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66-479: The majority of soldiers of the Canadian Corps were British-born Canadians until near the end of the war, when the number of those of Canadian birth who had enlisted rose to 51 percent. They were mostly volunteers, as conscription was not implemented until the end of the war ( see Conscription Crisis of 1917 ). Ultimately, only 24,132 conscripts made it to France before 11 November 1918. In the later stages of

132-419: A captain in infantry companies and often also in cavalry squadrons), although again the rank of the appointment holder and the holder's appointment are separate and independent of each other. In some cases, independent units smaller than a sub-unit (e.g. a military police platoon that reports directly to a formation such as a brigade) will also have an OC appointed. In these cases, the officer commanding can be

198-411: A company , usually a captain , is referred to as the company commander (or the battery /troop commander for artillery / cavalry ) units. The commanding officer of a battalion (or squadron of cavalry/armored cavalry ) is usually a lieutenant colonel . The commanding officer of a brigade , a colonel , is the brigade commander . At the division level and higher, however, the commanding officer

264-596: A platoon , the smallest tactical unit of Marines usually led by a commissioned officer , typically a first or second lieutenant , is referred to as the platoon commander . This distinction in title also applies to officers who are aircraft commanders, as well as officers, staff non-commissioned officers (staff sergeant – master sergeant), and non-commissioned officers (corporal and sergeant) who are tank and armored vehicle commanders. While these officers, SNCOs, and NCOs have tactical and operational command (including full authority, responsibility, and accountability—especially in

330-526: A regiment , aviation group , or Marine Expeditionary Unit (MEU) is a colonel . At the Marine Expeditionary Brigade (MEB), Marine Logistics Group (MLG), Marine Division (MARDIV), Marine Aircraft Wing (MAW), Marine Expeditionary Force (MEF), and Fleet Marine Force (FMF) levels; however, the commanding officer is referred to as the commanding general , as these officers hold general officer rank. The officer in charge of

396-655: A Thursday when the Dominion Police detained a French-Canadian man who had failed to present his draft exemption papers. Despite the man's release, an angry mob of nearly 200 soon descended upon the St. Roch District Police Station where the man had been held. Rioters then ransacked the conscription registration office as well as two pro-conscription newspapers within Quebec City . The final and bloodiest conflict happened Easter Monday when crowds once again organized against

462-683: A captain or even a lieutenant. Appointments such as CO and OC may have specific powers associated with them. For example, they may have statutory powers to promote soldiers or to deal with certain disciplinary offences and award certain punishments. The CO of a unit may have the power to sentence an offender to 28 days' detention, whereas the OC of a sub-unit may have the power to sentence an offender to 3 days' restriction of privileges. Commanders of units smaller than sub-units (e.g. platoons , troops and sections ) are not specific appointments and officers or NCOs who fill those positions are simply referred to as

528-456: A commanding officer. The officer in command of a minor unit holds the appointment of " officer commanding " (OC). Higher formations have a commander (usual for a brigade) or a general officer commanding (GOC). Area commands have a commander-in-chief (e.g. C-in-C Land Army, C-in-C British Army of the Rhine). The OC of a sub-unit or minor unit is today customarily a major (although formerly usually

594-417: A commissioned officer is present; normally they serve as executive officer ( 2IC ). The commanding officer of a company , usually a captain , is referred to as the company commander or the battery commander (for field artillery and low altitude air defense units ). The commanding officer of a battalion or a squadron ( Marine aviation ), is usually a lieutenant colonel . The commanding officer of

660-611: A considerable rift along ethnic lines between Anglophones and Francophones . After visiting Britain for a meeting of First Ministers in May 1917, Borden announced that he would introduce the Military Service Act on August 29, 1917. The Act was passed: allowing the government to conscript men aged 20 to 45 across the country if the Prime Minister felt that it was necessary. To solidify support for conscription in

726-623: A lot of pressure to send more troops to fully support the allied forces. He was convinced that Canada's war effort was weak and only conscription could make it respectable. All of his English-speaking ministers supported the idea. However, his two French-Canadian ministers were hesitant. They fully understood the negative reactions that French-Canadians would have. The French-Canadian nationalists who opposed conscription viewed it as neither necessary nor successful. They argued that it caused an avoidable rift between English and French-Canada. The debate surrounding conscription would be one that would have

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792-547: A national crisis. Moreover, the military crackdown which lasted in Quebec until the end of the war resulted in an increase in state power in the wake of growing French-Canadian nationalism. By the spring of 1918, the government had amended the Act so that there were no exemptions, which left many English Canadians opposed as well. Even without exemptions, only about 125,000 men were ever conscripted, and only 24,132 of these were sent to

858-408: A ship, submarine or other vessel is addressed by naval custom as 'captain' while aboard in command, regardless of their actual rank." They may be informally referred to as "Skipper", though allowing or forbidding the use of this form of address is the commanding officer's prerogative. A prospective commanding officer (PCO) is a U.S. Navy officer who has been selected for his/her own command. The term

924-679: A significant impact on both Federal and provincial politics for many years following World War I. On January 1, 1918, the Unionist government began to enforce the Military Service Act . The Act made 404,385 men liable for military service, from which 385,510 sought exemptions. The Act was vague and offered many exemptions, and almost all of these men were able to avoid service, even if they had supported conscription. The most violent opposition occurred in Quebec, where anti-war attitudes drawn from French-Canadian nationalism sparked

990-476: A weekend of rioting between March 28 and April 1. The disturbances began on a Thursday when the Dominion Police detained a French-Canadian man who had failed to present his draft exemption papers. Despite the man's release, a mob of nearly 200 soon descended upon the St. Roch District Police Station where the man had been held. By the following Good Friday evening, an estimated 15,000 rioters had ransacked

1056-407: Is referred to as the commanding general , as these officers hold general officer rank. Although holding a leadership position in the same sense as commanders, the individual in charge of a platoon , the smallest unit of soldiers led by a commissioned officer , is referred to as the " platoon leader ", not the "platoon commander". This officer, typically a second lieutenant , does have command of

1122-482: Is used in correspondence or in reference to the officer before they assume command of the unit (ship, squadron, unit, etc.). If the sailor in command of a unit is an enlisted member, rather than a commissioned or warrant officer , he or she is referred to as the "officer in charge" rather than "commanding officer". In the Coast Guard it is common for smaller cutters to be commanded by a chief petty officer . In

1188-570: The 1917 election , Borden extended the vote through the Military Voters Act to overseas soldiers, who were in favour of conscription to replace their depleted forces (women serving as nurses were also given the right to vote). For Borden, these votes had another advantage, as they could be distributed in any riding, regardless of the soldier's regular place of residence. With the Wartime Elections Act , women who were

1254-737: The Constitution Act of 1867. The nation was divided between English-speaking imperialists who supported the overseas war effort and French-speaking nationalists who believed that conscription was a second attempt to impose the Conquest , therefore it needed to be resisted at all costs. The Federal Conservatives had stated on numerous occasions that conscription would not be imposed. However, upon his return from London in May 1917, Borden met with his cabinet and announced that he would be imposing conscription. While in London, Borden had received

1320-492: The Geneva Conventions ), duties (to higher authority, mission effectiveness, duty of care to personnel), and powers (for example, discipline and punishment of personnel within certain limits of military law). In some countries, commanding officers may be of any commissioned rank. Usually, there are more officers than command positions available, and time spent in command is generally a key aspect of promotion, so

1386-652: The Military Service Act was passed in 1917 tensions ran high throughout Canada. Not all Canadians were as enthusiastic about joining the war effort as the first Canadian volunteer had been. In fact, many people objected to the idea of war completely. The conscientious objectors or unwilling soldiers sought exemption from combat. Instead, many joined the Non-Combatant Corps , where they took on other roles. Their duties consisted of cleaning and other labour. They did not carry weapons but were expected to dress in uniform, and they practised regular army discipline. Often

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1452-573: The Royal Navy and many others, commanding officer is the official title of the commander of any ship, unit or installation. However, they are referred to as "the captain" no matter what their actual rank, or informally as "skipper" or even "boss". In the United States , the status of commanding officer is duly applied to all commissioned officers who hold lawful command over a military unit, ship, or installation. The commanding officer of

1518-529: The Canadian government turned to its only remaining option: conscription . Almost all French Canadians opposed conscription; they felt that they had no particular loyalty to either Britain or France . Led by Henri Bourassa , they felt their only loyalty was to Canada. English Canadians supported the war effort as they felt stronger ties to the British Empire. The Conscription Crisis of 1917 caused

1584-649: The Canadian militia, such as Les Fusiliers Mont-Royal , where barracks life was in French, and only the command language was in English. They had to be turned away because the Minister of Militia and his subordinates were obstinate in their refusal to mobilize these traditionally French regiments or to create new ones. However, the government continued to raise its expectations for volunteers, aiming for 150,000 men by 1915. English Canadians did not believe that French Canada

1650-536: The French Army. When the government relented, the first new unit was the 22nd (French Canadian) Battalion, CEF . While a few other French-speaking groups were also allowed to be created, mostly by Reserve officers, they were all disbanded to provide replacements for the 22nd, which suffered close to 4,000 wounded and killed in the course of the war. As the war dragged on, soldiers and politicians soon realized there would be no quick end. Eventually, people learned of

1716-501: The beginning of the war, arguing that an intense campaign for volunteers would produce enough troops. He privately felt that if he joined the coalition government, Quebec would fall under what he perceived as a dangerous nationalism of Bourassa, which might ultimately lead to Quebec leaving the Canadian confederation . Borden's Unionist Party won the election with 153 seats; Laurier's Liberals secured 82 seats, 62 from Quebec. After

1782-664: The case of aircraft commanders) of the Marines and equipment in their charge, they are not accorded the legal authority of a "commanding officer" under the UCMJ or military regulations. In the United States Navy and United States Coast Guard , commanding officer is the official title of the commander of a ship, but they are usually referred to as " the Captain " regardless of their actual rank: "Any naval officer who commands

1848-537: The case of aircraft commanders) of the soldiers and equipment in their charge, they are not accorded the legal authority of a "commanding officer" under the UCMJ or military regulations. Warrant officers in the United States Armed Forces are single career-track officers that can, and occasionally do, hold command positions within certain specialty units, i.e. Special Forces and Army Aviation . However, warrant officers usually do not command if

1914-555: The commander or leader (e.g. platoon commander, troop leader, section commander/leader, etc.). In the Royal Air Force , the title of commanding officer is reserved for station commanders or commanders of independent units, including flying squadrons. As with the British Army, the post of a commander of a lesser unit such as an administrative wing , squadron or flight is referred to as the officer commanding (OC). In

1980-467: The commanding officer of a unit is appointed. Thus the office of CO is an appointment. The appointment of commanding officer is exclusive to commanders of major units ( regiments , battalions and similar sized units). It is customary for a commanding officer to hold the rank of lieutenant colonel , and they are usually referred to within the unit simply as "the colonel" or the CO. "The colonel" may also refer to

2046-464: The conscientious objector was abused, deemed a coward, and stripped of basic rights. In the British House of Commons, a resolution for the disenfranchisement of conscientious objectors was defeated by 141 to 71. Lord Hugh Cecil, who was a well-known churchman and statesman, said that he was "entirely out of sympathy for conscientious objectors, but he could not force them to do what they thought

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2112-538: The conscription registration office as well as two pro-conscription newspapers within Quebec City . This escalation of violence along with rumours of an alleged province-wide uprising prompted Quebec City Mayor Henri-Edgar Lavigueur to contact Ottawa and request reinforcements. Alarmed by the two days of rioting, the Borden government invoked the War Measures Act of 1914, which gave the federal government

2178-562: The corps spearheaded the offensive during the Battle of Amiens . Here a significant defeat was inflicted on the Germans, causing the German commander-in-chief, General Erich Ludendorff , to call August 8 "the black day of the German army." This battle marked the start of the period of the war the French later named " Canada's Hundred Days ". After Amiens, the Canadian Corps continued to help lead

2244-546: The corps were the following: The military effectiveness of the corps has been extensively analyzed. The corps evolved steadily following the 1915 summer campaign. As Godefroy (2006) notes, the Canadian Expeditionary Force "worked ceaselessly to convert all of its available political and physical resources into fighting power." One striking feature of the corps' evolution was its unique commitment and ability to exploit all opportunities for learning. This

2310-414: The country. Total fatal battle casualties during the war was 56,638, 13.5% of the 418,052 sent overseas and 9.26% of the 611,711 who enlisted. Following its formation in late 1915, the Canadian Corps readied to fight major battles as a unified entity, beginning in 1916. Additional actions were fought by one or more units of the corps ( see separate listings for the divisions, above). Major battles fought by

2376-433: The divisions dissipated through the whole army. The corps was commanded by Lieutenant General Sir E.A.H. Alderson , until 1916. Political considerations caused command to be passed to Lieutenant-General Sir Julian Byng . When Byng was promoted to a higher command during the summer of 1917, he was succeeded by General Sir Arthur Currie , the commander of the 1st Division, giving the corps its first Canadian commander. Currie

2442-673: The duration of the war. Even though 35,000 French Canadians served overseas throughout the war, the conscription question resulted in French Canadians feeling more isolated than ever from the rest of Canada. They never fully supported the war effort, which resulted in the Federal government expressing deep concern over French Canada's nationalist and anti-war stance. For the first time in Canada's brief fifty-year history, there were substantial arguments being made in favour of revoking

2508-845: The end of the Easter Riots, which totalled over 150 casualties and $ 300,000 in damage. Canada entered World War I on 4 August 1914. Colonel Sam Hughes was the Canadian Minister of Militia, and on 10 August he was permitted to create a militia of 25,000 men. Before the end of August 1914, Hughes had already created a training camp at Valcartier, Quebec , which was capable of housing 32,000 men. The first contingent of 31,200 Canadians, dubbed "Canada's Answer", arrived in Britain on October 14 for continued training. Hughes moved with incredible speed to create Canadian battalions which allowed Canadian troops to be kept together as units for

2574-505: The first time. Relatively few French Canadians volunteered. The experience of the first contingent suggested that they could expect nothing but ill-treatment as French-speaking Catholics in English-speaking battalions filled with what they perceived as mostly Protestant men and officers who were unable to communicate with them. Young French Canadians seeking to serve, chose, instead, the few traditional "French" regiments of

2640-600: The front. The war ended within a few months, but the issue left Canadians divided and distrustful of their government. In 1920, Borden retired, and his successor, Arthur Meighen , was defeated in the 1921 election . Conservatives had a difficult time in Quebec subsequently, with the Quebec Liberal Party holding power until August 1936, when Maurice Duplessis and the Union Nationale unseated Louis-Alexandre Taschereau's Quebec Liberals. Duplessis, however,

2706-477: The holder of an honorary appointment of a senior officer who oversees the non-operational affairs of a regiment. However, the rank of the appointment holder and the holder's appointment are separate. That is, not all lieutenant colonels are COs, and although most COs are lieutenant colonels, that is not a requirement of the appointment. Sub-units and minor units ( companies , squadrons and batteries ) and formations (brigades, divisions, corps and armies) do not have

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2772-408: The incumbent is a general officer , commanding general ( CG ), is the officer in command of a military unit . The commanding officer has ultimate authority over the unit, and is usually given wide latitude to run the unit as they see fit, within the bounds of military law . In this respect, commanding officers have significant responsibilities (for example, the use of force , finances, equipment,

2838-465: The main reason. Political pressure in Quebec, along with some public rallies, demanded the creation of French-speaking units to fight a war that was viewed as being right and necessary by many Quebecers, despite Regulation 17 in Ontario and the resistance in Quebec of those such as Henri Bourassa . Indeed, Montreal's La Presse editorialized that Quebec should create a contingent to fight as part of

2904-430: The military presence in the city, which by then had grown to 1,200 soldiers – all of whom came from Ontario. Once armed rioters began to fire on troops from concealed positions, the soldiers were ordered to fire on the crowds, immediately dispersing them. Though the actual number of civilian casualties is debated, official reports from that day name five men killed by gunfire; dozens more were injured. Among

2970-408: The military presence in the city, which by then had grown to 1,200 soldiers. The soldiers were ordered to fire on the crowds, immediately causing them to disperse. Though the actual number of civilian casualties is debated, official reports from that day name five men killed by gunfire. Dozens more were injured. Among the soldiers are 32 recorded injuries that day, with no deaths. Monday, April 1, marked

3036-619: The most effective allied fighting forces on the Western Front. Bartholomew Bandy, hero of The Bandy Papers series of humorous novels by Donald Jack , initially served as an infantry officer in the Canadian Corps before transferring to the Royal Flying Corps . A large part of Robertson Davies ' 1970 novel Fifth Business is devoted to the protagonist's experiences as a soldier in the Canadian Corps. Lucy Maud Montgomery ’s novel Rilla of Ingleside , (the 8th book in

3102-655: The position of Chief of the Imperial General Staff. The Canadian Corps captured Vimy Ridge in April, 1917 , in a daring attack that was a turning point in the war, and as Currie called it, "the grandest day the Corps ever had". During the German spring offensive of the spring and summer of 1918, the Canadian Corps supported British and French soldiers while they held the Germans back. Between August 8 and 11, 1918,

3168-512: The power to directly oversee the maintenance of law and order in Quebec City. By the following morning, 780 soldiers had been deployed in the city, with an additional 1,000 en route from Ontario and 3,000 from western provinces. Despite their imminent arrival, protracted violence continued into the night of March 30, leading into a precarious Sunday. The final and bloodiest conflict happened Easter Monday when crowds once again organized against

3234-491: The role of commanding officer is highly valued. The commanding officer is often assisted by an executive officer (XO) or second-in-command (2i/c), who handles personnel and day-to-day matters, and a senior enlisted advisor . Larger units may also have staff officers responsible for various responsibilities. In the British Army , Royal Marines , and many other Commonwealth military and paramilitary organisations,

3300-669: The soldiers are 32 recorded injuries that day, but no deaths. Monday, April 1, marked the end of the Easter Riots, which totalled over 150 casualties and $ 300,000 in damage. The Easter Riots represent one of the most violent domestic disturbances in Canadian history. This stemmed from a clash between English Canada's linkage to the British Empire and opposing currents in French-Canadian nationalism, which became exacerbated during wartime and ultimately erupted over conscription. The severity and swiftness of Ottawa's response demonstrated their determination to impose conscription and prevent

3366-816: The soldiers under him but does not have many of the command responsibilities inherent to higher echelons. For example, a platoon leader cannot issue non-judicial punishment . Non-commissioned officers may be said to have charge of certain smaller military units. They cannot, however, hold command as they lack the requisite authority granted by the head of state to do so. Those wielding "command" of individual vehicles (and their crews) are called vehicle commanders. This distinction in title also applies to officers who are aircraft commanders ("pilot in command"), as well as officers and enlisted soldiers who are tank and armored vehicle commanders. While these officers and NCOs have tactical and operational command (including full authority, responsibility, and accountability – especially in

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3432-582: The trench conditions and some casualties in Europe, and men stopped volunteering. There were over 300,000 recruits by 1916, but Prime Minister Robert Borden had promised 500,000 by the end of that year, even though Canada's population was only 8 million at the time. After the Battle of the Somme , Canada was in desperate need to replenish its supply of soldiers; however, there were very few volunteers to replace them. The recruiting effort in Quebec had failed, and

3498-402: The vanguard of an Allied push that ultimately ended on 11 November 1918 at Mons where the British Empire had first met in conflict with Imperial German forces in 1914. At the end of war the Canadian 1st and 2nd Divisions took part in the occupation of Germany and the corps was eventually demobilized in 1919. Upon their return home the veterans were greeted by large and welcoming crowds all across

3564-560: The war the Canadian Corps was regarded by friend and foe alike as one of the most effective Allied military formations on the Western Front . Although the corps was within and under the command of the British Expeditionary Force , understandably there was considerable political pressure in Canada, especially following the Battle of the Somme , in 1916, to have the corps fight as a single unit rather than have

3630-586: The war, British regulars were the staff officers of the divisions and British officers held two-thirds of senior appointments across the infantry, artillery and Corps headquarters with only four of the most senior appointments being Canadian. Among the British officers were Alan Brooke (at the time a major of the Royal Artillery who planned the artillery barrages for Vimy Ridge and later) and William Ironside . Both eventually became Field Marshals and held

3696-515: The wives, sisters, daughters and mothers of men serving overseas were also granted the right to vote in this election, as they appeared to be more patriotic and more worthy of a public voice. On the other hand, conscientious objectors and recent immigrants from "enemy countries" were denied the right to vote. In the election, Borden was opposed not only by Bourassa but also by Liberal Party leader Wilfrid Laurier , though he had been abandoned by much of his party. Laurier had opposed conscription from

3762-755: The “Anne of Green Gables” series), is one of the first successful commercial publications focusing on Canadian civilian and soldier World War I experiences. It is the only Canadian novel written of the First World War by a contemporary. It is also one of the first texts to mention the Gallipoli campaign as well as the ANZACs . Conscription Crisis of 1917 Imperialists Nationalists Sir Robert Borden Sir Albert Edward Kemp Sir Wilfrid Laurier Henri Bourassa The Conscription Crisis of 1917 ( French : Crise de la conscription de 1917 )

3828-614: Was a corps-wide activity, involving all levels from the commander to the private soldier . This ability to learn from allied successes and mistakes made the corps increasingly successful. Doctrine was tested in limited engagements and, if proven effectual, developed for larger scale battles. Following each engagement, lessons were recorded, analyzed and disseminated to all units. Doctrine and tactics that were ineffective or cost too many lives were discarded and new methods developed. This learning process, combined with technical innovation and competent senior leadership in theatre created one of

3894-512: Was a political and military crisis in Canada during World War I . It was mainly caused by disagreement on whether men should be conscripted to fight in the war, but also brought out many issues regarding relations between French Canadians and English Canadians . The vast majority of French Canadians opposed conscription; they felt that they had no particular loyalty to either Britain or France . Led by Henri Bourassa , they felt their only loyalty

3960-432: Was able to reconcile the desire for national independence with the need for Allied integration. He resisted pressure to replace all British officers in high-ranking positions, retaining those who were successful until they could be replaced by trained and experienced Canadians. British staff officers made up a considerable part of the Corps – although by 1917, 7 of 12 infantry brigades were commanded by Canadians trained during

4026-826: Was an ardent Québécois, and his party strongly opposed conscription throughout the Second World War. The Liberal Party in Quebec unseated Duplessis in October 1939 due to the Canadian Liberal Party committing to not impose conscription. But by August 1944, Duplessis had regained power in Quebec as the Liberal Party in Ottawa attempted, counter to their previous assurances, to again impose conscription on Quebec . Commanding officer The commanding officer ( CO ) or commander , or sometimes, if

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4092-401: Was between civil or military prisons. Conscription posed a difficult question for the government. Conscription was unprecedented, and the problem proved to be that the government did not know who was best suited to become a soldier, a toolmaker or a farmer. The issue of manpower and ensuring that the proper men were being relocated to the most appropriate roles overseas was an issue that lasted

4158-629: Was providing a fair share to the war effort. Sam Hughes, in June 1917, informed the House of Commons that of the 432,000 Canadian volunteers fewer than 5% came from French Canada, which made up 28% of the Canadian population at that time. There have been many reasons proposed for the lack of Québécois volunteers; however, many prominent Canadian historians suggest that the Ontario government's move to disallow French language instruction in Regulation 17 as

4224-463: Was to Canada. English Canadians supported the war effort as they felt stronger ties to the British Empire. On January 1, 1918, the Unionist government began to enforce the Military Service Act . The Act caused 404,385 men to be liable for military service, from which 385,510 sought exemption. The most violent opposition occurred in Quebec, where anti-war attitudes sparked a weekend of rioting between March 28 and April 1, 1918. The disturbances began on

4290-414: Was to plead his case, and if the panel was not convinced, the man asking for exemption was allowed to appeal. If the judges found that it was best if the person stayed at home, then he was not sent overseas. Many Canadians were unhappy with the conscientious objectors' choice to refuse combat. Many people believed that if people were not willing to give service against the enemy, then the only choice for them

4356-425: Was wrong or punish them for refusing to do something they thought was wrong". However, the government was making an effort to be sympathetic toward those who refused to take part in military service. Many communities set up local tribunals. If a man refused to serve he was put in front of a panel of two judges: one appointed by a board of selection named by Parliament, and the other by the senior county judge. The man

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