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104-486: Asia Middle East Europe North America South America Oceania The Cajuns ( / ˈ k eɪ dʒ ən z / ; French : les Cadjins [le kadʒɛ̃] or les Cadiens [le kadjɛ̃] ), also known as Louisiana Acadians (French: les Acadiens ), are a Louisiana French ethnicity mainly found in the US state of Louisiana and surrounding Gulf Coast states. While Cajuns are usually described as

208-461: A French-based creole at home. As of 2023, The Advocate roughly estimated that there were 120,000 French speakers in Louisiana, including about 20,000 Cajun French, but noted that their ability to provide an accurate assessment was very limited. These numbers were down from roughly a million speakers in the 1960s. Distribution of these speakers is uneven, however, with the majority residing in

312-459: A Catholic francophone identity, the Acadian descendants were indeed and often considered to be Creoles. Documents from the late eighteenth century, such as militia rolls, make a distinction between "Acadians" (those born before or during Le Grand Dérangement ) and "Creoles" (those born after Le Grand Dérangement ), often the children of the former group, with identical surnames and belonging to

416-418: A People , that: Cajun was used by Anglos to refer to all persons of French descent and low economic standing, regardless of their ethnic affiliation. Hence poor Creoles of the bayou and prairie regions came to be permanently identified as Cajun . The term Cajun thus became a socioeconomic classification for the multicultural amalgam of several culturally and linguistically distinct groups. Cajans inhabited

520-509: A corporation such as religious order, a monastery, a parish. In English, seigneur is used in historical scholarship to discuss the French seigneurial system. It is also frequently calqued as " lord ", the analogous term in the English feudal system. The term grand seigneur has survived in English and French. Today this usually means an elegant, urbane gentleman . Some even use it in

624-456: A distinct French-based creole language indigenous to Louisiana and spoken across racial lines. In Louisiana, language labels are often conflated with ethnic labels, and Cajun-identified speakers might therefore call their language "Cajun French" even when linguists would identify it as Louisiana Creole . Likewise, many Creoles of various backgrounds (including Cajuns) do not speak Louisiana Creole but rather Louisiana French. Parishes in which

728-648: A humane and charitable race—simple-minded and full of queer, superstitious notions, but an orphan thrown upon their care never suffers." The Mouton family, an influential Acadian family of the period, provides an excellent case study in this regard, with secessionist Alexandre Mouton retaining the famous nickname of "the Creole Hotspur." His son, the Confederate General Alfred Mouton , is also noted in contemporary sources as "a brave and intrepid Creole". Today, by contrast, members of

832-486: A multimedia platform; Charrer-Veiller, a podcast (defunct as of 2022); LaCréole, another podcast; and Le Bourdon de la Louisiane , a web gazette. Poetry remains the most popular medium of literary expression, with poets such as Kirby Jambon and Ashlee Michot receiving international attention. As with other cases of language revitalization (such as Irish ), young Louisianians may speak a more standardized French than their forebears, having learned French both at school and via

936-399: A provision that was extended in the 1898 and 1913 constitutions to include secondary schools. In 1921, the new Louisiana constitution reversed the previous language rights and banned the teaching of French in all public schools. The constitution established English as the official language of Louisiana, which pushed French out of New Orleans to its current location in southwestern parts of

1040-518: A reasonable amount of schooling. However, the hardships after being exiled from Nova Scotia , along with the difficult process of resettlement in Louisiana and the ensuing poverty made it difficult to establish schools in the early stages of the community's development. Eventually schools were established, as private academies whose faculty had recently arrived in Louisiana from France or who had been educated in France. Children were usually able to attend

1144-853: A region of Alabama called the Cajan Country , which was all of the bayou country surrounding Mobile. To the north, the Cajan Country reached the hills of Mount Vernon and Citronelle , and to the east, it reached through the bayous and forests around Daphne to the Perdido River . Cajans were of varying racial mixtures; during the segregation era , some Cajans under Alabama's new racial laws were considered black, others were considered white, and others yet designated as Indians. Cajans were discriminated against due to their racial ambiguity, and many did not have access to public schools. Cajans tended to stay among their own communities. After

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1248-413: A relatively isolated region until the early 20th century, Cajuns today are largely assimilated into the mainstream society and culture. Some Cajuns live in communities outside Louisiana. Also, some people identify themselves as Cajun culturally despite lacking Acadian ancestry. In the modern era it is common to see Cajuns and Creoles discussed as separate and distinct groups; historically speaking, this

1352-560: A rich culture including folkways , music , and cuisine . Acadiana is heavily associated with them. The term "Cajun" comes from a rural pronunciation of Acadien (Acadian). The first usage of the term "Cajun" came about during the American Civil War , during the Union 's invasion of French Louisiana . After conquering Vermilionville , the capital of Nouvelle Acadie (New Acadia) in 1863, Lieutenant George C. Harding of

1456-581: A rule the French language, Creoles, and all using the English tongue, Americans." In his Refutation des érreurs de M. George W. Cable sur le sujet des Créoles , published in L' Athénée Louisianais , the francophone Creole John L. Peytavin accused the writer George Washington Cable of fundamentally misrepresenting Creoles to the American public. (Cable, who was not a Creole and did not speak French, had written that Cajuns of Acadian descent were not themselves Creoles.) Peytavin declared: "The Acadian Creoles have

1560-422: A seigneur is a seigneurie or lordship , the rights that the seigneur was entitled to is called seigneuriage , and the jurisdiction exercised over the fief was seigneur justicier . The bearers of these titles, rights, and jurisdiction were generally but not exclusively male. A female seigneur was generally known as a seigneuresse or lady. The seigneur could be a noble or a roturier (commoner) as well as

1664-547: A stricter sense to refer to a man whose manners and way of life reflect his noble ancestry and great wealth. In addition, Le Grand Seigneur had long been the name given by the French to the Ottoman sultan . Notre Seigneur Jésus-Christ is the French equivalent of the English Our Lord Jesus Christ . The English word seignorage is also derived from seigneur . The title is still used in

1768-498: A subset of Creoles (synonymous for "Louisianais", which is a demonym for French Louisianians ). Cajuns make up a significant portion of south Louisiana's population and have had an enormous impact on the state's culture. While Lower Louisiana had been settled by French colonists since the late 17th century, many Cajuns trace their roots to the influx of Acadian settlers after the Great Expulsion from their homeland during

1872-402: Is a misconception that no one in Louisiana spoke or wrote Standard French. The resemblance that Louisiana French bears to Standard French varies depending on the dialect and register, with formal and urban variants in Louisiana more closely resembling Standard French. The United States Census ' 2007 American Community Survey estimated that 3.5% of Louisianans over the age of 5 spoke French or

1976-449: Is alive and well. He is "up front" and "main stream." He is not asking for any special treatment. By affording coverage under the "national origin" clause of Title VII he is afforded no special privilege. He is given only the same protection as those with English , Spanish , French , Iranian , Czechoslovakian , Portuguese , Polish , Mexican , Italian , Irish , et al., ancestors. The British conquest of Acadia happened in 1710. Over

2080-426: Is better viewed as geographic rather than ethnic. Residents of Acadiana —a historically isolated and rural region—do not typically make gumbo with tomatoes, regardless of ancestry or self-proclaimed identity, whereas urban New Orleanians do. Technically, "Cajun" cuisine should properly fit under the umbrella of "Creole" cuisine, much like "Cajuns" themselves traditionally fit under the "Creole" umbrella. In contrast to

2184-409: Is chosen by some authors since it more closely approximates speakers' pronunciation. Also, use of the pronoun ils has supplanted the third-person feminine pronoun elles as it is used to refer to both masculine and feminine subjects. Similarly, all of the other third-person plural pronouns are neutral. The usage of -autres with plural pronouns is widespread in the language. In order to demonstrate

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2288-480: Is most closely related to those of Missouri ( Upper Louisiana French ), New England , Canada and northwestern France. Historically, most works of media and literature produced in Louisiana—such as Les Cenelles , a poetry anthology compiled by a group of gens de couleur libres , and Creole -authored novels such as L'Habitation St-Ybars or Pouponne et Balthazar —were written in standard French. It

2392-438: Is not merely a symbolic one. According to statistics gathered by CODOFIL, the past twenty years has seen widespread acceptance of French-immersion programs. He goes further to write that the official recognition, appreciation by parents, and inclusion of French in schools reflects growing regard of the language. Ultimately the survival of French in Louisiana can only be guaranteed by Louisianan parents and politicians, but that there

2496-468: Is now a trend to use French-language websites to learn the dialect. Culinary words and terms of endearment such as "cher" [ʃæ] (dear) and "nonc" (uncle) are still heard among otherwise English-speaking Louisianians . An article written online by the Université Laval argues that the state of Louisiana's shift, from an anti-French stance to one of soft promotion has been of great importance to

2600-545: Is now taught in schools, the local dialect is now at risk of extinction as children are no longer taught it. As of 2007 , there were questions whether the Louisiana French language would survive into another generation. Some residents of Acadiana are bilingual though, having learned French at home and English in school. Currently, Louisiana French is considered an endangered language . The war compelled many Cajun people to leave their home state of Louisiana for

2704-444: Is primarily used in the state of Louisiana , specifically in its southern parishes . Over the centuries, the language has incorporated some words of African , Spanish , Native American and English origin, sometimes giving it linguistic features found only in Louisiana. Louisiana French differs to varying extents from French dialects spoken in other regions, but Louisiana French is mutually intelligible with other dialects and

2808-403: Is rarely used 2. nous is only present in formal language 3. eusse/euse is confined to the southeastern parishes of Louisiana Immediately some distinct characteristics of Louisiana French can be gleaned from its personal pronouns. For example, the traditional third-person singular feminine pronoun elle of Standard French is present but also there is the alternative of alle which

2912-505: Is still hope. Similarly, the state legislature passed the Louisiana French Language Services Act in 2011 with particular mention to cultural tourism, local culture, and heritage. The bill sets forth that each branch of the state government shall take necessary action to identify employees who are proficient in French. Each branch of the state government is to take necessary steps in producing services in

3016-461: Is typical for many language contact situations. Code-switching was once viewed as a sign of poor education, but it is now understood to be an indication of proficiency in the two different languages that a speaker uses. Fluent Louisiana French speakers frequently alternate between French, English, and Creole, but less proficient speakers usually do not. From a lexical perspective, Louisiana French differs little from other varieties of French spoken in

3120-551: Is used with such locations. This trend seems to vary by region since in Pierre Part and Lafayette elderly francophones have often been heard to say la Californie, le Texas, la Floride . In informal Louisiana French, most US states and countries are pronounced as in English and therefore require no article but in formal Louisiana French, prefixed articles are absent: Californie, Texas, Floride, Belgique, Liban , etc. Code-switching occurs frequently in Louisiana French but this

3224-516: The 21st Indiana Infantry used the term "Cajun" to describe the region's inhabitants: I will try and tell what a Cajun is. He is a half-savage creature, of mixed French and Indian blood, lives in swamps and subsists by cultivating small patches of corn and sweet potatoes. The wants of the Cajun are few, and his habits are simple... I can not say that we were abused by the Cajuns. A correspondent for

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3328-756: The Channel Islands , self-governing territories in the English Channel which swear fealty to the British Crown as the successor to the Duke of Normandy . In particular, it refers to the Seigneur of Sark , the hereditary ruler of Sark , a jurisdiction of the Bailiwick of Guernsey . The Seigneur of Saint Ouen and the Seigneur of Samarès are titles in the Bailiwick of Jersey . According to

3432-655: The Daughters of the American Revolution was formed in memory of those soldiers. The Spanish colonial government settled the earliest group of Acadian exiles west of New Orleans, in what is now south-central Louisiana—an area known at the time as Attakapas, and later the center of the Acadiana region. As Brasseaux wrote, "The oldest of the pioneer communities ... Fausse Point, was established near present-day Loreauville by late June 1765." The Acadians shared

3536-666: The French colonial empire namely Canada , France , and the French West Indies . Eventually, with the consistent relations built between the Native American tribes and francophones, new vocabulary was adopted into the colonial language. For example, something of a "French-Choctaw patois" is said to have developed primarily among Louisiana's Afro-French population and métis Creoles with a large portion of its vocabulary said to be of Native American origin. Prior to

3640-589: The Great Upheaval or Le Grand Dérangement . The Acadians' migration from Canada was spurred by the 1763 Treaty of Paris which ended the war. The treaty terms provided 18 months for unrestrained emigration. Many Acadians moved to the region of the Atakapa in present-day Louisiana, often travelling via the French colony of Saint-Domingue (now Haiti ). Joseph Broussard led the first group of 200 Acadians to arrive in Louisiana on February 27, 1765, aboard

3744-560: The New York Herald reported: "Our forces captured some prisoners. Many deserters and refugees came within our lines. The rebel deserters are principally French Creoles , or Arcadians ..." War correspondent Theophilus Noel reported for his newspaper: "You must not use the word Cagin , implying thereby that there is any nigger blood in the party to whom you are talking." After the Civil War, urban Creoles began referring to

3848-648: The Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie . Since Louisiana joined the Francophonie, new organizations have launched to help revitalize Louisiana French, including the Nous Foundation. Grassroots initiatives remain popular among francophone subsections of Louisianian society, often organized through online platforms such as Facebook. French-language initiatives founded in the late 2010s and early 2020s include Télé-Louisiane,

3952-456: The Sale of Louisiana , the term "Creole" distinguished people of Catholic, Latin backgrounds from newly arrived Americans and other Protestant anglophones. In general, Créolité in Louisiana was largely defined by whether that person was born in Louisiana, spoke a Latin-based language (often French, Spanish or Creole ) and practiced Catholicism. Having been born on Louisianian soil and maintaining

4056-686: The Santo Domingo . On April 8, 1765, he was appointed militia captain and commander of the "Acadians of the Atakapas" region in St. Martinville . Some of the settlers wrote to their family scattered around the Atlantic to encourage them to join them at New Orleans. For example, Jean-Baptiste Semer wrote to his father in France: My dear father ... you can come here boldly with my dear mother and all

4160-519: The peasant class ( petits habitants ) as "Cajuns". Cajuns inhabited the "Cajun Countries" of Alabama , Mississippi , and Louisiana . At the same time, "Creole" increasingly referred to Creoles of the middle class ( bourgeoisie ) or aristocratic class ( grands habitants ), and served as a designation for inhabitants of the "Creole Cities": Mobile, Alabama and New Orleans, Louisiana . Carl Brasseaux notes in Acadian to Cajun, Transformation of

4264-459: The 1845 and 1852 constitutions required all laws to be written in both English and French. The 1864 Louisiana constitution abandoned the dual language requirement and directed public instruction to be conducted in English, although Article 128 prohibited the state from barring French speakers from public office. The post-Civil War constitution of 1868 further stated that "no laws shall require judicial process to be issued in any [language] other than

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4368-686: The 1990s, various signage, packaging, and documentation in French became present throughout the state. State and local tourism bureau commissions were influential in convincing city, parish and state officials to produce bilingual signage and documentation. French and English bilingual signage is, therefore, usually confined to the old districts of cities, like the French Quarter in New Orleans , downtown Lafayette and New Iberia (trilingual with Spanish), St. Martinville , Breaux Bridge , as well as several other cities. Locals continue to refer to

4472-415: The 19th century until the start of the American Civil War , bringing large numbers of francophones speaking something more similar to today's Metropolitan French. Over time, through contact between different ethnic groups, the various dialects converged to produce what we know as Louisiana French. The 1845 Louisiana constitution permitted any legislator to address the body in either English or French, and

4576-505: The 20th century, and also resulted in the practice of punishing Cajun students for speaking French at school. Marilyn J. Conwell of Pennsylvania State University conducted a study of Louisiana French in 1959 and published in 1963 the book Louisiana French Grammar , which has been regarded as "probably the first complete study of a Louisiana French dialect". Conwell focused on the French spoken in Lafayette, Louisiana , and evaluated what

4680-583: The Americanization of Acadiana between the 1950s and 1970s, the term "Cajun" became synonymous with "white French Louisianian", due in part to CODOFIL's decision to promote Louisiana's link to Acadia in the "Cajun Renaissance". It is common to see various demographic differences assigned to the Cajun/Creole binary. A typical example is cuisine: Many claim that "Cajun" gumbo does not include tomatoes whereas "Creole" gumbo does, but this distinction

4784-474: The Black Cajun Frenchman." People of Acadiana have historically described what the Cajun nationality means to them; Brandon Moreau, a Cajun of Basile, Louisiana , described Cajun as an "inclusive term designating region, descent, or heritage – not race." Moreau also described an incident of where he used the term coonass with a good friend of his: "We were all talking in the hall, and I said I

4888-637: The British sought to neutralize the Acadian military threat and to interrupt their vital supply lines to Louisbourg by deporting Acadians from Acadia. The territory of Acadia was afterward divided and apportioned to various British colonies, now Canadian provinces: Nova Scotia , New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island , the Gaspe Peninsula in the province of Quebec . The deportation of the Acadians from these areas beginning in 1755 has become known as

4992-558: The Cajuns in the first place. Non-Acadian French Creoles in rural areas were absorbed into Cajun communities. Some Cajun parishes, such as Evangeline and Avoyelles , possess relatively few inhabitants of actual Acadian origin. Their populations descend in many cases from settlers who migrated to the region from Quebec , Mobile , or directly from France ( French emigration ). Regardless, Acadian influences are generally acknowledged to have prevailed in most sections of south Louisiana. Many Cajuns have ancestors who were not French. Some of

5096-450: The Cajuns participated in promoted feelings of national unity, and drew the Cajuns closer to Mainstream America. During this time period, emphasis on the 'American way of life' had a massive impact on Cajun children: census data shows that the use of Cajun French as a first language dropped 17 percent for Cajuns born during US involvement in WW2, the single largest decrease since the beginning of

5200-532: The Development of French in Louisiana (CODOFIL) was established in 1968 to promote the preservation of French language and culture in Louisiana. The Louisiana state legislature has greatly shifted its stance on the status of French. Since the passage of Legislative Act No. 409 in 1968, the Louisiana governor is granted the authorization "to establish the Council for the Development of Louisiana-French" and that

5304-632: The English language". However, French was still the most spoken language in many parishes of Louisiana, and the constitution of 1879 adjusted the previous restrictions to require that laws "be promulgated and preserved in the English language; but the General Assembly may provide for the publication of the laws in the French Language, and prescribe that judicial advertisements in certain designated cities and parishes…be made in that language." It also allowed primary school to teach in French,

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5408-860: The Feudal Dues Law of 1980 of Guernsey, the style of Dame or Seigneur is legally authorized for use by Seigneurs and Dames of Fiefs of the Crown Dependency of Guernsey. Guernsey or the Bailiwick of Guernsey is one of the Channel Islands that is a Crown Dependency . Guernsey still has feudal law and legal fiefs in existence today. Each fief has a Seigneur and/or Dame that owns the fief. The Guernsey fiefs and seigneurs have long existed before baronies and are part of Normandy . While nobility has been outlawed in France and Germany, noble fiefs still exist by law in Guernsey. The owners of

5512-431: The French and British hostilities prior to the French and Indian War (1756 to 1763). The Acadia region to which many modern Cajuns trace their origin consisted largely of what are now Nova Scotia , New Brunswick , Prince Edward Island plus parts of eastern Quebec and northern Maine . Since their establishment in Louisiana, the Cajuns have become famous for their French dialect, Louisiana French , and have developed

5616-415: The French language for both locals and visitors. This bill is, however, an unfunded state mandate. The legislative act was drafted and presented by francophone and francophile senators and representatives as it asserts that the French language is vital to the economy of the state. In October 2018, through an initiative launched by Scott Tilton and Rudy Bazenet, Louisiana became the first U.S. state to join

5720-459: The Louisiana militia made up of 600 Acadian volunteers and captured the British strongholds of Fort Bute at Bayou Manchac , across from the Acadian settlement at St. Gabriel. On September 7, 1779, Galvez attacked Fort Bute and then on September 21, 1779, attacked and captured Baton Rouge . A review of participating soldiers shows many common Acadian names among those who fought in the battles of Baton Rouge and West Florida. The Galvez Chapter of

5824-528: The Mouton family are referred to as "Acadians" or "Cajuns" more often than as "Creoles". In 1885, the New Iberia Enterprise (taken from a section of advice for American editors) wrote: "Although all men born here, of whatever color and using whatever language, are Americans, it is the custom to designate the descendants of the old French, Spanish, and Acadian settlers of the country and using as

5928-530: The US government as a national ethnic group in 1980 per a discrimination lawsuit filed in federal district court. Presided over by Judge Edwin Hunter, the case, known as Roach v. Dresser Industries Valve and Instrument Division (494 F.Supp. 215, D.C. La., 1980), hinged on the issue of the Cajuns' ethnicity: We conclude that plaintiff is protected by Title VII's ban on national origin discrimination. The Louisiana Acadian

6032-517: The agency is to consist of no more than fifty members, including a chairman. The name was soon changed to CODOFIL and was granted the power to "do anything possible and necessary to encourage the development, usage and preservation of French as it exists in Louisiana". In 1984, Jules O. Daigle, a Roman Catholic priest , published A Dictionary of the Cajun Language the first dictionary devoted to "Cajun French". Once considered an authority on

6136-818: The annual cross- Pacific Galleon or Manila Galleon trade with neighboring Acapulco, Mexico ; descendants of African slaves; and some Cuban Americans have also settled along the Gulf Coast , and in some cases, intermarried into Cajun families. One obvious result of this cultural mixture is the variety of surnames common among the Cajun population. Surnames of the original Acadian settlers (which are documented) have been augmented by French and non-French family names that have become part of Cajun communities. The spelling of many family names has changed over time. (See, for example, Eaux ) . Cajuns as an ethnic group historically included Indians and Blacks. Black Louisiana Frenchmen have historically self-identified as Cajun, using

6240-441: The chicken's neck. And on Sunday, well, Sunday, that was our best day for eating well. My mother would freeze some chicken and we would have some poutine of croquettes. Seigneur The English seigneur is borrowed from the French seigneur , which descends from Middle French seigneur , from Old French seignor (oblique form of sire ), from Latin seniōrem , the accusative singular of senior ("elder"),

6344-489: The colonial era to the early twentieth century, it would be unusual to see de le used in place of du , or de les in place of des. Place names in Louisiana French may differ from those in Standard French. For instance, locales named for American Indian tribes usually use the plural article les instead of the masculine or feminine singular articles le or la . Likewise, the contraction aux ( à and les )

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6448-408: The colony to Spain in 1762 , prior to their defeat by Britain and two years before the first Acadians began settling in Louisiana. The interim French officials provided land and supplies to the new settlers. The Spanish governor , Bernardo de Gálvez , later proved to be hospitable, permitting the Acadians to continue to speak their language, practice their native religion ( Roman Catholicism – which

6552-468: The comparative form of senex ("old, elderly"). It is a doublet of the English words senior , sir , sire , seignior, sieur , and monsieur and shares the same provenance as the Italian signore , Portuguese senhor , and Spanish señor , which—like mister —referred to feudal lords before becoming general words of respectful address towards men. The noble title and land title of

6656-504: The decay that Louisiana French experienced in the 20th century since, in turn, people who could not speak English were perceived as uneducated. Therefore, parents became hesitant to teach French to their children, hoping that the children would have a better life in an English-speaking nation. As of 2011, there were an estimated 150,000 to 200,000 people in Louisiana who spoke French. By comparison, there were an estimated one million native French-speakers in Louisiana in about 1968. While French

6760-440: The descendants of the Acadian exiles who went to Louisiana over the course of Le Grand Dérangement , Louisianians frequently use Cajun as a broad cultural term (particularly when referencing Acadiana ) without necessitating race or descent from the deported Acadians. Although the terms Cajun and Creole today are often portrayed as separate identities, Louisianians of Acadian descent have historically been known as, and are,

6864-573: The dialect is still found include Acadia , Allen , Ascension , Assumption , Avoyelles , Cameron , Evangeline , Iberia , Jefferson Davis , Lafayette , Lafourche , St. Landry , St. Martin , St. Mary , Terrebonne , Pointe Coupée , Vermilion , and other parishes of southern Louisiana. Starting in the second half of the 17th century, several trading posts were established in Lower Louisiana ( French : Basse-Louisiane ) eventually giving way to greater French colonial aspirations with

6968-551: The family began conversing in "French and Choctaw." Additional witness to this variety of French comes from J.F.H. Claiborne, a cousin of Louisiana's first American governor, who also noted the "unusual patois of provincial French and Choctaw." Starting in 1755, large populations of the French-speaking Acadians began to arrive en masse along the Mississippi River as well as eventually arriving all

7072-511: The first time and serve in the military. Cajun GIs most of whom could neither speak nor understand English encountered solely English-speaking Americans, but learned it in order to serve and survive in the military. Back on the home front, many Cajun civilians united with other Anglo-Americans to support the war effort by volunteering as air raid wardens, plane spotters, firefighters, auxiliary policemen, nursing aides, as well as participating in bond, stamp, and scrap drives. These activities which

7176-500: The form identical to Standard French and the use of -ont in for all verbs. The elision that is common in many aspects of French is accelerated in Louisiana French with the schwa in je often omitted regardless of the presence of a following vowel as well as the regular use of t'es (tu es) and t'as (tu as) as opposed to such avoidance in Standard French. The present progressive tense of Louisiana French initially appears alien as compared to Standard French but après/apé possesses

7280-663: The government required all schools, public and parochial , to teach in English, new teachers, who could not speak French, were hired. Children could not understand their teachers and generally ignored them by continuing to speak French. Eventually, children were subjected to corporal punishment for speaking French on school grounds. The punishment system (which was not dissimilar to the manner in which children attempting to speak both immigrant and indigenous languages other than English were dealt with in schools elsewhere in North America) seems to have been responsible for much of

7384-405: The greater community. Among such youths, the influence of vernacular Louisiana French on their speech patterns varies from speaker to speaker, depending on such factors as ethnic background, socioeconomic class, exposure to francophones of the elder generation, educational level, political beliefs and personal preference. Given increased levels of education in Standard French and greater exposure to

7488-504: The international francophonie , it is likely Louisiana French will continue to evolve in this manner, with some traditionally Louisianian words and linguistic features being retained while others slowly fade. Reliable counts of speakers of Louisiana French are difficult to obtain as distinct from other varieties of French. However, the vast majority of native residents of Louisiana and east and southeast Texas who speak French are likely speakers of Louisiana French. In Louisiana, as of 2010 ,

7592-456: The language would begin to diverge due to the various influences of neighboring languages, changing francophone demographics, and unstable opportunities for education. Furthermore, Louisiana French lacks any official regulating body unlike the Académie française or Office québécois de la langue française to take part in standardizing the language. 1. the formal second-person singular form

7696-482: The language, it is however not exhaustive; it omits alternate spellings and synonyms that Father Daigle deemed "perversions" of the language but are nonetheless popular among so-called Louisiana French speakers and writers. Though remaining useful today, Daigle's dictionary has been superseded by the Dictionary of Louisiana French (2010), edited by Albert Valdman and other authorities on the language. Beginning in

7800-576: The late arrival of the Acadian people in Louisiana, the French of Louisiana had already begun to undergo changes as noted by Captain Jean-Bernard Bossu who traveled with and witnessed Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne speaking this "common language." This unusual blend of French was also noticed by Pierre-Clement de Laussat during a lunch visit with the Creole-French Canterelle family. Upon the arrival of their Houma relatives,

7904-648: The mere 1,922 today. Likewise, in Harris County the French-speaking population has shifted from 26,796 to 14,493 individuals. Louisiana French-speaking populations can also be found in southern Mississippi and Alabama, as well as pockets in other parts of the United States. Despite ample time for Louisiana French to diverge, the basic grammatical core of the language remains similar or the same as Standard French. Even so, it can be expected that

8008-564: The next 45 years, the Acadians refused to sign an unconditional oath of allegiance to the Crown . During this period, Acadians participated in various military operations against the British and maintained vital supply lines to the French fortress of Louisbourg and Fort Beausejour . During the French and Indian War (part of the Seven Years' War and known by that name in Canada and Europe),

8112-511: The nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, today's Cajuns and Creoles are often presented as distinct groups, and some Cajuns disavow a Creole identity whereas others embrace it. Surnames and geographic location are not necessarily markers of either identity. The Cajuns retain a unique dialect of the French language called Louisiana French (or more commonly known as Cajun French), and hold numerous other cultural traits that distinguish them as an ethnic group. Cajuns were officially recognized by

8216-418: The only political stance the state of Louisiana makes is that of noninterference. All of this culminates in the fact that outside the extremely southern portions of the state, French remains a secondary language that retains heavy cultural and identity values. According to Jacques Henry, former executive director of CODOFIL, much progress has been made for francophones and that the future of French in Louisiana

8320-710: The original settlers in Louisiana were Spanish Basques and Spanish Canary Islanders . A later migration included Irish and German immigrants who began to settle in Louisiana before and after the Louisiana Purchase , particularly on the German Coast along the Mississippi River north of New Orleans . People of Latin American origin; a number of early Filipino settlers (notably in Saint Malo, Louisiana ) who were known as " Manilamen " from

8424-484: The other Acadian families. They will always be better off than in France. There are neither duties nor taxes to pay and the more one works, the more one earns without doing harm to anyone. The Acadians were scattered throughout the eastern seaboard. Families were split and boarded ships with different destinations. Many ended up west of the Mississippi River in what was then French-colonized Louisiana, including territory as far north as Dakota territory . France had ceded

8528-446: The place names in English and for postal services, English is generally preferred. To meet the demands of a growing francophone tourist market, tourism bureaus and commissions throughout the state, particularly in southern Louisiana, have information on tourist sites in both French and English as well as in other major languages spoken by tourists. Many young adults are learning enough French to understand French music lyrics. Also, there

8632-664: The population of French speakers was approximately 115,183. These populations were concentrated most heavily in the southern, coastal parishes. In Texas, as of 2010 , the French-speaking population was 55,773, though many of these were likely to be immigrants from France or other French-speaking countries who moved to cities and suburbs all over the state. Nevertheless, in the rural eastern-southeastern Texas counties of Orange , Jefferson , Chambers , Newton , Jasper , Tyler , Liberty , and Hardin alone—areas where it can be reasonably presumed that almost all French speakers are Louisiana French speakers—the total French-speaking population

8736-519: The relatively small influence Acadian French has had on the region, the label Louisiana French or Louisiana Regional French ( French : français régional louisianais ) is generally regarded as more accurate and inclusive than "Cajun French" and is the preferred term by linguists and anthropologists . However, "Cajun French" is commonly used in lay discourse by speakers of the language and other inhabitants of Louisiana. Louisiana French should further not be confused with Louisiana Creole ,

8840-452: The same families. Today, members of these families—including, among many others, those with surnames such as Broussard, Hébert, and Thibodeaux—usually consider these names Cajun rather than Creole. Sources from the 19th century sometimes make specific references to "Acadian Creoles" in particular—a term entirely absent from contemporary Louisiana. One article in vol. 56 of The Youth's Companion notes that, "The Acadian Creoles of Louisiana are

8944-400: The same function signified by en train de . Unlike Standard French, vernacular Louisiana French may avoid article-preposition contractions involving the prepositions de or des : Such contraction avoidance is a purely oral phenomenon, and written registers in Louisiana do not highly differ from Standard French. In novels, newspapers, government documents, plays, letters, etc., written from

9048-478: The same right to be called Creoles as others of foreign descent." Not all Cajuns descend solely from Acadian exiles who settled in south Louisiana in the 18th century. Cajuns include people with Irish and Spanish ancestry, and to a lesser extent of Germans and Italians; Many also have Native American , African and Afro-Latin Creole admixture. Historian Carl A. Brasseaux asserted that this process of mixing created

9152-558: The schools only long enough to learn counting and reading. At the time, a standard part of a child's education in the Cajun community was also the Catholic catechism , which was taught in French by an older member of the community. The educational system did not allow for much contact with Standard French . It has often been said that Acadian French has had a large impact on the development of Louisiana French but this has generally been over-estimated. French immigration continued in

9256-583: The south-central region known as Acadiana . Some of the Acadiana parishes register francophone populations of 10% or more of the total, with a select few (such as Vermilion, Evangeline and St. Martin Parishes) exceeding 15%. French is spoken across ethnic and racial lines by people who may identify as Cajuns , Creoles as well as Chitimacha , Houma , Biloxi , Tunica , Choctaw , Acadians , and French Indians among others. For these reasons, as well as

9360-468: The state. The education and religious services of Louisiana eventually fell prey to English, and the eventual consequence of speaking French was that speaking French became a sign of cultural illegitimacy. Parents viewed the practice of teaching their children English as the intrusion of a foreign culture, and many refused to send their children to school. When the government required them to do so, they selected private French Catholic schools in which class

9464-399: The survival of the language. The article states that it is advantageous to invigorate the revival of the language, to better cherish the state's rich heritage, and to protect a francophone minority that has suffered greatly from negligence by political and religious leaders. Furthermore, the university's article claims that it is CODOFIL rather than the state itself which sets language policy ;

9568-632: The swamps, bayous, and prairies with the Attakapa and Chitimacha Native American tribes. After the end of the American Revolutionary War , about 1,500 more Acadians arrived in New Orleans. About 3,000 Acadians had been deported to France during the Great Upheaval. In 1785, about 1,500 were authorized to emigrate to Louisiana, often to be reunited with their families, or because they could not settle in France. Living in

9672-466: The term in regards to the ethnicity of Acadiana and the language they speak: Amédé Ardoin for example spoke only Cajun French and at his height was known as the first Black Cajun recording artist; Clifton Chenier the King of Zydeco , routinely self-identified as a Black Cajun: "Bonjour, comment ça va monsieur?" Clifton Chenier greeted his cheering crowd at the 1975 Montreux Jazz Festival. "They call me

9776-399: The turn of the century. French immigration was at its peak during the 17th and 18th centuries which firmly established the Creole culture and language there. One important distinction to make is that the term "créole" at the time was consistently used to signify native, or "locally-born" in contrast to "foreign-born". In general the core of the population was rather diverse, coming from all over

9880-418: The use of some of the indicative verb tenses in Louisiana French, take the example of manger , meaning "to eat": Some minor simplification of tenses is exhibited in the conjugation of the verb manger , namely of the plural first and second person conjugations which are inflected identically to the third person singular. Not only this, but the inflection of the third person plural verb form has diverged between

9984-470: The way to south to the modern-day state of Louisiana following the Great Upheaval . In 1762, France relinquished their territorial claims to Spain just as Acadians had begun to arrive; despite this, Spanish governor Bernardo de Gálvez , permitted the Acadians to continue to speak their language as well as observe their other cultural practices. The original Acadian community was composed mainly of farmers and fishermen who were able to provide their children with

10088-792: The world. However, due to the unique history and development of the language, Louisiana French has many words that are unique to it or to select French varieties. † The Louisiana French expression is also used at times in Canadian French , with "un soulier" used formally and other expressions used informally. Il y avait une fois il driv ait, il travaillait huit jours on et six jours off . Et il driv ait, tu sais, six jours off . Ça le prendrait vingt-quatre heures straight through . Et là il restait quatre jours ici et il retournait. So quand la seconde fois ç'a venu, well , il dit, "Moi, si tu viens pas," il dit, "je vas pas." Ça fait que là j'ai été. Boy! Sa pauvre mère. "Vas pas!" One time he

10192-436: Was a coonass. She said she was Cajun, but that she would never be a coonass. She's black and it offended her." Louisiana French language Louisiana French (Louisiana French: Français louisianais ; Louisiana Creole : françé la lwizyàn ) is an umbrella term for the dialects and varieties of the French language spoken traditionally by French Louisianians in colonial Lower Louisiana . As of today Louisiana French

10296-526: Was also the official religion of Spain), and otherwise pursue their livelihoods with minimal interference. Some families and individuals did travel north through the Louisiana territory to set up homes as far north as Wisconsin . Acadians fought in the American Revolution . Although they fought for Spanish General Galvez, their contribution to the winning of the war has been recognized. Galvez left New Orleans with an army of Spanish regulars and

10400-506: Was composed of 3,400 individuals. It is likely a substantial portion of the 14,493 speakers in Houston's Harris County are also Louisiana French speakers. With this in mind, a marked decline in the number of French speakers in Texas has been noticed in the last half of the twentieth century. For example, at one point the French-speaking population of Jefferson County was 24,049 as compared to

10504-470: Was conducted in French. Derogatory terms and phrases were used by English speakers to put social pressure on French speakers ("Don't speak Cajun. Speak White!"), a sentiment later criticized by the Québécois poet Michèle Lalonde's in her 1974 poem " Speak White " ("Speak white... be civilized"). The French schools worked to emphasize Standard French, which they considered to be the prestige dialect . When

10608-662: Was driving, he was working eight days on and six days off. And he was driving, y'know, six days off. It would take him twenty-four hours straight through. And he would stay here four days and then go back. So when the second time came, well, he said, "If you don't come," he said, "I'm not going." So I went. Boy! His poor mother. "Don't go!" she said. "Don't go!" Le samedi après-midi on allait puis ... wring er le cou de la volaille. Et le dimanche, well , dimanche ça c'était notre meilleure journée qu'on avait plus de bon manger. Ma mère freez ait de la volaille et on avait de la poutine aux craquettes. Saturday afternoon we would go ... wring

10712-547: Was not necessarily the case. Many historical accounts exist wherein persons with Acadian surnames (and of various races) either self-identify or are described by others as Creoles. In Louisiana, the French word Créole (itself borrowed from Spanish and Portuguese) meant "born in the New World" (compare with Spanish Criollo ). This label was meant to distinguish the native-born population from newly arrived European immigrants and from slaves imported from Africa. Likewise, after

10816-477: Was then its current status. She pointed out that the gradual decline of French made it "relatively common" to find "grand-parents who speak only French, parents who speak both French and English, children who speak English and understand French, and grand-children who speak and understand only English." The decision to teach French to children was well-received since grandparents hoped for better opportunities for communicating with their grandchildren. The Council for

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