake Geneva) and the Alps . By the mid-1st century BC, they also possessed

445-623: A consequence of his time spent in Nysa with Aristodemus. At around the age of 21, Strabo moved to Rome, where he studied philosophy with the Peripatetic Xenarchus , a highly respected tutor in Augustus's court. Despite Xenarchus's Aristotelian leanings, Strabo later gives evidence to have formed his own Stoic inclinations. In Rome, he also learned grammar under the rich and famous scholar Tyrannion of Amisus . Although Tyrannion

534-507: A decentralized system of governance. Aimé Bocquet has proposed to identify those hypothetical tribal territories with five natural sub-regions: Chablais and Faucigny  [ fr ] , the Genevois , Savoie , Grésivaudan , and Isle-Crémieu  [ fr ] . During the Roman period, the Allobroges cultivated wheat and exported wine. Copper and silver deposits were numerous in

623-757: A descriptive history of people and places from different regions of the world known during his lifetime. Although the Geographica was rarely used by contemporary writers, a multitude of copies survived throughout the Byzantine Empire . It first appeared in Western Europe in Rome as a Latin translation issued around 1469. The first printed edition was published in 1516 in Venice . Isaac Casaubon , classical scholar and editor of Greek texts, provided

712-681: A hill-fort on the Rocher des Doms  [ fr ] , Avennio grew into a prosperous settlement during the Iron Age. By the end of the 3rd century BC, Avennio likely belonged to the Volcae , who controlled at that time both sides of the Rhône. Artemidorus (fl. 100 BC) described Cabellio and Avennio as Massaliote cities, which probably indicates that they came under Greek control after the Roman conquest of southeastern Gaul in 125–121 BC. Greek influence

801-748: A piece of land north of the Rhône river, between modern Lyon and Geneva , whose later status remains uncertain. During the Roman period, the civitas Viennensium covered an area of around 13,000 km , one of the largest in Gaul. The Allobroges lived east of the Segusiavi and the Vellavi , south of the Ambarri and Sequani , north of the Segovellauni , Vertamocorii , Vocontii , Tricorii , Ucennii , Graioceli and Ceutrones , and southwest of

890-491: A valuable source of information on the ancient world of his day, especially when this information is corroborated by other sources. He travelled extensively, as he says: "Westward I have journeyed to the parts of Etruria opposite Sardinia; towards the south from the Euxine [Black Sea] to the borders of Ethiopia; and perhaps not one of those who have written geographies has visited more places than I have between those limits." It

979-527: A very rocky mountain, called the Trojan mountain; beneath it there are caves, and near the caves and the river a village called Troy, an ancient settlement of the captive Trojans who had accompanied Menelaus and settled there. Strabo commented on volcanism ( effusive eruption ) which he observed at Katakekaumene (modern Kula , Western Turkey). Strabo's observations predated Pliny the Younger who witnessed

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1068-582: Is "... pro-Roman throughout the Geography. But while he acknowledges and even praises Roman ascendancy in the political and military sphere, he also makes a significant effort to establish Greek primacy over Rome in other contexts." In Europe , Strabo was the first to connect the Danube (which he called Danouios) and the Istros – with the change of names occurring at "the cataracts," the modern Iron Gates on

1157-533: Is a Latinized form of the Gaulish * Allobrogis ( sing. Allobrox ), which literally means 'those from another country' or 'those from the other frontier', that is to say the 'foreigners' or the 'exiled'. The personal names Allo-brogicus and Allo-broxus are related; they all stem from the Celtic root allo - ('other, second') attached to brogi- ('territory, region, march '). This may give further evidence of

1246-652: Is confirmed archaeologically by pottery, coins and bilingual inscriptions. The Cavari are not attested in historical sources before the Augustan period, and little is known about their early history. They may have originally belonged to the Allobrogian or Vocontian sphere of influence. Between 125 and 122 BC, the armies of the Roman Republic crossed the Alps and fought the Salluvii and Vocontii . After

1335-513: Is little record of his travels until AD 17. It is not known precisely when Strabo's Geography was written, though comments within the work itself place the finished version within the reign of Emperor Tiberius . Some place its first drafts around 7 BC, others around AD 17 or AD 18. The latest passage to which a date can be assigned is his reference to the death in AD ;23 of Juba II , king of Maurousia ( Mauretania ), who

1424-490: Is not known when he wrote Geographica , but he spent much time in the famous library in Alexandria taking notes from "the works of his predecessors". A first edition was published in 7 BC and a final edition no later than 23 AD, in what may have been the last year of Strabo's life. It took some time for Geographica to be recognized by scholars and to become a standard. Alexandria itself features extensively in

1513-431: Is proper,' he observes in continuation, ' to derive our explanations from things which are obvious, and in some measure of daily occurrences, such as deluges, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and sudden swellings of the land beneath the sea; for the last raise up the sea also, and when the same lands subside again, they occasion the sea to be let down. And it is not merely the small, but the large islands also, and not merely

1602-694: Is said to have died "just recently". He probably worked on the Geography for many years and revised it steadily, but not always consistently. It is an encyclopaedic chronicle and consists of political, economic, social, cultural, and geographic descriptions covering almost all of Europe and the Mediterranean: Britain and Ireland, the Iberian Peninsula, Gaul, Germania, the Alps, Italy, Greece, Northern Black Sea region, Anatolia, Middle East, Central Asia and North Africa. The Geography

1691-445: Is the only extant work providing information about both Greek and Roman peoples and countries during the reign of Augustus. On the presumption that "recently" means within a year, Strabo stopped writing that year or the next (AD 24), at which time he is thought to have died. He was influenced by Homer , Hecataeus and Aristotle . The first of Strabo's major works, Historical Sketches ( Historica hypomnemata ), written while he

1780-753: The Allobroges gave shelter to the Salluvian chiefs and raided the Aedui , a recent ally of Rome, the latter declared war against them. In 121 BC, the Roman forces defeated the Allobroges at the Battle of Vindalium , which took place near Vindalium, a Cavarian settlement probably corresponding to Mourre-de-Sève ( Sorgues ). In the aftermath of a decisive Gallic defeat at the Battle of the Isère River in August of

1869-604: The Celtic stem * kawaro- , meaning "hero, champion" (cf. Old Irish cuar "hero, champion, warrior", Middle Welsh cawr , Breton kaour "giant, champion"). The Cavari dwelled on the east bank of the Rhône river, between the Durance (Druentia) and the Tricastin . Their territory was located west of the Vocontii , Memini , Albici and Dexivates , south of the Segovellauni and Tricastini , east of

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1958-529: The Gallic Wars (58–50 BC) may suggest that they had friendly relations with Rome. At the time of Augustus (27 BC–14 AD), the Cavari were at the head of a confederation stretching between the Durance and the Isère river, and which included the Memini , Tricastini and Segovellauni . They were also in control of the area located around Avennio, on the eastern bank of the Rhône, which had previously belonged to

2047-624: The Helvetii and Veragri . Until its destruction by the Romans in 61 BC, the main settlement of the Allobroges was known as Solonion, possibly corresponding to the modern village of Salagnon , near Bourgoin-Jallieu , or else to Montmiral , near Saint-Marcellin . The site of Vienna (modern Vienne , France), situated at the confluence of the Gère and Rhône rivers, was occupied by the Celts since

2136-530: The Mithridatic Wars . As the war drew to a close, Strabo's grandfather had turned several Pontic fortresses over to the Romans. Strabo wrote that "great promises were made in exchange for these services", and as Persian culture endured in Amaseia even after Mithridates and Tigranes were defeated, scholars have speculated about how the family's support for Rome might have affected their position in

2225-637: The Roman Republic and, in particular, the power of the aristocratic Senate . Seeing an opportunity to enlist their help to the Catiline conspiracy , Lentulus sent the businessman Umbrenus persuade the Gallic envoys to invade Italy in support of Catiline. Although initially favourable to this overture, the Allobroges thought that their fate would be better if they take the Senate's side. They contacted their patron Q. Fabius Sanga , and Cicero convinced them to provide him with more evidence by feigning to join

2314-482: The Segovellauni , Brancus may actually be Segovellaunian. In his account, however, Livy specifically states that the two chieftains were Allobroges. From the 2nd century BC onward, a climate change known as the Roman Warm Period led to a reduction in migrations from Central and Northern Europe. As a result, the adoption rate of a sedentary lifestyle among the former roving tribes of the region, including

2403-467: The Volcae and Massalia . In the early 1st century AD, Greek geographer Strabo described them as mostly, though apparently recently, Romanized: ... the Cavari stretching along parallel to [the Volcae] on the opposite side of the river, the name of the Cavari prevails, and people are already calling by that name all the barbarians in that part of the country—no, they are no longer barbarians, but are, for

2492-769: The Volcae Arecomici , north of the Anatilii and Salyes . Some scholars have proposed that the actual boundary between the Salyes and Cavari was the marshy area north of St-Rémy rather than the Durance. Strabo mentioned that the lands from Cabellio ( Cavaillon ) up to the confluence of the Isère with the Rhône belonged to the Cavari, Pliny placed Valence in Cavarian territory, and Ptolemy located them immediately south of

2581-399: The Allobroges began to strengthen the border along the Rhône river, possibly fearing attacks coming from the other bank. Vercingetorix tried to bribe their leaders to fight on the side of the Gallic coalition against Caesar, but the Allobroges rejected the offer. Two sons of Adbucillus, Aegus and Roscillus , provided assistance to Caesar in all of his Gallic campaigns. He assigned to them

2670-427: The Allobroges, probably increased during the late 2nd and 1st century BC. Greek geographer Strabo later wrote in the early 1st century AD, "formerly the Allobroges kept up warfare with many myriads of men, whereas now they till the plains and the glens that are in the Alps." Between 125 and 122 BC, the Romans crossed the Alps and fought the Salluvii and Vocontii . During the conflict, the Allobroges gave shelter to

2759-571: The Allobrogian territory was divided and administered from the three main cities: Vienna, Geneva and Cularo (later renamed Gratianopolis). From the "Palace of Mirrors" baths at Saint-Romain-en-Gal comes a statue of Vienna's tutelary goddess. Aix-les-Bains was a major centre of the cult of the healing god Borvo . The cult of Cybele was introduced to Vienna by traders from the Ancient Orient . A prominent temple likely dedicated to

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2848-524: The Aristotelian Xenarchus and Tyrannion who preceded him in teaching Strabo, Athenodorus was a Stoic and almost certainly the source of Strabo's diversion from the philosophy of his former mentors. Moreover, from his own first-hand experience, Athenodorus provided Strabo with information about regions of the empire which Strabo would not otherwise have known about. Strabo is best known for his work Geographica ("Geography"), which presented

2937-461: The Carthaginian army, but, as it was, it was discovered, and though they inflicted a good deal of damage on Hannibal, they did as much injury to themselves ... In Livy 's version, the Gallic chieftain who provided assistance to Hannibal is named Brancus ('the claw', var. Braneus ). According to some scholars, since the 'Island' mentioned by ancient authors corresponds to the territory of

3026-561: The Euxine [Black Sea] was so great, that its bed must be gradually raised, while the rivers still continued to pour in an undiminished quantity of water. He therefore conceived that, originally, when the Euxine was an inland sea, its level had by this means become so much elevated that it burst its barrier near Byzantium, and formed a communication with the Propontis [Sea of Marmara], and this partial drainage had already, he supposed, converted

3115-567: The Rhodanus; the length of your journey from Druentia up to this place is seven hundred stadia. The pre-Roman hill-fort of the Cavari was probably situated on the Colline St-Eutrope  [ fr ] , a hill overlooking the modern town of Orange, Vaucluse . During the Roman era, their main settlement was known as Arausio (modern Orange ). It was founded as Colonia Julia Firma Secundanorum Arausio ca. 35 BC by Octavian for

3204-547: The Rhone and the Arar, at their confluence. Under Octavian , sometime between 40 and 27 BC, Vienna became known as Colonia Iulia Viennensium , then was made into a colonia Romana known as Colonia Iulia Augusta Florentia Vienna (or Viennensium) , either under Augustus (ca. 15 BC) or Caligula (ca. 40 AD). In 35 AD, the Allobrogian citizen Valerius Asiaticus became the first Gallic man to be elected as Roman consul . Vienna

3293-661: The Romanian/Serbian border. In India , a country he never visited, Strabo described small flying reptiles that were long with snake-like bodies and bat-like wings (this description matches the Indian flying lizard Draco dussumieri ), winged scorpions, and other mythical creatures along with those that were actually factual. Other historians, such as Herodotus , Aristotle , and Flavius Josephus , mentioned similar creatures. Charles Lyell , in his Principles of Geology , wrote of Strabo: He notices, amongst others,

3382-401: The Salluvian leaders, including their king Toutomotoulos , and refused to hand them over, which, added to the fact that the Allobroges had raided the Aedui , a recent ally of Rome, led the latter to declare war against them. They were defeated by the Romans forces of Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus at the Battle of Vindalium in 121 BC, which occurred in modern Mourre-de-Sève ( Sorgues ), at

3471-586: The Segovellauni, which indicates that they controlled, further north of their homeland, a strip of land along the Rhône up to the confluence of this river with the Isère. ... if you cross the river by ferry into the city of Caballio, the whole country next thereafter belongs to the Cavari, up to the confluence of the Isar with the Rhodanus; this is also approximately where the Cemmenus Mountain joins

3560-531: The conflict against the Gauls. After the failed migration of the Helvetii , who were repelled by the Romans towards their homeland, the Allobroges were asked by Caesar to provide them with wheat. In the autumn of 57, the legate Galba spent winter in the Allobrogian territory after an unsuccessful campaign in Vallis Poenina (modern Valais ). Following the Roman defeat at the Battle of Gergovia (52 BC),

3649-462: The confluence of the Rhône and Sorgue rivers in Cavarian territory. The Allobrogian cavalry reportedly feared the Roman war elephants , and Orosius writes that they lost 20,000 men while 3,000 of them were captured. In August of the same year, the Roman army, strengthened by the troops of Quintus Fabius Maximus , inflicted a decisive defeat on a massive combined force of Allobroges, Arveni and

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3738-429: The conspirators. The supporters of Catiline then revealed all their plan to the Gauls, who demanded sealed letters from some leading conspirators, which the Allobroges eventually leaked to Cicero. Faced with a series of legal defeats, the Allobroges decided to take the arms against Rome in 62 BC. Led by their chief Catugnatus , they managed to resist against the Roman armies during nearly two years. The new governor of

3827-449: The dominant tribe of Gallia Transalpina at that time, for Indutiomarus is presented as the "leader of the Allobroges and all the Gauls" by Cicero. According to scholar A. L. F. Rivet , they were probably feared as "the one tribe in Gaul that really could mount war against the Roman people". Later on, an Allobrogian insurrection was suppressed by Calpurnius Piso , who administered Gallia Narbonensis as proconsul until 65 BC. For this, he

3916-658: The early 4th century BC. It served as a small river port protected by two oppida , one on the Pipet hill, and one on the Sainte-Blandine hill, and perhaps surrounded by a wall. Although it remained a village until the 1st century BC, Vienna held a central position at a trading crossroad between northern Gaul, the Italian Peninsula and the Mediterranean Sea , before it was eventually outshined by

4005-586: The eruption of Mount Vesuvius on 24 August AD 79 in Pompeii : …There are no trees here, but only the vineyards where they produce the Katakekaumene wines which are by no means inferior from any of the wines famous for their quality. The soil is covered with ashes, and black in colour as if the mountainous and rocky country was made up of fires. Some assume that these ashes were the result of thunderbolts and subterranean explosions, and do not doubt that

4094-435: The explanation of Xanthus the Lydian, who said that the seas had once been more extensive, and that they had afterwards been partially dried up, as in his own time many lakes, rivers, and wells in Asia had failed during a season of drought. Treating this conjecture with merited disregard, Strabo passes on to the hypothesis of Strato , the natural philosopher, who had observed that the quantity of mud brought down by rivers into

4183-425: The expulsion of the settlers to the Allobrogian revolt of 62–62, and contend that Vienna was made into a colony only later at the time of Octavian. And to prevent [Lepidus and Lucius Plancus'] suspecting anything and consequently causing trouble, [the senators] ordered them to establish in a colony in Gallia Narbonensis the men who had once been driven by the Allobroges out of Vienna and afterwards established between

4272-448: The first critical edition in 1587. Although Strabo cited the classical Greek astronomers Eratosthenes and Hipparchus , acknowledging their astronomical and mathematical efforts covering geography, he claimed that a descriptive approach was more practical, such that his works were designed for statesmen who were more anthropologically than numerically concerned with the character of countries and regions. As such, Geographica provides

4361-403: The first part of the 3rd century BC, and who eventually settled between the Rhône and the Alps in search for new opportunities during the later decades of the century. In the mid-2nd century BC, the Greek historian Polybius first mentioned the Allobroges in his account of Hannibal's crossing of the Alps in 218 BC. The Allobroges of the plain helped the Carthaginian conqueror, whereas those of

4450-420: The goddess was built in the early 1st century AD, and a sacred theatre of Mysteries is dated to the 1st century AD. Outside of Vienna, however, evidence of the cult of Cybele, although not totally absent, are scattered and become rare when approaching the Alps. Allobrogia was geographically divided between the plains of the Dauphiné and the mountains of Savoy , which influenced the political organization of

4539-455: The heavy taxes imposed by Marcus Fonteius , the Roman governor of Gallia Transalpina . Already in 104 BC, the tribune Domitius Ahenobarbus , son of the Roman conqueror of the Allobroges, had accused Silanus of injustice ( iniurias ) against the Allobrogian chief Aegritomarus. Fonteius chose Cicero as his lawyer, and although the verdict of the trial remains unknown, the Roman governor was probably acquitted. The Allobroges appear to have been

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4628-401: The highest magistracies among their own people, and granted them both money and conquered territory in Gaul. Regrettably, Caesar records that these privileges caused the two brothers to become "carried away by a foolish native pride" and to "treat their men with contempt, cheating the cavalry of its pay and diverting all of the booty to themselves". Their own armies came to Caesar to complain, and

4717-503: The hot masses burst out from the ground as estimated by a logical reasoning. Such type of soil is very convenient for viniculture , just like the Katanasoil which is covered with ashes and where the best wines are still produced abundantly. Some writers concluded by looking at these places that there is a good reason for calling Dionysus by the name ("Phrygenes"). Allobrogian The Allobroges ( Gaulish : * Allobrogis , 'foreigner, exiled'; Ancient Greek : Ἀλλοβρίγων, Ἀλλόβριγες ) were

4806-474: The invasions of the Cimbri and Teutoni during the Cimbrian War in 107–102 BC. The Allobrogian territory – Vienna in particular as it was located in the middle of the Rhône Valley – represented the northern frontier that separated Rome from the ' barbarian ' world, and was thus exposed to the attacks of potentially hostile Gallic and Germanic tribes. In 69 BC, the Allobroges sent a delegation to Rome led by their chief Indutiomarus in order to protest against

4895-412: The islands, but the continents, which can be lifted up together with the sea; and both large and small tracts may subside, for habitations and cities, like Bure, Bizona, and many others, have been engulfed by earthquakes.' Strabo commented on fossil formation mentioning Nummulite (quoted from Celâl Şengör ): One extraordinary thing which I saw at the pyramids must not be omitted. Heaps of stones from

4984-464: The last book of Geographica , which describes it as a thriving port city with a highly developed local economy. Strabo notes the city's many beautiful public parks, and its network of streets wide enough for chariots and horsemen. "Two of these are exceeding broad, over a plethron in breadth, and cut one another at right angles ... All the buildings are connected one with another, and these also with what are beyond it." Lawrence Kim observes that Strabo

5073-448: The late 3rd century BC, in connection with Hannibal 's crossing of the Alps in 218 BC. According to some scholars, they may be identified with the Gaesatae , a group of mercenary warriors first mentioned a few years earlier in the region and who fought against the Roman Republic in the Battle of Telamon (225 BC). The Allobroges may thus be the descendants of mobile groups of Gallic mercenaries who were active across central Europe in

5162-474: The left side into marshy ground, and that, at last, the whole would be choked up with soil. So, it was argued, the Mediterranean had once opened a passage for itself by the Columns of Hercules into the Atlantic, and perhaps the abundance of sea-shells in Africa, near the Temple of Jupiter Ammon , might also be the deposit of some former inland sea, which had at length forced a passage and escaped. But Strabo rejects this theory as insufficient to account for all

5251-458: The legendary story of Typhon takes place in this region. Ksanthos adds that the king of this region was a man called Arimus. However, it is not reasonable to accept that the whole country was burned down at a time as a result of such an event rather than as a result of a fire bursting from underground whose source has now died out. Three pits are called "Physas" and separated by forty stadia from each other. Above these pits, there are hills formed by

5340-413: The local community, and whether they might have been granted Roman citizenship as a reward. Strabo's life was characterized by extensive travels. He journeyed to Egypt and Kush , as far west as coastal Tuscany and as far south as Ethiopia in addition to his travels in Asia Minor and the time he spent in Rome . Travel throughout the Mediterranean and Near East, especially for scholarly purposes,

5429-408: The master of rhetoric Aristodemus , who had formerly taught the sons of the Roman general who had taken over Pontus. Aristodemus was the head of two schools of rhetoric and grammar, one in Nysa and one in Rhodes . The school in Nysa possessed a distinct intellectual curiosity in Homeric literature and the interpretation of the ancient Greek epics. Strabo was an admirer of Homer 's poetry, perhaps as

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5518-421: The most part, transformed to the type of the Romans, both in their speech and in their modes of living, and some of them in their civic life as well. The Tarasque de Noves anthropophagous statue, displayed in the Musée Calvet in Avignon, is attributed to the Cavari. Strabo Strabo ( / ˈ s t r eɪ b oʊ / ; Greek : Στράβων Strábōn ; 64 or 63 BC – c.  24 AD )

5607-478: The mountains tried in vain to block his passage. ... [Hannibal] reached a place called the 'Island', a populous district producing abundance of corn and deriving its name from its situation; for the Rhone and Isère running along each side of it meet at its point ... On arriving there he found two brothers disputing the crown and posted over against each other with their armies, and on the elder one making overtures to him and begging him to assist in establishing him on

5696-460: The nearby Lugdunum during the reign of Augustus (27 BC–14 AD). Until that time, Vienna was indeed the only place in the region where the Rhône could be crossed by foot. Since its creation, the port had been maintaining trade relations with the Greek colony of Massalia , on the Mediterranean coast. After the destruction of Solonion by the Romans in 61 BC, the Allobrogian chieftains decided to move their place of residence to Vienna. Around 50 BC,

5785-401: The phenomena, and he proposes one of his own, the profoundness of which modern geologists are only beginning to appreciate. 'It is not,' he says, 'because the lands covered by seas were originally at different altitudes, that the waters have risen, or subsided, or receded from some parts and inundated others. But the reason is, that the same land is sometimes raised up and sometimes depressed, and

5874-400: The province, Gaius Pomptinus , sent his legate Manlius Lentinus to crush the revolt. In 61 BC, a battle was fought between the Gallic and Roman troops near the Segovellaunian settlement of Ventia, which was eventually taken by Lentinus. At the same time, the two other legates seized and partly destroyed the Allobrogian chief town, Solonion. The coming of Catugnatus' forces momentary saved

5963-417: The quarries lie in front of the pyramids. Among these are found pieces which in shape and size resemble lentils. Some contain substances like grains half peeled. These, it is said, are the remnants of the workmen's food converted into stone; which is not probable. For at home in our country (Amaseia), there is a long hill in a plain, which abounds with pebbles of a porous stone, resembling lentils. The pebbles of

6052-403: The region, as documented by Polybius for the time of Hannibal's Crossing of the Alps in 218 BC. Although this is not mentioned by the written sources, the Allobroges probably federated smaller peoples or ethnic unities of the area, as did the neighbouring Cavares and Vocontii . Polybius indeed writes that the plains of Allobrogia were ruled by "various chiefs", suggesting the existence of

6141-469: The relatively recent coming of the Allobroges in the region. Their name can indeed be contrasted with that of the Nitio-broges ('indigenous'), who lived further southwest on the middle Garonne river . The Gaulish * Allobrogis is cognate with the Welsh allfro ('foreigner, exiled') – both stemming from the Celtic compound * allo-mrogis –, and with the Germanic alja-markiz ('the foreigner'), found in an inscription from Karstad, which may indicate

6230-552: The remaining Salluvii at the Battle of the Isère River . The Allobrogian territory was subsequently annexed to Rome by Domitius Ahenobarbus and Fabius Maximus, the latter earning the cognomen Allobrogicus for this feat. Between 120 and 117, those new Roman lands were progressively pacified and incorporated into a Roman province known as Gallia Transalpina by Domitius Ahenobarbus. The Allobroges had to pay heavy taxes to Rome, although they were allowed to keep their administrative autonomy and territory. They likely suffered from

6319-419: The same year, the territory of the Cavari was integrated into the province of Gallia Transalpina some time between 120 and 117 BC. During the Cimbrian War , the Battle of Arausio took place near their hill-fort in October 105 BC. The Cavari seem to have not taken part in those conflicts, and the absence of their name from the records of the Roman victories during the First Transalpine War (125–121 BC) and

6408-401: The sea also is simultaneously raised and depressed so that it either overflows or returns into its own place again. We must, therefore, ascribe the cause to the ground, either to that ground which is under the sea, or to that which becomes flooded by it, but rather to that which lies beneath the sea, for this is more moveable, and, on account of its humidity, can be altered with great celerity. It

6497-453: The sea-shore and of rivers suggest somewhat of the same difficulty [respecting their origin]; some explanation may indeed be found in the motion [to which these are subject] in flowing waters, but the investigation of the above fact presents more difficulty. I have said elsewhere, that in sight of the pyramids, on the other side in Arabia, and near the stone quarries from which they are built, is

6586-511: The settlement possibly became a colonia Latina, leading to the immigration of settlers from the Italian Peninsula. According to most scholars, after their expulsion by the local Allobroges in March 44 BC during the political troubles that followed the assassination of Caesar , those Roman settlers moved further north, where Munatius Plancus founded for them the colony of Lugdunum the following year. Alternatively, some scholars date

6675-505: The stronghold, but further Roman troops led by Pomptinus surrounded and defeated the Gallic armies, putting an end to the rebellion. Their capital destroyed, the Allobrogian chieftains decided to move their place of residence to Vienna . Lucius Marius and Servius Galba crossed the Rhone and after ravaging the possessions of the Allobroges finally reached the city of Solonium and occupied a strong position commanding it. They conquered their opponents in battle and also set fire to portions of

6764-508: The throne, he consented, it being almost a matter of certainty that under present circumstances this would be of great service to him. Hannibal then expelled the other chieftain and was given new weapons, corn, warm clothing and footwear by his local ally. The latter protected him in the rear with him own forces through the territory of the Allobroges, until he reached the foot of the Alpine pass. ... For as long as they had been in flat country,

6853-441: The town, which was partly constructed of wood; they did not capture it, however, being prevented by the arrival of Catugnatus. Pomptinus, on learning of this, proceeded against the place with his entire army, besieged it, and got possession of the defenders, with the exception of Catugnatus. After that he more easily subjugated the remaining districts. The period saw the invasion of the remaining of Gaul by Julius Caesar , followed by

6942-418: The two brothers eventually defected to Pompey at Dyrrachium just before the Battle of Pharsalia (48 BC). Strabo reported in the early 1st century AD that all of the Allobroges lived in villages, "except that the most notable of them, inhabitants of Vienna (formerly a village, but called, nevertheless, the 'metropolis' of the tribe), have built it up into a city." At the time of the late Roman Empire,

7031-561: The various chiefs of the Allobroges had left them alone, being afraid both of the cavalry and of the barbarians who were escorting them. But when the latter had set off on their return home, and Hannibal's troops began to advance into the difficult region, the Allobrogian chieftains got together a considerable force and occupied advantageous positions on the road by which the Carthaginians would be obliged to ascend. Had they only kept their project secret, they would have utterly annihilated

7120-606: The veterans of Legio II Gallica , in the vicinity of their hill-fort. Arausio is best known today for two surviving Roman monuments: the Triumphal Arch of Orange , probably built in two phases under Augustus (27 BC–14 AD) and Tiberius (from 26 AD), and the Theatre of Orange , one of the best preserved Roman theatres, likely build at the time of the foundation of the colony. Other important settlements were located at Cabellio ( Cavaillon ) and Avennio ( Avignon ). Erected as

7209-453: The writings of other authors. Strabo was born to an affluent family from Amaseia in Pontus (in present-day Cappadocia ) in around 64   BC. His family had been involved in politics since at least the reign of Mithridates V . Strabo was related to Dorylaeus on his mother's side. Several other family members, including his paternal grandfather, had served Mithridates VI during

7298-566: Was a Greek geographer , philosopher , and historian who lived in Asia Minor during the transitional period of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire . He is best known for his work Geographica ("Geography"), which presented a descriptive history of people and places from different regions of the world known during his lifetime. Additionally, Strabo authored historical works, but only fragments and quotations of these survive in

7387-427: Was also a Peripatetic, he was more relevantly a respected authority on geography, a fact of some significance considering Strabo's future contributions to the field. The final noteworthy mentor to Strabo was Athenodorus Cananites , a philosopher who had spent his life since 44 BC in Rome forging relationships with the Roman elite. Athenodorus passed onto Strabo his philosophy, his knowledge and his contacts. Unlike

7476-436: Was also made into the capital of the Allobrogian civitas , and became one of the most powerful cities of Gaul during the first century AD. In the second half of the 3rd century, the city declined and shrank to its original urban core, although it remained an important settlement during the 4th century, serving as the occasional residence of the emperors Julian and Valentinian II . Genaua ('[river] mouth'; modern Genève )

7565-990: Was an oppidum erected on the hill of Saint-Pierre next to the Rhône, the Arve and the Lake Geneva, which allowed them to control the inland navigation on the Rhône. Located near the border of the Helvetii territory, Genaua was occupied from 130 BC at the latest. Another important Allobrogian settlement was located in Cularo ('field of squash', modern Grenoble ), first mentioned by Munatius Plancus in 43 BC and later renamed to Gratianopolis. Other oppida have been excavated at Musièges , Larina ( Hières-sur-Amby ), Saint-Saturnin ( Chambéry ), Les Étroits ( Saint-Lattier ), Quatre-Têtes ( Saint-Just-de-Claix ), and Rochefort ( Varces ). The Allobroges probably settled relatively late in Southern Gaul, for they are not attested before

7654-691: Was crushed by Gaius Pomptinus in 61 BC. However, they had rejected the second Catilinarian conspiracy in 63 BC. During the Gallic Wars , the Allobroges did not side with Vercingetorix at the Battle of Alesia in 52 BC. They are mentioned as A̓llobrígōn (Ἀλλοβρίγων) by Polybius (2nd c. BC) and Strabo (early 1st c. AD), Allobroges by Caesar (mid-1st c. BC) and Livy (late 1st c. BC), A̓llóbriges ( Ἀλλόβριγες), Allóbrigas (Ἀλλόβριγας) and Allobrígōn (Ἀλλοβρίγων) by Appian (2nd c. AD), A̓llóbriges (Ἀλλόβριγες; var. Ἀλλόβρυγες, Ἀλλόβρογες) by Ptolemy (2nd c. AD), and as Allobrogas by Orosius (early 5th c. AD). The ethnonym Allobroges

7743-734: Was in Rome ( c.  20 BC ), is nearly completely lost. Meant to cover the history of the known world from the conquest of Greece by the Romans, Strabo quotes it himself and other classical authors mention that it existed, although the only surviving document is a fragment of papyrus now in the possession of the University of Milan (renumbered [Papyrus] 46). Strabo studied under several prominent teachers of various specialities throughout his early life at different stops during his Mediterranean travels. The first chapter of his education took place in Nysa (modern Sultanhisar , Turkey) under

7832-570: Was popular during this era and was facilitated by the relative peace enjoyed throughout the reign of Augustus (27 BC – AD 14). He moved to Rome in 44 BC, and stayed there, studying and writing, until at least 31 BC. In 29 BC, on his way to Corinth (where Augustus was at the time), he visited the island of Gyaros in the Aegean Sea. Around 25 BC, he sailed up the Nile until he reached Philae , after which point there

7921-482: Was unsuccessfully prosecuted by Caesar , who had interest in the region. In 63 BC, while Cicero was serving as consul, they sent another delegation to Rome, hoping to seek relief from the oppression and rapacity of the governor Lucius Murena and Roman businessmen active in the region. Their demands rejected by the Roman Senate, they were approached by supporters of Catiline , a senator who attempted to overthrow

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