138-453: Canning is a method of food preservation in which food is processed and sealed in an airtight container ( jars like Mason jars , and steel and tin cans ). Canning provides a shelf life that typically ranges from one to five years, although under specific circumstances, it can be much longer. A freeze-dried canned product, such as canned dried lentils , could last as long as 30 years in an edible state. In 1974, samples of canned food from
276-726: A better understanding could aid navigation. The expedition met with disaster after both ships and their crews, a total of 129 officers and men, became icebound in Victoria Strait near King William Island in what is today the Canadian territory of Nunavut . After being icebound for more than a year, Erebus and Terror were abandoned in April 1848, by which point two dozen men, including Franklin, had died. The survivors, now led by Franklin's second-in-command, Francis Crozier , and Erebus ' s captain, James Fitzjames , set out for
414-966: A characteristic pink colour. In 2015, the International Agency for Research on Cancer of the World Health Organization classified processed meat —i.e., meat that has undergone salting, curing, and smoking—as "carcinogenic to humans". Some foods, such as many cheeses , wines , and beers , are prepared by fermentation. This involves cultivating specific microorganisms to combat spoilage from other, less benign organisms. These microorganisms keep pathogens in check by producing acid or alcohol, which eventually creates an environment toxic for themselves and other microorganisms. Methods of fermentation include, but are not limited to, starter microorganisms, salt, hops, controlled (usually cool) temperatures and controlled (usually low) levels of oxygen. These methods are used to create
552-484: A cheap and effective method of preserving large amounts of food to create well-preserved military rations for the Grande Armée . The larger armies of the period required increased and regular supplies of quality food. Limited food availability was among the factors limiting military campaigns to the summer and autumn months. In 1809, Nicolas Appert , a French confectioner and brewer, observed that food cooked inside
690-439: A copy of The Vicar of Wakefield by Oliver Goldsmith . Elsewhere, on the island's southern coast, McClintock's searchers found another skeleton. Still clothed, it was searched, and some papers were found, including a seaman's certificate for Chief Petty Officer Harry Peglar of Terror . Since the uniform was that of a ship's steward, it is more likely that the body was that of Thomas Armitage, gun-room steward on Terror and
828-441: A curled edge. A rubber compound is put inside the curl. The body and end are brought together in a seamer and held in place by the base plate and chuck, respectively. The base plate provides a sure footing for the can body during the seaming operation and the chuck fits snugly into the end (lid). The result is the countersink of the end sits inside the top of the can body just below the flange. The end curl protrudes slightly beyond
966-455: A gel made from gelatin and clarified meat broth. Another form of preservation is setting the cooked food in a container and covering it with a layer of fat. Potted chicken liver can be prepared in this way, and so can potted shrimps , to be served on toast. Calf's foot jelly used to be prepared for invalids. Jellying is one of the steps in producing traditional pâtés . Many jugged meats (see below) are also jellied. Another type of jellying
1104-535: A gel. Such materials include gelatin , agar , maize flour, and arrowroot flour. Some animal flesh forms a protein gel when cooked. Eels and elvers , and sipunculid worms, are a delicacy in Xiamen , China, as are jellied eels in the East End of London , where they are eaten with mashed potatoes. British cuisine has a rich tradition of potted meats . Meat off-cuts were, until the 1950s, preserved in aspic ,
1242-476: A jar did not spoil unless the seals leaked, and developed a method of sealing food in glass jars. Appert was awarded the prize in 1810 by Count Montelivert, a French minister of the interior. The reason for lack of spoilage was unknown at the time, since it would be another 50 years before Louis Pasteur demonstrated the role of microbes in food spoilage and developed pasteurization . The Grande Armée began experimenting with issuing canned foods to its soldiers, but
1380-465: A new way of preservation, it was not understood until 1864 when Louis Pasteur found the relationship between microorganisms, food spoilage, and illness. Foods have varying degrees of natural protection against spoilage and may require that the final step occurs in a pressure cooker . High-acid fruits like strawberries require no preservatives to can and only a short boiling cycle, whereas marginal vegetables such as carrots require longer boiling and
1518-485: A party of white men on the southern coast of King William Island near Washington Bay. In the 1990s, this testimony was extensively researched by David C. Woodman and was the basis of two books, Unravelling the Franklin Mystery (1992) and Strangers Among Us (1995), in which he reconstructs the final months of the expedition. Woodman's narrative challenged existing theories that the survivors all perished over
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#17327729781141656-411: A pre-printed Admiralty form. The first part was written after the first overwintering in 1847 and the second part was added one year later. From the second part it can be inferred that the document was first deposited in a different cairn previously erected by James Clark Ross in 1830 during John Ross's Second Arctic expedition – at a location Ross named Victory Point . The first message is written in
1794-409: A preservative, and it was commonplace to store fruit in honey. Similar to pickled foods, sugar cane was brought to Europe through the trade routes. In northern climates without sufficient sun to dry foods, preserves are made by heating the fruit with sugar. "Sugar tends to draw water from the microbes (plasmolysis). This process leaves the microbial cells dehydrated, thus killing them. In this way,
1932-546: A recession. In February 2009 during a recession, the United States saw an 11.5% rise in sales of canning-related items. Some communities in the US have county canning centers which are available for teaching canning, or shared community kitchens which can be rented for canning one's own foods. Food preservation Food preservation includes processes that make food more resistant to microorganism growth and slow
2070-470: A second document using the same Admiralty form containing an almost identical duplicate of the first message from 1847 in a cairn a few miles southwest at Gore Point. This document did not contain the second message. From the handwriting it is assumed that all messages were written by Fitzjames. As he did not take part in the landing party that deposited the notes originally in 1847, it is inferred that both documents were originally filled in by Fitzjames on board
2208-458: A sheet of coated tin plate. To create the can body, rectangles are cut and curled around a die, and welded together creating a cylinder with a side seam. Rollers are then used to flare out one or both ends of the cylinder to create a quarter circle flange around the circumference. Precision is required to ensure that the welded sides are perfectly aligned, as any misalignment will cause inconsistent flange shape, compromising its integrity. A circle
2346-526: A shipmate of Peglar, whose papers he carried. McClintock himself took testimony from the Inuit about the expedition's disastrous end. Two expeditions between 1860 and 1869 by Charles Francis Hall , who lived among the Inuit near Frobisher Bay on Baffin Island and later at Repulse Bay on the Canadian mainland, found camps, graves and relics on the southern coast of King William Island, but he believed none of
2484-454: A strong enough thermal heat treatment. C. botulinum prefers low oxygen environments and is a poor competitor to other bacteria, but its spores are resistant to thermal treatments. When a canned food is sterilized insufficiently, most other bacteria besides the C. botulinum spores are killed, and the spores can germinate and produce botulism toxin. Botulism is a rare but serious paralytic illness, leading to paralysis that typically starts with
2622-589: A three-pronged plan which in the spring of 1848 sent an overland rescue party , led by John Richardson and John Rae , down the Mackenzie River to the Canadian Arctic coast. Two expeditions by sea were also launched – one, led by James Clark Ross, entering the Canadian Arctic archipelago through Lancaster Sound and the other, commanded by Henry Kellett, entering from the Pacific. In addition,
2760-458: A variety of factors: lack of light, lack of oxygen, cool temperatures, pH level, or desiccants in the soil. Burial may be combined with other methods such as salting or fermentation. Most foods can be preserved in soil that is very dry and salty (thus a desiccant) such as sand, or soil that is frozen. Many root vegetables are very resistant to spoilage and require no other preservation than storage in cool dark conditions, for example by burial in
2898-525: Is fruit preserves , which are preparations of cooked fruits, vegetables and sugar, often stored in glass jam jars and Mason jars . Many varieties of fruit preserves are made globally, including sweet fruit preserves, such as those made from strawberry or apricot, and savory preserves, such as those made from tomatoes or squash. The ingredients used and how they are prepared determine the type of preserves; jams , jellies , and marmalades are all examples of different styles of fruit preserves that vary based upon
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#17327729781143036-620: Is a developing technology still being researched. There have been limited industrial applications of PEF processing for the pasteurization of fruit juices. To date, several PEF treated juices are available on the market in Europe. Furthermore, for several years a juice pasteurization application in the US has used PEF. For cell disintegration purposes especially potato processors show great interest in PEF technology as an efficient alternative for their preheaters. Potato applications are already operational in
3174-444: Is a method for processing cells by means of brief pulses of a strong electric field. PEF holds potential as a type of low-temperature alternative pasteurization process for sterilizing food products. In PEF processing, a substance is placed between two electrodes, then the pulsed electric field is applied. The electric field enlarges the pores of the cell membranes, which kills the cells and releases their contents. PEF for food processing
3312-452: Is also another approach of impregnating packaging materials (plastic films or other) with antioxidants and antimicrobials. Irradiation of food is the exposure of food to ionizing radiation . Multiple types of ionizing radiation can be used, including beta particles (high-energy electrons ) and gamma rays (emitted from radioactive sources such as cobalt-60 or cesium-137 ). Irradiation can kill bacteria, molds, and insect pests, reduce
3450-430: Is now called a double seam. A can thus sealed is impervious to contamination by creating two tight continuous folds between the can's cylindrical body and the lids. This eliminated the need for solder and allowed improvements in manufacturing speed, reducing cost. Double seaming uses rollers to shape the can, lid and the final double seam. To make a sanitary can and lid suitable for double seaming, manufacture begins with
3588-489: Is perfectly dependable as a preservative. Sterilization is done after the can is sealed, so that both the container and the food are secured. The spores of the microorganism Clostridium botulinum (which causes botulism ) can be eliminated only at temperatures above the boiling point of water. As a result, from a public safety point of view, foods with low acidity (a pH more than 4.6) need sterilization under high temperature (116–130 °C). To achieve temperatures above
3726-402: Is the movement of substances from the can itself into the contents. Potential toxic substances that can migrate are lead, causing lead poisoning , or bisphenol A (BPA), a potential endocrine disruptor that is an ingredient in the epoxy commonly used to coat the inner surface of cans. Some cans are manufactured with a BPA-free enamel lining produced from plant oils and resins. In February 2018,
3864-508: Is the process of stewing the meat (commonly game or fish ) in a covered earthenware jug or casserole . The animal to be jugged is usually cut into pieces, placed into a tightly sealed jug with brine or gravy , and stewed. Red wine and/or the animal's own blood is sometimes added to the cooking liquid. Jugging was a popular method of preserving meat up until the middle of the 20th century. Sodium hydroxide ( lye ) makes food too alkaline for bacterial growth. Lye will saponify fats in
4002-409: Is then cut from the sheet using a die cutter. The circle is shaped in a stamping press to create a downward countersink to fit snugly into the can body. The result can be compared to an upside down and very flat top hat . The outer edge is then curled down and around about 140 degrees using rollers to create the end curl. The result is a steel tube with a flanged edge, and a countersunk steel disc with
4140-423: Is used to make beer, the boiling during the brewing process may kill bacteria that could make people sick. The barley and other ingredients also infuse the drink with nutrients, and the microorganisms can also produce vitamins as they ferment. However, the common belief that premodern people avoided drinking ordinary water is a myth. While people avoided drinking dirty or polluted water, they also avoided using it for
4278-646: The Admiralty , a post he held until 1845. Barrow began pushing for the Royal Navy to find a Northwest Passage over the top of Canada and to navigate toward the North Pole , organising a major series of expeditions. Over those four decades explorers including John Ross ; David Buchan ; William Edward Parry ; Frederick William Beechey ; James Clark Ross (nephew of John Ross); George Back ; Peter Warren Dease and Thomas Simpson led productive expeditions to
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4416-530: The Canadian Arctic . Among those explorers was John Franklin , who first travelled to the region in 1818 as second-in-command of an expedition towards the North Pole on the ships Dorothea and Trent . Franklin was subsequently leader of two overland expeditions to and along the Canadian Arctic coast, in 1819–1822 and 1825–1827. By 1845 the combined discoveries of all these expeditions had reduced
4554-747: The French Army began issuing canned French cuisine such as coq au vin , beef bourguignon , french onion soup , and Vichyssoise , while the Italian Army experimented with canned ravioli , spaghetti bolognese , minestrone , and pasta e fagioli . After the war, companies that had supplied military canned food began to improve the quality of their goods for civilian sale. The original fragile and heavy glass containers presented challenges for transportation, and glass jars were largely replaced in commercial canneries with cylindrical tin can or wrought-iron canisters (later shortened to "cans") following
4692-548: The Northwest Passage . However, studies in 2013 and 2016 suggested that lead poisoning was likely not a factor, and that the crew's ill health may, in fact, have been due to malnutrition—specifically zinc deficiency—possibly due to a lack of meat in their diet. Increasing mechanization of the canning process, coupled with a huge increase in urban populations across Europe, resulted in a rising demand for canned food. A number of inventions and improvements followed, and by
4830-473: The United States Army to organise an expedition to King William Island between 1878 and 1880. Travelling to Hudson Bay on the schooner Eothen , Schwatka, assembling a team that included Inuit who had assisted Hall, continued north by foot and dog sled , interviewing Inuit, visiting known or likely sites of Franklin expedition remains, and wintering on the island. Although Schwatka failed to find
4968-642: The White House . In 1854, Rae, while surveying the Boothia Peninsula for the HBC, discovered further evidence of the expedition's fate. Rae met an Inuk near Pelly Bay (now Kugaaruk, Nunavut ) on 21 April 1854, who told him of a party of 35 to 40 white men who had died of starvation near the mouth of the Back River. Other Inuit confirmed this story, which included reports of cannibalism among
5106-441: The World Health Organization and Food and Agriculture Organization , endorse food irradiation. Consumers may have a negative view of irradiated food based on the misconception that such food is radioactive; in fact, irradiated food does not and cannot become radioactive. Activists have also opposed food irradiation for other reasons, for example, arguing that irradiation can be used to sterilize contaminated food without resolving
5244-445: The environmental impact of food production . Many processes designed to preserve food involve more than one food preservation method. Preserving fruit by turning it into jam, for example, involves boiling (to reduce the fruit's moisture content and to kill bacteria, etc.), sugaring (to prevent their re-growth) and sealing within an airtight jar (to prevent recontamination). Different food preservation methods have different impacts on
5382-546: The oxidation of fats . This slows down the decomposition and rancidification process. Food preservation may also include processes that inhibit visual deterioration, such as the enzymatic browning reaction in apples after they are cut during food preparation. By preserving food , food waste can be reduced, which is an important way to decrease production costs and increase the efficiency of food systems , improve food security and nutrition and contribute towards environmental sustainability . For instance, it can reduce
5520-524: The springback effect, a seam can appear loose, when in reality it was closed too tight and has opened up like a spring. For this reason, experienced operators and good seamer setup are critical to ensure that double seams are properly closed. Quality control usually involves taking full cans from the line – one per seamer head, at least once or twice per shift, and performing a teardown operation ( wrinkle / tightness ), mechanical tests (external thickness, seamer length/height and countersink) as well as cutting
5658-535: The 1860s smaller machine-made steel cans were possible, and the time to cook food in sealed cans had been reduced from around six hours to thirty minutes. Canned food also began to spread beyond Europe—Robert Ayars established the first American canning factory in New York City in 1812, using improved tin-plated wrought-iron cans for preserving oysters , meats , fruits , and vegetables . Demand for canned food greatly increased during wars. Large-scale wars in
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5796-522: The 59-year-old Franklin. The expedition was to consist of two ships, HMS Erebus and HMS Terror , both of which had been used for James Clark Ross' expedition to the Antarctic in 1839–1843, during which Crozier had commanded Terror . Franklin was given command of Erebus , with Fitzjames as the vessel's second-in-command; Crozier was appointed his executive officer and was again made commander of Terror . Franklin received command of
5934-700: The Admiralty offered a reward of £20,000 (equivalent to £2,500,000 in 2023) "to any Party or Parties, of any country, who shall render assistance to the crews of the Discovery Ships under the command of Sir John Franklin". When the three-pronged effort failed, British national concern and interest in the Arctic increased until "finding Franklin became nothing less than a crusade." Ballads such as " Lady Franklin's Lament ", commemorating Lady Franklin's search for her lost husband, became popular. Many joined
6072-480: The Arctic in HMS Fury , during his search for a northwestern passage to India. In 1829, Admiral Sir James Ross also took canned food to the Arctic, as did Sir John Franklin in 1845. Some of his stores were found by the search expedition led by Captain (later Admiral Sir) Leopold McClintock in 1857. One of these cans was opened in 1939 and was edible and nutritious, though it was not analysed for contamination by
6210-747: The Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean. The Northwest Passage was not navigated by boat until 1906, when Roald Amundsen traversed the passage on the Gjøa . In 2014, a search team led by Parks Canada located the wreck of Erebus in the eastern portion of Queen Maud Gulf . Two years later, the Arctic Research Foundation found the wreck of Terror south of King William Island, in the body of water named Terror Bay . Research and dive expeditions are an annual occurrence at
6348-485: The Can Manufacturers Institute, a trade association in the United States, surveyed the industry and reported that at least 90% of food cans no longer contained BPA. Salt (sodium chloride), dissolved in water, is used in the canning process, which helps prevent spoilage and can improve sensory characteristics. As a result, canned food can be a major source of dietary salt. Too much salt increases
6486-447: The Canadian coastlines, interior and adjacent Arctic seas. In the 18th century explorers of this region included James Knight , Christopher Middleton , Samuel Hearne , James Cook , Alexander MacKenzie and George Vancouver . By 1800 their discoveries had conclusively demonstrated that no Northwest Passage between the Pacific and Atlantic oceans existed in the temperate latitudes. In 1804 Sir John Barrow became Second Secretary of
6624-429: The Canadian mainland and disappeared, presumably having perished. Pressed by Franklin's wife, Jane , and others, the Admiralty launched a search for the missing expedition in 1848. In the many subsequent searches in the decades afterwards, several artefacts from the expedition were discovered, including the remains of two men, which were returned to Britain. A series of scientific studies in modern times suggested that
6762-694: The Franklin expedition south of a place now known as Starvation Cove on the Adelaide Peninsula . This was about 64 km (40 mi) north of Crozier's stated goal, the Back River, and several hundred miles away from the nearest Western outpost, on the Great Slave Lake . Woodman wrote of Inuit reports that between 1852 and 1858 Crozier and one other expedition member were seen in the Baker Lake area, about 400 km (250 mi) to
6900-462: The Franklin expedition were found at this site. In the spring of 1851, passengers and crew aboard several ships observed a huge iceberg off Newfoundland , which bore two vessels, one upright and one on its beam ends. The ships were not examined closely. It was suggested at the time that the ships could have been Erebus and Terror but it is now known that they were not; it is likely that they were abandoned whaling ships. In 1852 Edward Belcher
7038-617: The Franklin survivors would be found among the Inuit. In 1869, local Inuit took Hall to a shallow grave on the island containing well-preserved skeletal remains and fragments of clothing. These remains were taken to England and interred beneath the Franklin Memorial at Greenwich Old Royal Naval College , London . The eminent biologist Thomas Henry Huxley examined the remains and concluded that they belonged to Henry Thomas Dundas Le Vesconte , second lieutenant on Erebus . An examination in 2009 suggested that these were actually
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#17327729781147176-473: The US and Canada. There are also commercial PEF potato applications in various countries in Europe, as well as in Australia, India, and China. Modifying atmosphere is a way to preserve food by operating on the atmosphere around it. It is often used to package: This process subjects the surface of food to a "flame" of ionized gas molecules, such as helium or nitrogen. This causes micro-organisms to die off on
7314-468: The abandonment of Erebus and Terror , death of Franklin and other crew members, and the decision by the survivors to march south to the mainland. On the western extreme of King William Island, Hobson also discovered a lifeboat containing two human skeletons and relics from the Franklin expedition. In the boat was a large amount of abandoned equipment, including boots, silk handkerchiefs, scented soap, sponges, slippers, hair combs and many books, among them
7452-477: The acidity is enough to stop them from growing. Invented in 1888 by Max Ams, modern double seams provide an airtight seal to a can. This airtight nature is crucial to keeping micro-organisms out of the can and keeping the can's contents sealed inside. Thus, double seamed cans are also known as Sanitary Cans. Developed in 1900 in Europe, this sort of can was made of the traditional cylindrical body made with tin plate . The two ends ( lids ) were attached using what
7590-414: The addition of other acidic elements. Low-acid foods, such as vegetables and meats, require pressure canning. Food preserved by canning or bottling is at immediate risk of spoilage once the can or bottle has been opened. Lack of quality control in the canning process may allow ingress of water or micro-organisms. Most such failures are rapidly detected as decomposition within the can cause gas production and
7728-508: The body of the form and dates from 28 May 1847. Party consisting of 2 officers and 6 men left the ships on Monday 24th May, 1847. (Signed) GM. GORE, Lieut. The second and final part is written largely on the margins of the form owing to a lack of remaining space on the document. It was presumably written on 25 April 1848. been built by Sir James Ross in 1831–4 miles to the Northward ;– where it had been deposited by
7866-463: The boiling point requires the use of a pressure canner . Foods that must be pressure canned include most vegetables , meat , seafood , poultry , and dairy products. The only foods that may be safely canned in an ordinary boiling water bath are highly acidic ones with a pH below 4.6, such as fruits , pickled vegetables, or other foods to which acidic additives have been added. Although an ordinary boiling temperature does not kill botulism spores,
8004-476: The can could leak or spoil. One important part is the seamer setup. This process is usually performed by an experienced technician. among the parts that need setup are seamer rolls and chucks which have to be set in their exact position (using a feeler gauge or a clearance gauge ). The lifter pressure and position, roll and chuck designs, tooling wear, and bearing wear all contribute to a good double seam . Incorrect setups can be non-intuitive. For example, due to
8142-496: The can will swell or burst. However, there have been examples of poor manufacture (underprocessing) and poor hygiene allowing contamination of canned food by the obligate anaerobe Clostridium botulinum , which produces an acute toxin within the food, leading to severe illness or death. This organism produces no gas or obvious taste and remains undetected by taste or smell. Its toxin is denatured by cooking, however. Cooked mushrooms , when handled poorly and then canned, can support
8280-499: The canning process was slow and labour-intensive, as each large can had to be hand-made, and took up to six hours to cook, making canned food too expensive for ordinary people. The main market for the food at this stage was the British Army and Royal Navy . By 1817, Donkin recorded that he had sold £3000 worth of canned meat in six months. In 1824, Sir William Edward Parry took canned beef and pea soup with him on his voyage to
8418-509: The coast. In August, Anderson and Stewart found a piece of wood inscribed with "Erebus" and another that said "Mr. Stanley" (surgeon aboard Erebus ) on Montreal Island in Chantrey Inlet , where the Back River meets the sea. Despite the findings of Rae and Anderson, the Admiralty did not plan another search of its own. The Royal Navy officially labelled the crew deceased in service on 31 March 1854. Lady Franklin, failing to convince
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#17327729781148556-563: The complex, less flavorful proteins and fats into simpler, more flavorful ones. Canning involves cooking food, sealing it in sterilized cans or jars, and boiling the containers to kill or weaken any remaining bacteria as a form of sterilization . It was invented by the French confectioner Nicolas Appert . By 1806, this process was used by the French Navy to preserve meat, fruit, vegetables, and even milk. Although Appert had discovered
8694-501: The consumer level, is that vacuum sealing can deform contents and rob certain foods, such as cheese, of its flavor. Freeze drying , also known as lyophilization or cryodesiccation, is a low temperature dehydration process that involves freezing the product and lowering pressure, thereby removing the ice by sublimation . This is in contrast to dehydration by most conventional methods that evaporate water using heat. Preservative food additives can be antimicrobial – which inhibit
8832-534: The crew were English, many from Northern England , with smaller numbers of Irish, Welsh and Scottish members. Two of the sailors were not born in the British Isles: Charles Johnson was from Halifax , Nova Scotia , Canada, and Henry Lloyd was from Kristiansand , Norway. The only officers with experience of the Arctic were Franklin, Crozier, Erebus First Lieutenant Graham Gore , Terror assistant surgeon Alexander McDonald , and
8970-506: The dying sailors. The Inuit showed Rae many objects that were identified as having belonged to members of the Franklin expedition. In particular, Rae bought from the Inuit several silver forks and spoons later identified as belonging to Franklin, Fitzjames, James Walter Fairholme , and Robert Orme Sargent of the Erebus , and Francis Rawdon Moira Crozier , captain of the Terror . Rae's report
9108-498: The era of mechanical refrigeration, cooling for food storage occurred in the forms of root cellars and iceboxes . Rural people often did their own ice cutting , whereas town and city dwellers often relied on the ice trade . Today, root cellaring remains popular among people who value various goals, including local food , heirloom crops , traditional home cooking techniques , family farming , frugality , self-sufficiency , organic farming , and others. The earliest form of curing
9246-601: The expedition on 7 February 1845, and his official instructions on 5 May 1845. Erebus (378 tons bm ) and Terror (331 tons bm) were sturdily built and well equipped, including several recent inventions. Steam engines were fitted, driving a single screw propeller in each vessel; these engines were converted former locomotives from the London & Croydon Railway . The ships could make 7.4 km/h (4.0 kn ) on steam power, or travel under wind power to reach higher speeds and/or save fuel. Other advanced technology in
9384-403: The expedition's notorious failure, it did succeed in exploring the vicinity of one of the many Northwest Passages that would eventually be discovered. Robert McClure led one of the expeditions that investigated the fate of Franklin's expedition, a voyage which was also beset by great challenges and later controversies. McClure's expedition returned after finding an ice-bound route that connected
9522-576: The final crew to 129 men. In late July 1845 the whalers Prince of Wales (Captain Dannett) and Enterprise (Captain Robert Martin) encountered Terror and Erebus in Baffin Bay , where they were waiting for good conditions to cross to Lancaster Sound . The expedition was never seen again by Europeans. Only limited information is available for subsequent events, pieced together over
9660-406: The flange. Once brought together in the seamer, the seaming head presses a first operation roller against the end curl. The end curl is pressed against the flange curling it in toward the body and under the flange. The flange is also bent downward, and the end and body are now loosely joined. The first operation roller is then retracted. At this point five thicknesses of steel exist in the seam. From
9798-539: The food being preserved becomes saturated with the pickling agent. Common chemically pickled foods include cucumbers , peppers , corned beef , herring , and eggs , as well as mixed vegetables such as piccalilli . In fermentation pickling, bacteria in the liquid produce organic acids as preservation agents, typically by a process that produces lactic acid through the presence of lactobacillales . Fermented pickles include sauerkraut , nukazuke , kimchi , and surströmming . The earliest cultures have used sugar as
9936-539: The food from being spoiled before and during containment, a number of methods are used: pasteurisation, boiling (and other applications of high temperature over a period of time), refrigeration, freezing, drying, vacuum treatment, antimicrobial agents that are natural to the recipe of the foods being preserved, a sufficient dose of ionizing radiation, submersion in a strong saline solution, acid, base, osmotically extreme (for example very sugary) or other microbially-challenging environments. Other than sterilization , no method
10074-453: The food will remain safe from microbial spoilage." Sugar is used to preserve fruits, either in an antimicrobial syrup with fruit such as apples, pears, peaches, apricots, and plums, or in crystallized form where the preserved material is cooked in sugar to the point of crystallization and the resultant product is then stored dry. This method is used for the skins of citrus fruit (candied peel), angelica , and ginger . Sugaring can be used in
10212-642: The food, which will change its flavor and texture. Lutefisk uses lye in its preparation, as do some olive recipes. Modern recipes for century eggs also call for lye. Pickling is a method of preserving food in an edible, antimicrobial liquid. Pickling can be broadly classified into two categories: chemical pickling and fermentation pickling. In chemical pickling, the food is placed in an edible liquid that inhibits or kills bacteria and other microorganisms. Typical pickling agents include brine (high in salt), vinegar , alcohol , and vegetable oil . Many chemical pickling processes also involve heating or boiling so that
10350-431: The freezer, but potatoes themselves require only a cool dark place to ensure many months' storage. Cold stores provide large-volume, long-term storage for strategic food stocks held in case of national emergency in many countries. Heating to temperatures which are sufficient to kill microorganisms inside the food is a method used with perpetual stews . Food may be preserved by cooking in a material that solidifies to form
10488-492: The fruit used. In English, the word preserves , in plural form, is used to describe all types of jams and jellies. In rural Afghanistan , grapes are preserved in disc-shaped vessels made of mud and straw, called kangina . The vessels, which can preserve fresh grapes for up to 6 months, passively control their internal environments to restrict gas exchange and water loss, prolonging the lives of late-harvested grapes stored within them. Meat can be preserved by jugging. Jugging
10626-501: The government to fund another search, personally commissioned one more expedition under Francis Leopold McClintock . The expedition ship, the steam schooner Fox , bought via public subscription, sailed from Aberdeen on 2 July 1857. In April 1859, sled parties set out from Fox to search on King William Island. On 5 May, the party led by Lieutenant William Hobson discovered the Victory Point Note , which detailed
10764-542: The grocery store shelves. According to The Fruits of Empire: Art, Food and the Politics of Race in the Age of American Expansion by Shana Klein, "Workers also suffered injuries, specifically bruised knuckles and open sores, from trimming and packaging pineapples. Gloves were one preventative measure to protect a canner's hands from the acidity of the pineapple, but gloves did not always help." In canning toxicology, migration
10902-410: The ground, such as in a storage clamp (not to be confused with a root cellar ). Cabbage was traditionally buried during autumn in northern US farms for preservation. Some methods keep it crispy while other methods produce sauerkraut . A similar process is used in the traditional production of kimchi . Sometimes meat is buried under conditions that cause preservation. If buried on hot coals or ashes,
11040-475: The growth of Staphylococcus aureus , which produces a toxin that is not destroyed by canning or subsequent reheating. Meat can be preserved by salting it, cooking it at or near 100 °C (212 °F) in some kind of fat (such as lard or tallow ), and then storing it immersed in the fat. These preparations were popular in Europe before refrigerators became ubiquitous. They are still popular in France, where
11178-613: The growth of bacteria or fungi , including mold – or antioxidant , such as oxygen absorbers , which inhibit the oxidation of food constituents. Common antimicrobial preservatives include nisin , sorbates , calcium propionate , sodium nitrate / nitrite , sulfites ( sulfur dioxide , sodium bisulfite , potassium hydrogen sulfite , etc.), EDTA , hinokitiol , and ε-polylysine . Antioxidants include tocopherols (Vitamin E), butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) and butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT). Other preservatives include ethanol . There
11316-782: The heat can kill pathogens, the dry ash can desiccate, and the earth can block oxygen and further contamination. If buried where the earth is very cold, the earth acts like a refrigerator, or, in areas of permafrost , a freezer. In Odisha, India , it is practical to store rice by burying it underground. This method helps to store for three to six months during the dry season. Butter and similar substances have been preserved as bog butter in Irish peat bogs for centuries. Century eggs are traditionally created by placing eggs in alkaline mud (or other alkaline substance), resulting in their "inorganic" fermentation through raised pH instead of spoiling. The fermentation preserves them and breaks down some of
11454-506: The hoped-for papers, in a speech at a dinner given in his honour by the American Geographical Society in 1880, he said that his expedition had made "the longest sledge journey ever made both in regard to time and distance" of eleven months and four days and 4,360 km (2,710 mi), that it was the first Arctic expedition on which the whites relied entirely on the same diet as the Inuit, and that it established
11592-522: The island. Thirty or forty men reached the northern coast of the mainland before dying, still hundreds of miles from the nearest outpost of Western civilisation . The Victory Point note was found eleven years later in May 1859 by William Hobson (lieutenant on the McClintock Arctic expedition ) placed in a cairn on the north-western coast of King William Island. It consists of two parts written on
11730-531: The late Commander Gore in May June 1847. Sir James Ross' pillar has not been found and the paper has been transferred to this position which is that in which Sir J. Ross' pillar was erected – Sir John Franklin died on the 11th June, 1847; and the total loss by deaths in the expedition has been to this date 9 officers and 15 men. (Signed) JAMES FITZJAMES, Captain H.M.S. Erebus. (Signed) F.R.M. CROZIER, Captain & Senior Offr. In 1859 Hobson found
11868-480: The lead solder used in its manufacture. During the mid-19th century, canned food became a status symbol among middle-class households in Europe , being something of a frivolous novelty . Early methods of manufacture employed poisonous lead solder for sealing the cans. Studies in the 1980s attributed the lead from the cans as a factor in the disastrous outcome of the 1845 Franklin expedition to chart and navigate
12006-425: The list of food items that are stocked during emergencies. In the beginning of the 19th century the process of canning foods was mainly done by small canneries. These canneries were full of overlooked sanitation problems, such as poor hygiene and unsanitary work environments. Since the refrigerator did not exist and industrial canning standards were not set in place it was very common for contaminated cans to slip onto
12144-471: The loss of the Franklin records "beyond all reasonable doubt". Schwatka was successful in locating the remains of one of Franklin's men, identified by personal effects as John Irving , third lieutenant aboard Terror . Schwatka had Irving's remains returned to Scotland, where they were buried with full honours at Dean Cemetery in Edinburgh on 7 January 1881. The Schwatka expedition found no remnants of
12282-574: The men of the expedition did not all die quickly. Hypothermia , starvation , lead poisoning or zinc deficiency and diseases including scurvy , along with general exposure to a hostile environment while lacking adequate clothing and nutrition, killed everyone on the expedition in the years after it was last sighted by a whaling ship in July 1845. Cut marks on some of the bones recovered during these studies also supported allegations of cannibalism reported by Franklin searcher John Rae in 1854. Despite
12420-450: The metal-to-metal contact will not maintain a hermetic seal. In most cases, a rubberized compound is placed inside the end curl radius, forming the critical seal between the end and the body. Probably the most important innovation since the introduction of double seams is the welded side seam. Prior to the welded side seam, the can body was folded and/or soldered together, leaving a relatively thick side seam. The thick side seam required that
12558-512: The muscles of the face and then spreads towards the limbs. The botulinum toxin is extremely dangerous because it cannot be detected by sight or smell, and ingestion of even a small amount of the toxin can be deadly. In severe forms, it leads to paralysis of the breathing muscles and causes respiratory failure . In view of this life-threatening complication, all suspected cases of botulism are treated as medical emergencies , and public health officials are usually involved to prevent further cases from
12696-410: The next 150 years by other expeditions, explorers, scientists and interviews with Inuit . The only first-hand information on the expedition's progress is the two-part Victory Point Note ( see below ) found in the aftermath on King William Island. Franklin's men spent the winter of 1845–46 on Beechey Island , where three crew members died and were buried. After travelling down Peel Sound through
12834-842: The nineteenth century, such as the Crimean War , American Civil War , and Franco-Prussian War , introduced increasing numbers of working-class men to canned food, and allowed canning companies to expand their businesses to meet military demands for non-perishable food, enabling companies to manufacture in bulk and sell to wider civilian markets after wars ended. Urban populations in Victorian Britain demanded ever-increasing quantities of cheap, varied, quality food that they could keep at home without having to go shopping daily. In response, companies such as Underwood , Nestlé , Heinz , and others provided quality canned food for sale to working class city-dwellers. The late 19th century saw
12972-402: The outside in they are: The seaming head then engages the second operation roller against the partly formed seam. The second operation presses all five steel components together tightly to form the final seal. The five layers in the final seam are then called; a) End, b) Body Hook, c) Cover Hook, d) Body, e) Countersink. All sanitary cans require a filling medium within the seam because otherwise
13110-572: The passage to Greenland took 30 days. At the Whalefish Islands in Disko Bay , on the west coast of Greenland, ten oxen carried on Barretto Junior were slaughtered for fresh meat which was transferred to Erebus and Terror . Crew members then wrote their last letters home, which recorded that Franklin had banned swearing and drunkenness. Five men were discharged due to sickness and sent home on Rattler and Barretto Junior , reducing
13248-492: The performance of each head or seaming station of the can seamer allows for better prediction of can seamer issues, and may be used to plan maintenance when convenient, rather than to simply react after bad or unsafe cans have been produced. Canning is a way of processing food to extend its shelf life . The idea is to make food available and edible long after the processing time. A 1997 study found that canned fruits and vegetables are as rich with dietary fiber and vitamins as
13386-400: The production of jam and jelly . Techniques of food preservation were developed in research laboratories for commercial applications. Aseptic processing works by placing sterilized food (typically by heat, see ultra-high temperature processing ) into sterlized packaging material under sterile conditions. The result is a sealed, sterile food product similar to canned food, but depending on
13524-478: The production of beer and wine. Water was visually inspected, smelled, tasted, filtered, and boiled if necessary. It was used for drinking as well as for diluting wine, cooking, and many other processes. Freezing is also one of the most commonly used processes, both commercially and domestically, for preserving a very wide range of foods, including prepared foods that would not have required freezing in their unprepared state. For example, potato waffles are stored in
13662-552: The quality of the food and food systems. Some traditional methods of preserving food have been shown to have a lower energy input and carbon footprint compared to modern methods. Some methods of food preservation are also known to create carcinogens . Some techniques of food preservation pre-date the dawn of agriculture . Others were discovered more recently. Boiling liquids can kill any existing microbes. Milk and water are often boiled to kill any harmful microbes that may be present in them. Burial of food can preserve it due to
13800-460: The range of canned food available to urban populations greatly increase, as canners competed with each other using novel foodstuffs, highly decorated printed labels, and lower prices. Demand for canned food skyrocketed during World War I , as military commanders sought vast quantities of cheap, high- calorie food to feed their millions of soldiers, which could be transported safely, survive trench conditions, and not spoil in transport. Throughout
13938-477: The remainder of 1848 as they marched south from Victory Point, arguing instead that Inuit accounts point strongly to most of the 105 survivors cited by Crozier in his final note actually surviving past 1848, re-manning at least one of the ships and managing to sail it down along the coast of King William Island before it sank, with some crew members surviving as late as 1851. The hope of finding other additional expedition records led Lieutenant Frederick Schwatka of
14076-483: The remaining bacteria from growing. The milk is then stored in sterilized bottles or pouches in cold places. This method was invented by Louis Pasteur , a French chemist, in 1862. Vacuum-packing stores food in a vacuum environment, usually in an air-tight bag or bottle. The vacuum environment strips bacteria of oxygen needed for survival. Vacuum-packing is commonly used for storing nuts to reduce loss of flavor from oxidization. A major drawback to vacuum packaging, at
14214-424: The remains of Harry Goodsir , assistant surgeon on Erebus . Although Hall concluded that all of the Franklin crew were dead, he believed that the official expedition records would yet be found under a stone cairn. With the assistance of his guides Ipirvik and Taqulittuq , Hall gathered hundreds of pages of Inuit testimony. Among these materials were accounts of visits to Franklin's ships, and an encounter with
14352-487: The ripening and spoiling of fruits, and at higher doses induce sterility. The technology may be compared to pasteurization ; it is sometimes called "cold pasteurization", as the product is not heated. Irradiation may allow lower-quality or contaminated foods to be rendered marketable. National and international expert bodies have declared food irradiation as "wholesome"; organizations of the United Nations , such as
14490-629: The risk of health problems, including high blood pressure . Therefore, health authorities have recommended limitations of dietary sodium. Many canned products are available in low-salt and no-salt alternatives. Rinsing thoroughly after opening may reduce the amount of salt in canned vegetables, since much of the salt content is thought to be in the liquid, rather than the food itself. Foodborne botulism results from contaminated foodstuffs in which C. botulinum spores have been allowed to germinate and produce botulism toxin, and this typically occurs in canned non-acidic food substances that have not received
14628-431: The same corresponding fresh or frozen foods, and in some cases the canned products are richer than their fresh or frozen counterparts. The heating process during canning appears to make dietary fiber more soluble, and therefore more readily fermented in the colon into gases and physiologically active byproducts. Canned tomatoes have a higher available lycopene content. Consequently, canned meat and vegetables are often among
14766-533: The same source. Canned goods and canning supplies sell particularly well in times of recession due to the tendency of financially stressed individuals to engage in cocooning , a term used by retail analysts to describe the phenomenon in which people choose to stay at home instead of adding expenditures to their budget by dining out and socializing outside the home.. Also, some people may become preppers and proceed to stockpile canned food. A doomer would also be interested in stockpiling canned food upon learning about
14904-464: The seam open with a twin blade saw and measuring with a double seam inspection system. The combination of these measurements will determine the seam's quality. Use of a statistical process control (SPC) software in conjunction with a manual double-seam monitor, computerized double seam scanner, or even a fully automatic double seam inspection system makes the laborious process of double seam inspection faster and much more accurate. Statistically tracking
15042-536: The search. In 1850, eleven British and two American ships cruised the Canadian Arctic, including the Breadalbane and her sister ship HMS Phoenix . Several converged off the east coast of Beechey Island, where the first relics of the expedition were found, including remnants of a winter camp from 1845 to 1846. Robert Goodsir , surgeon on the brig Lady Franklin , found the graves of John Torrington , John Hartnell and William Braine . No messages from
15180-420: The second message signed by him and Crozier and deposited the note in the cairn found by Hobson eleven years later. After two years had passed with no word from Franklin, public concern grew and Jane, Lady Franklin , as well as members of Parliament and British newspapers, urged the Admiralty to send a search party. Although the Admiralty said it did not feel any reason to be alarmed, it responded by developing
15318-526: The ships and planned to walk over the island and across the sea ice towards the Back River on the Canadian mainland, beginning on 26 April 1848. In addition to Franklin, eight further officers and 15 men had also died by this point. The Victory Point Note is the last known communication of the expedition. From archaeological finds it is believed that all of the remaining crew died on the subsequent 400 km (250 mi) long march to Back River, most on
15456-519: The ships included reinforced bows constructed of heavy beams and iron plates, an internal steam heating system for the comfort of the crew in polar conditions, and a system of iron wells that allowed the screw propellers and iron rudders to be withdrawn into the hull to protect them from damage. The ships also carried libraries of more than 1,000 books and three years' supply of food, which included tinned soup and vegetables, salt-cured meat , pemmican , and several live cattle. The tinned food
15594-479: The ships, with Lieutenant Graham Gore and Mate Charles Frederick Des Voeux adding their signatures as members of the landing party. This is further supported by the fact that both documents contain the same factual errors – namely the wrong date of the wintering on Beechey Island. In 1848, after the abandonment of the ships and subsequent recovery of the document from the Victory Point cairn, Fitzjames added
15732-468: The side seam end juncture at the end curl to have more metal to curl around before closing in behind the Body Hook or flange, with a greater opportunity for error. Many different parts during the seaming process are critical in ensuring that a can is airtight and vacuum sealed. The dangers of a can that is not hermetically sealed are contamination by foreign objects (bacteria or fungicide sprays), or that
15870-545: The slow process of canning and the even slower development and transport stages prevented the army from shipping large amounts across the French Empire , and the wars ended before the process was perfected. Following the end of the Napoleonic Wars, the canning process was gradually employed in other European countries and the United States. Based on Appert's methods of food preservation, the tin can process
16008-440: The specific controlled conditions that will support the desirable organisms that produce food fit for human consumption. Fermentation is the microbial conversion of starch and sugars into alcohol. Not only can fermentation produce alcohol, but it can also be a valuable preservation technique. Fermentation can also make foods more nutritious and palatable. Water was also turned into alcoholic beverages through fermentation. When water
16146-676: The sum of European geographic knowledge about the Western Hemisphere , particularly North America. As that knowledge grew, exploration gradually shifted towards the Arctic . Sixteenth- and seventeenth-century voyagers who made geographic discoveries about North America included Martin Frobisher , John Davis , Henry Hudson and William Baffin . In 1670 the incorporation of the Hudson's Bay Company (HBC) led to further exploration of
16284-530: The summer of 1846, Terror and Erebus became trapped in ice off King William Island in September 1846 and are thought never to have sailed again. According to the second part of the Victory Point Note dated 25 April 1848 and signed by Fitzjames and Crozier, the crew had wintered off King William Island in 1846–47 and 1847–48 and Franklin had died on 11 June 1847. The remaining crew had abandoned
16422-434: The surface. High pressure can be used to disable harmful microorganisms and spoilage enzymes while retaining the food's fresh appearance, flavor, texture and nutrients. By 2005, the process was being used for products ranging from orange juice to guacamole to deli meats and widely sold. Depending on temperature and pressure settings, HP processing can achieve either pasteurization-equivalent log reduction or go all
16560-423: The technique used, damage to food quality is typically reduced compared to canned food. A greater variety of packaging materials can be used as well. Besides UHT, aseptic processing may be used in conjunction with any of the microbe-reduction technologies listed below. With pasteurization and "high pressure pasteurization", the food may not be completely sterilized (instead achieving a specified log reduction ), but
16698-573: The term originates. The preparation will keep longer if stored in a cold cellar or buried in cold ground. Cooling preserves food by slowing down the growth and reproduction of microorganisms and the action of enzymes that causes the food to rot. The introduction of commercial and domestic refrigerators drastically improved the diets of many in the Western world by allowing food such as fresh fruit, salads and dairy products to be stored safely for longer periods, particularly during warm weather. Before
16836-481: The two ice-masters , James Reid ( Erebus ) and Thomas Blanky ( Terror ). The expedition set sail from Greenhithe , Kent , on the morning of 19 May 1845, with a crew of 24 officers and 110 men. The ships stopped briefly to take aboard fresh water in Stromness , Orkney Islands , in northern Scotland. From there they sailed to Greenland with HMS Rattler and a transport ship, Barretto Junior ;
16974-432: The underlying cause of the contamination. International legislation on whether food may be irradiated or not varies worldwide from no regulation to a full ban. Approximately 500,000 tons of food items are irradiated per year worldwide in over 40 countries. These are mainly spices and condiments , with an increasing segment of fresh fruit irradiated for fruit fly quarantine. Pulsed electric field (PEF) electroporation
17112-414: The unknown parts of the Canadian Arctic that might contain a Northwest Passage to a quadrilateral area of about 181,300 km (70,000 sq mi). It was in this unexplored area that the next expedition was to sail, heading west through Lancaster Sound , then west and south – however ice, land and other obstacles might allow – with the goal of finding a Northwest Passage. The distance to be navigated
17250-426: The use of sterile packaging and environments is retained. Pasteurization is a process for preservation of liquid food. It was originally applied to combat the souring of young local wines. Today, the process is mainly applied to dairy products. In this method, milk is heated at about 70 °C (158 °F) for 15–30 seconds to kill the bacteria present in it and cooling it quickly to 10 °C (50 °F) to prevent
17388-462: The war, British soldiers generally subsisted on low-quality canned food, such as the British bully beef , pork and beans , canned sausages, and Maconochie's stew , but by 1916, widespread dissatisfaction and increasing complaints about the poor quality canned food among soldiers resulted in militaries seeking better-quality food to improve morale, and complete meals-in-a-can began to appear. In 1917,
17526-533: The way to achieve sterilization of all microbes. Franklin%27s lost expedition Franklin's lost expedition was a failed British voyage of Arctic exploration led by Captain Sir John Franklin that departed England in 1845 aboard two ships, HMS Erebus and HMS Terror , and was assigned to traverse the last unnavigated sections of the Northwest Passage in the Canadian Arctic and to record magnetic data to help determine whether
17664-491: The work of Peter Durand (1810). Cans are cheaper and quicker to make, and much less fragile than glass jars. Can openers were not invented for another thirty years. At first, soldiers would cut the cans open with bayonets or smash them open with rocks. Today, tin-coated steel is the material most commonly used. Aseptically processed retort pouches are also used for canning. Glass jars have remained popular for some high-value products and in home canning . To prevent
17802-726: The wreck of the Bertrand , a steamboat that sank in the Missouri River in 1865, were tested by the National Food Processors Association . Although appearance, smell, and vitamin content had deteriorated, there was no trace of microbial growth and the 109-year-old food was determined to be still safe to eat. Shortly before the Napoleonic Wars , the French government offered a hefty cash award of 12,000 francs to any inventor who could devise
17940-537: The wreck sites, now protected as a combined National Historic Site called the Wrecks of HMS Erebus and HMS Terror National Historic Site . The search by Europeans for a western shortcut by sea from Europe to Asia began with the voyages of Portuguese and Spanish explorers such as Bartolomeu Dias , Vasco da Gama and Christopher Columbus in the 15th century. By the mid-19th century numerous exploratory expeditions had been mounted. These voyages, when successful, added to
18078-594: Was court-martialled but acquitted . One of these ships, HMS Resolute , was eventually recovered intact by an American whaler and returned to the United Kingdom. Timbers from the ship were later used to manufacture three desks, one of which, the Resolute desk , was presented by Queen Victoria to US President Rutherford B. Hayes ; it has often been chosen by presidents for use in the Oval Office in
18216-502: Was allegedly developed by Frenchman Philippe de Girard , who came to London and used British merchant Peter Durand as an agent to patent his own idea in 1810. Durand did not pursue food canning himself, selling his patent in 1811 to Bryan Donkin and John Hall , who were in business as Donkin Hall and Gamble, of Bermondsey . Bryan Donkin developed the process of packaging food in sealed airtight cans, made of tinned wrought iron. Initially,
18354-495: Was dehydration or drying , used as early as 12,000 BC. Smoking and salting techniques improve on the drying process and add antimicrobial agents that aid in preservation. Smoke deposits a number of pyrolysis products onto the food, including the phenols syringol , guaiacol and catechol . Salt accelerates the drying process using osmosis and also inhibits the growth of several common strains of bacteria. More recently nitrites have been used to cure meat, contributing
18492-412: Was given command of the government Arctic expedition in search of Franklin. It was unsuccessful; Belcher's inability to render himself popular with his subordinates was peculiarly unfortunate on an Arctic voyage and he was not wholly suited to commanding vessels among ice. Four of the five ships ( HMS Resolute , Pioneer , Assistance and Intrepid ) were abandoned in pack ice , for which Belcher
18630-405: Was roughly 1,670 km (1,040 mi). In 1845, leading Admiralty figure Sir John Barrow was 82 years old and nearing the end of his career. He felt that the expeditions were close to finding a Northwest Passage, perhaps through what Barrow believed to be an ice-free Open Polar Sea around the North Pole. Barrow deliberated over who should command the next expedition. Parry, his first choice,
18768-525: Was sent to the Admiralty, which in October 1854 urged the HBC to send an expedition down the Back River to search for other signs of Franklin and his men. Next were Chief Factor James Anderson and HBC employee James Stewart, who travelled north by canoe to the mouth of the Back River. In July 1855, a band of Inuit told them of a group of qallunaat ( Inuktitut for "whites" or "Europeans", perhaps best translated as "foreigners") who had starved to death along
18906-424: Was supplied from a provisioner, Stephen Goldner, who was awarded the contract on 1 April 1845, a mere seven weeks before Franklin set sail. Goldner worked frantically on the large order of 8,000 tins. The haste required affected quality control of some of the tins, which were later found to have lead soldering that was "thick and sloppily done, and dripped like melted candle wax down the inside surface". Most of
19044-423: Was tired of the Arctic and politely declined. His second choice, James Clark Ross, also declined because he had promised his new wife that he had finished polar exploration . His third choice, James Fitzjames , was rejected by the Admiralty for his youth. Barrow also considered Back but thought he was too argumentative. Francis Crozier , another candidate, declined out of modesty. Reluctantly, Barrow settled on
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