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67-400: The ninety-one songs are made up of short stanzas averaging about thirty words each, presented in the manuscript as hanging paragraphs (of which there are about 1,700). Many of the songs have eight stanzas; most have more, and the longest has 114. From internal evidence and the contemporary ethnography of Sahagún and other observers, we know that such songs were performed to the accompaniment of

134-477: A general election which saw President Daniel Ortega re-elected to a fourth term in office. In a vote by the OAS Permanent Council, 25 member states voted in favour of a resolution condemning the election. Seven countries, including Mexico, Honduras and Bolivia, abstained. The motion stated that the election was "not free, fair or transparent and lack[s] democratic legitimacy" and also instructed

201-524: A European focus; resulting in the Canadian government seeing little value in pursuing OAS membership. From the 1960s to the 1980s, the Canadian government expressed some interest in joining the OAS, having successfully applied for permanent observer status in 1972 to evaluate potential membership. In the 1980s, the Canadian government incrementally increased its participation in OAS activities. Canada signed

268-677: A Style Committee shall be set up with representatives of the four official languages to review the General Assembly resolutions and declarations. Article 53 states that proposals shall be presented in the four official languages. The Rules of Procedure and Statutes of other bodies, such as the Inter-American Council for Integral Development (CIDI), the Permanent Executive Committee of the Inter-American Council for Integral Development (CEPCIDI),

335-471: A common military, a mutual defense pact, and a supranational parliamentary assembly. The meeting was attended by representatives of Gran Colombia , comprising the present-day countries of Colombia , Ecuador , Panama , and Venezuela , Argentina , Peru , Bolivia , the United Provinces of Central America , and Mexico but the grandly titled "Treaty of Union, League, and Perpetual Confederation"

402-418: A constitutional monarchy. However, U.S. opposition to Canadian membership prevented their admittance, with the U.S. fearing the admittance of Canada to the OAS would bring with it British influence that could impede its freedom of action within the organization. The U.S. reversed its position on Canadian membership in 1947. However, by that time, Canadian foreign policy had adopted an Atlanticist position with

469-642: A coup. On 21 December, the Technical Mission of Electoral Experts sent by the European Union published a 67-page report made similar observations and conclusions to that of the OAS. They noted that "there were minutes with an unusually high number of null votes, blank votes and a hundred percent participation of voters in a series of polling stations" and highlighted the general failure of the TSE to declare these irregularities. Studies commissioned by

536-769: A full member, Canada was instrumental in the creation of the Unit for the Promotion of Democracy, which provides support for the strengthening and consolidation of democratic processes and institutions in OAS member states. During the 6th Conference of Foreign Ministers of the Organization of American States (OAS) in Costa Rica , from 16 to 20 August 1960, a conviction against the State of the Dominican Republic

603-491: A living, León-Portilla began attending law school and worked at a financial firm. At the same time he taught at Mexico City College , an English-language school in the Condesa neighborhood. Other instructors included important scholars of Mexican indigenous history and culture, Wigberto Jiménez Moreno , Fernando Horcasitas, and Eduardo Noguera. Gamio persuaded León-Portilla to drop his law studies and job in business to work at

670-632: A movement to understand and re-evaluate Nahuatl literature and religion, not only from the pre-Columbian era, but also that of the present day, especially since Nahuatl is still spoken by 1.5 million people. His works in English on literature included Pre-Columbian Literatures of Mexico (1986), Fifteen Poets of the Aztec World (2000), and with Earl Shorris , In the Language of Kings: An Anthology of Mesoamerican Literature, Pre-Columbian to

737-658: A serious possibility while the present government remained in power. Since 1960, the Cuban administration had repeatedly characterized the OAS as the "Ministry of Colonies" of the United States of America. Fidel Castro and his brother Raúl attacked the OAS as a "Yankee bordello" and "instrument of imperialist domination" and vowed that Cuba would never join, although OAS rescinded the nation's expulsion in 2009 and invited it to apply for readmission. Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez promised to veto any final declaration of

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804-503: A special envoy as representative to the OAS, lawyer Gustavo Tarre Briceño , who the OAS voted to recognize as Venezuela's delegate in April. In October 2022, a bloc of leftist OAS member states led a motion to remove Tarre's representation in the organization. Out of 35 members, 19 nations voted in favor of the motion and 4 against. The motion fell short of the 24 votes required for a two-thirds majority. On 7 November 2021, Nicaragua held

871-667: Is an international organization founded on 30 April 1948 to promote cooperation among its member states within the Americas . Headquartered in Washington, D.C. , United States, the OAS is a "multilateral regional body focused on human rights, electoral oversight, social and economic development, and security in the Western Hemisphere", according to the Council on Foreign Relations . As of November 2023, 32 states in

938-449: The 2019 Bolivian general election , which opposition supporters argued was fraudulent. The OAS report contended that the results were marred by "clear manipulation" and significant irregularities leading to the 2019 Bolivian political crisis . Bolivian president Evo Morales resigned soon after, having lost the confidence of the country's military in what he described as a coup. Some media outlets debated whether it should be referred to as

1005-623: The American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man , the world's first general human rights instrument. The transition from the Pan American Union to OAS would have been smooth if it had not been for the assassination of Colombian leader Jorge Eliécer Gaitán . The Director General of the Pan American Union, Alberto Lleras Camargo , became the Organization's first Secretary General . The OAS conducted an audit of

1072-631: The Cantares and other Mesoamerican codices, agrees with León-Portilla and Garibay that the songs are part of a long aesthetic and philosophical tradition predating the Conquest. Miguel Le%C3%B3n-Portilla Miguel León-Portilla (22 February 1926 – 1 October 2019) was a Mexican anthropologist and historian, specializing in Aztec culture and literature of the pre-Columbian and colonial eras. Many of his works were translated to English and he

1139-674: The Inter-American Commission of Women (CIM), the Inter-American Drug Abuse Control Commission (CICAD), the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (IACHR) and the Inter-American Juridical Committee (CJI), technical bodies of the OAS, also mention the four official languages in which their meetings are to be conducted. Policy is therefore dictated through these instruments that require use of

1206-734: The Inter-American Indian Institute  [ es ; pt ] , a specialized organization of the Organization of American States , which Gamio directed. León-Portilla began graduate studies at the UNAM , completing his doctoral dissertation, La Filosofía Náhuatl estudiada en sus fuentes, in 1956, which launched his scholarly career. His dissertation on Nahua philosophy was published in Mexico, and then translated to English as Aztec Thought and Culture: A Study of

1273-540: The 2009 Summit of the Americas due to Cuba's exclusion. On 17 April 2009, after a "trading of warm words" between the administrations of U.S. President Barack Obama and Cuban leader Raúl Castro , OAS Secretary General José Miguel Insulza said he would ask the 2009 General Assembly to annul the 1962 resolution excluding Cuba. On 3 June 2009, foreign ministers assembled in San Pedro Sula , Honduras , for

1340-506: The American left-leaning think tank CEPR argued that the OAS report's statistical analysis was inaccurate and unreliable. The author of the OAS's vote return analysis stated that the CEPR's explanation of the results was implausible. The organization has been criticized by Mexico and the CEPR for their perception of interference into the internal affairs of Bolivia. The OAS observed

1407-405: The Americas are OAS members. Luis Almagro of Uruguay was inaugurated as OAS secretary general in 2015. The notion of an international union in the American continent was first put forward during the liberation of America by José de San Martín and Simón Bolívar who, at the 1826 Congress of Panama , still being part of Colombia , proposed creating a league of American republics, with

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1474-551: The Ancient Nahuatl Mind (1967) and then many other languages. It was the first of his many works to be translated to English. His translations of Nahuatl and Spanish texts on the conquest of Mexico, first published in Mexico as Visión de los vencidos , translated to English as The Broken Spears , is the way many undergraduate students in the United States are introduced to accounts from indigenous participants and not Spanish conquistadors. León-Portilla spearheaded

1541-455: The Assembly's gesture, in light of the Organization's historical record "Cuba will not return to the OAS." Following the expulsion of its President Manuel Zelaya , Honduras' membership of the Organization was suspended unanimously at midnight on 5 July 2009. The de facto government had already announced it was leaving the OAS hours earlier; this was not, however, taken into account by

1608-565: The Aztecs , as well as a dictionary and concordance . Although Bierhorst's transcription was appreciated by scholars for its accuracy and faithfulness to the original manuscript, his translations were criticized as misleading and colored by his view that the Cantares are "ghost songs", part of a colonial revitalization movement parallel to the ghost dances of the Plains Indians . David Bowles, in his translations of selected poems from

1675-557: The Charter of the Organization of American States in 1989. Canada's membership in the OAS was formalized when the decision was ratified in 1990. In 2004 and 2005, Canada was the second largest contributor to the OAS, with an annual assessed contribution representing 12.36 percent of the OAS Regular Budget (US$ 9.2 million) and an additional C$ 9 million in voluntary contributions to specific projects. Shortly after joining as

1742-574: The Cuban nation was still technically a member state, but that the current government was denied the right of representation and attendance at meetings and of participation in activities. The OAS's position was that although Cuba's participation was suspended, its obligations under the Charter, the American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man , etc. still hold: for instance, the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights continues to publish reports on Cuba's human rights situation and to hear individual cases involving Cuban nationals. However, this stance

1809-441: The General Assembly on a rotating basis. The states are represented at its sessions by their chosen delegates: generally, their ministers of foreign affairs, or their appointed deputies. Each state has one vote, and most matters are settled by a majority vote, except for those for which the Charter or the General Assembly's own rules of procedure specifically require a two-thirds majority. The General Assembly's powers include setting

1876-750: The Instituto de Ciencias in Guadalajara and then earned a B.A. (1948) and M.A. summa cum laude (1951) at the Jesuit Loyola University in Los Angeles. Returning to Mexico in 1952, he showed Gamio a play he had written on Quetzalcoatl , which resulted in Gamio introducing his nephew to Ángel Garibay K. , whose publications in the 1930s and 1940s first brought Nahuatl literature to widespread public attention in Mexico. Needing to make

1943-605: The Living Legend Award from the U.S. Library of Congress. He was also a member of the Mexican Academy of Language and the Mexican Academy of History . León-Portilla married Ascensión Hernández Triviño , a Spanish linguist and academic, in 1965. Their daughter, Marisa León-Portilla, is also a historian. León-Portilla died in Mexico City on 1 October 2019 after having been hospitalized for much of

2010-582: The OAS included Canada and the newly independent nations of the Caribbean . Members with later admission dates (sorted chronologically): Although admission into OAS's predecessor, the Pan American Union, was initially restricted to republics, several overtures were still made for Canada to join the organization in 1928, 1933, 1936, and 1938. During the 1936 Pan American Union Conference, the organization extended its membership from only "American republics" to "American states" to accommodate Canada's admission as

2077-492: The OAS made major efforts to reinvent itself to fit the new context. Its stated priorities now include the following: The Organization of American States is composed of a General Secretariat, the Permanent Council , the Inter-American Council for Integral Development, and a number of committees. The General Secretariat of the Organization of American States consists of six secretariats . The various committees of

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2144-760: The OAS on 19 November that year. As of 31 January 2014, there are 69 permanent observer countries including the four countries with territory or territories in the Americas—Denmark, France, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom; as well as the European Union and India . In March 2022, the OAS voted to suspend Russia as a permanent observer due to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine . The Organization's official languages are Spanish , Portuguese , French , and English . The Charter,

2211-550: The OAS on 29 July 1960. The current government of Cuba was excluded from participation in the Organization under a decision adopted by the Eighth Meeting of Consultation in Punta del Este , Uruguay , on 31 January 1962. The vote was passed by 14 in favor, with one against (Cuba) and six abstentions (Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Ecuador, and Mexico). The operative part of the resolution reads as follows: This meant that

2278-420: The OAS's 39th General Assembly , passed a vote to lift Cuba's suspension from the OAS. The United States had been pressuring the OAS for weeks to condition Cuba's readmission to the group on democratic principles and commitment to human rights. Ecuador's Foreign Minister Fander Falconí said there will be no such conditions. "This is a new proposal, it has no conditions—of any kind," Falconí said. "That suspension

2345-473: The OAS's general course and policies by means of resolutions and declarations; approving its budget and determining the contributions payable by the member states; approving the reports and previous year's actions of the OAS's specialized agencies; and electing members to serve on those agencies. Upon its foundation in 1948, the OAS had 21 members, most of them in Latin America : The later expansion of

2412-462: The OAS, which did not recognize that government as legitimate. An extraordinary meeting had been conducted by the OAS in Washington, D.C., with Zelaya in attendance. The suspension of Honduras was approved unanimously with 33 votes (Honduras did not vote). This was the first suspension carried out by the OAS since that of Cuba in 1962. After Zelaya's return to Honduras in 2011, the country

2479-729: The OAS. During the 2019 Venezuelan presidential crisis , the President of the National Assembly of Venezuela Juan Guaidó , who was recognized by the National Assembly as the acting president, sent a letter to the OAS Secretary General annulling the previous denunciation of the OAS Charter, and expressing his desire for Venezuela to remain a member of the OAS. The National Assembly designated

2546-548: The Organization of American States include: The various commissions of the Organization of American States include: The OAS has two funds, one for the General Secretariat, and one for specific programs and initiatives. The General Assembly asks for contributions from each member country based on its capacity to pay. In 2018 the General Secretariat's budget was $ 85 million of which the US contributed $ 50 million. In 2017

2613-495: The Permanent Council to undertake an assessment of the situation and "take appropriate action". In response to this statement, Nicaraguan Foreign Minister Denis Moncada  [ es ] announced on 19 November that Nicaragua would leave the OAS. Moncada called the bloc "an instrument of interference and intervention" and accused it of "facilitating the hegemony of the United States with its interventionism over

2680-801: The Present (2002). He also compared the literature of the Nahuas with that of the Inca. Another area of research was on indigenous religion and spirituality, with works including Native Meso-American Spirituality (1980), and South and Meso-American Native Spirituality: From the Cult of the Feathered Serpent to the Theology of Liberation (1997). He also published a work on the Maya, Time and Reality in

2747-594: The Thought of the Maya (1990). León-Portilla was instrumental in bringing to light the works of Franciscan Fr. Bernardino de Sahagún , a 16th-century primary source on the Aztec civilization, whose twelve-volume General History of the Things of New Spain , often referred to as the Florentine Codex , are crucial for understanding Nahua religion, society, and culture, as well as for providing an account of

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2814-443: The US contributed $ 17 million to the fund for specific programs which was almost a third of the total contributions for that year. The General Assembly is the supreme decision-making body of OAS. It convenes once every year in a regular session. In special circumstances, and with the approval of two-thirds of the member states, the Permanent Council can convene special sessions. The Organization's member states take turns hosting

2881-463: The basic instrument governing OAS, makes no reference to the use of official languages. These references are to be found in the Rules of Procedure governing the various OAS bodies. Article 51 of the Rules of Procedure of the General Assembly, the supreme body of the OAS, which meets once a year, states that English, French, Portuguese, and Spanish are the four official languages. Article 28 stipulates that

2948-455: The completion of its withdrawal process from the OAS initiated in November 2021. The OAS stated that, due to the terms of treaty, the withdrawal would not take effect until 2023. The move was completed on 19 November that year. Significant milestones in the history of the OAS since the signing of the Charter have included the following: In the words of Article 1 of the Charter, the goal of

3015-538: The conquest of Mexico from the Mexica viewpoint. León-Portilla was the first to denote Sahagún as the "Father of Anthropology in the New World". He contributed to the understanding of the development of the field of Mesoamerican history in Mexico. With Garibay, León-Portilla made contributions to the study of nineteenth-century Mesoamerican historian Manuel Orozco y Berra . León-Portilla also published two volumes on

3082-642: The countries of Latin America and the Caribbean." According to Article 143 of the OAS Charter, the process to withdraw from the organization takes two years after its announcement. In April 2022, Nicaragua announced that it had completed its withdrawal from the OAS. It said the OAS offices in Managua had been closed. The OAS stated that, due to the terms of treaty, the withdrawal would not take effect until 2023. Nicaragua eventually completed its withdrawal from

3149-555: The early history and ethnography of the Baja California Peninsula . He addressed this region in more than 30 books and articles, including a 1995 volume collecting several of his earlier publications. Early in his academic career in 1969, he was awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship . That was the first of many academic awards and recognitions, including the Belisario Domínguez Medal of Honor ,

3216-919: The forefront in 1889–1890, at the First International Conference of American States . Gathered together in Washington, D.C., 18 nations resolved to found the International Union of American Republics, served by a permanent secretariat called the Commercial Bureau of the American Republics (renamed the International Commercial Bureau at the Second International Conference in 1901–1902). These two bodies, in existence as of 14 April 1890, represent

3283-447: The highest award bestowed by the Mexican Senate. In 1970, he was elected to membership of Mexico's National College and, in 1995, to membership of the United States National Academy of Sciences . From 1987 to 1992, he served as his country's permanent delegate to UNESCO , during which time he successfully nominated five pre-Columbian sites in Mexico for inclusion on the World Heritage List . On 12 December 2013, León-Portilla received

3350-402: The inter-American system. All countries, including the United States and Haiti , broke off diplomatic relations with the Dominican Republic. Additionally an economic blockade that affected the exports of sugar was applied, which at that time was the pillar of the Dominican economy. It was the first application of the Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance , which had been adopted at

3417-432: The member nations in creating the OAS was "to achieve an order of peace and justice, to promote their solidarity, to strengthen their collaboration, and to defend their sovereignty, their territorial integrity, and their independence." Article 2 then defines eight essential purposes: Over the course of the 1990s, with the end of the Cold War , the return to democracy in Latin America , and the thrust toward globalization ,

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3484-534: The mid-1930s, U.S. President Franklin Delano Roosevelt organized an inter-American conference in Buenos Aires. One of the items at the conference was a " League of Nations of the Americas", an idea proposed by Colombia, Guatemala, and the Dominican Republic. At the subsequent Inter-American Conference for the Maintenance of Peace, 21 nations pledged to remain neutral in the event of a conflict between any two members. The experience of World War II convinced hemispheric governments that unilateral action could not ensure

3551-418: The point of inception to which the OAS and its General Secretariat trace their origins. At the fourth International Conference of American States ( Buenos Aires , 1910), the name of the organization was changed to the Union of American Republics and the Bureau became the Pan American Union. The Pan American Union Building was constructed in 1910, on Constitution Avenue , Northwest, Washington, D.C. In

3618-426: The second and third volumes of his Poesía náhuatl (1965, 1968). It was not until Miguel León-Portilla edited a two-volume Spanish translation of the codex, published by the National Autonomous University of Mexico , that entire Cantares was rendered in Spanish. A complete paleographic transcription and English translation of the Cantares was published in 1985 by John Bierhorst as Cantares Mexicanos: Songs of

3685-421: The subsequent 2020 Bolivian general election stating there was no evidence of fraud. The New York Times concluded that there was some fraud, but that it was unclear how much or if it was sufficient to change the result of the election, and suggested the initial analysis by the OAS was flawed. In November 2021, OAS condemned the outcome of the Nicaraguan general election . In April 2022, Nicaragua reported

3752-404: The territorial integrity of the American nations in the event of external aggression. To meet the challenges of global conflict in the postwar world and to contain conflicts within the hemisphere, they adopted a system of collective security , the Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance (Rio Treaty) signed in 1947 in Rio de Janeiro . The ninth International Conference of American States

3819-426: The upright skin drum ( huehuetl ) and the horizontal log drum ( teponaztli ), each capable of producing two tones spanning an interval such as a fifth or a major third. Gongs, horns, and other instruments could be added; the full program might include costumed dancing, often with mimicry. A Spanish edition and translation of much of the manuscript was given by the great Mexican scholar, Ángel María Garibay Kintana, in

3886-400: The work of Mesoamerican humanists, including his mentor Garibay. In the field of colonial Nahuatl studies, particularly the New Philology , León-Portilla's work on a collection of late sixteenth-century wills in Nahuatl, The Testaments of Culhuacan , contributed to the understanding of local-level interactions within a Nahua town. A subordinate but important interest of León-Portilla was

3953-501: The year. The federal Secretariat of Culture announced that his body would lie in state on 3 October 2019 at the Palacio de Bellas Artes . León-Portilla wrote more than a 150 articles and more than forty books. A select list is below. Organization of American States The Organization of American States ( OAS or OEA ; Spanish : Organización de los Estados Americanos ; Portuguese : Organização dos Estados Americanos ; French : Organisation des États américains )

4020-493: Was a well-recognized scholar internationally. In 2013, the Library of Congress of the United States bestowed on him the Living Legend Award . Born in Mexico City, Miguel León-Portilla had an interest in indigenous Mexico from an early age, fostered by his uncle Manuel Gamio , a distinguished archeologist. Gamio had a lasting influence on his life and career, initially taking him as a boy on trips to important archeological sites in Mexico and later as well. León-Portilla attended

4087-399: Was agreed to unanimously. The penalty was motivated because the foreign ministers checked the veracity of the claim that the Rafael Trujillo regime had sponsored an attack against Rómulo Betancourt , at that time the constitutional president of Venezuela. The meeting was attended by foreign ministers from 21 American nations, including Cuba , which at that time had not yet been expelled from

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4154-449: Was arbitrarily excluded ... The Organization of American States has no juridical, factual, or moral jurisdiction, nor competence, over a state which it has illegally deprived of its rights." The reincorporation of Cuba as an active member regularly arose as a topic within the inter-American system – for instance, it was intimated by the outgoing ambassador of Mexico in 1998  – but most observers did not see it as

4221-448: Was held in Bogotá between March and May 1948 and led by United States Secretary of State George Marshall , a meeting which led to a pledge by members to fight communism in the western hemisphere . This was the event that saw the birth of the OAS as it stands today, with the signature by 21 American countries of the Charter of the Organization of American States on 30 April 1948 (in effect since December 1951). The meeting also adopted

4288-442: Was made in the Cold War , in the language of the Cold War. What we have done here is fix a historic error." The suspension was lifted at the end of the General Assembly, but, to be readmitted to the Organization, Cuba will need to comply with all the treaties signed by the Member States, including the Inter-American Democratic Charter of 2001. A statement issued by the Cuban government on 8 June 2009 stated that while Cuba welcomed

4355-454: Was occasionally questioned by other individual member states. The resolution to exclude Cuba was controversial when it was adopted, and the reintegration of Cuba into the Inter-American system has remained a frequent source of contention among the countries of the hemisphere ever since. Cuba's position was stated in an official note sent to the Organization "merely as a courtesy" by Minister of Foreign Affairs Raúl Roa on 4 November 1964: "Cuba

4422-430: Was re-admitted to the Organization on 1 June 2011 with 32 votes in favor and 1 (Ecuador) against. Venezuela expressed some reservations. On 28 April 2017, Venezuela notified the OAS of its denunciation of the Charter of the OAS, which as per Article 143 would lead to the withdrawal of Venezuela from the OAS effective two years from the date of notification. During this period, the country did not plan on participating in

4489-435: Was ultimately ratified only by Gran Colombia. Bolívar's dream soon floundered with civil war in Gran Colombia, the disintegration of Central America, and the emergence of national rather than New World outlooks in the newly independent American republics. Bolívar's dream of inter-American unity was meant to unify Hispanic American nations against external powers. The pursuit of regional solidarity and cooperation again came to

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