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72-530: Traditionally dedicated in 509 BC, the first building was the oldest large temple in Rome. Like many temples in central Italy, it shared features with Etruscan architecture ; sources report that Etruscan specialists were brought in for various aspects of its construction, including the making and painting of antefixes and other terracotta decorations. Built of wood, this temple was destroyed by fire in 83 BC. Its reconstruction employed craftsmen summoned from Greece, and

144-404: A cathedral-like position in the official religion of Rome. Its first version was traditionally dedicated in 509 BC, but in 83 BC it was destroyed by fire, and was rebuilt as a Greek-style temple, which was completed in 69 BC (there were to be two more fires and new buildings). For the first temple Etruscan specialists were brought in for various aspects of the building, including making and painting

216-727: A defensive function in times of war. Their construction may have mainly resulted from the wearing through soft tufo bedrock by iron-rimmed wheels, creating deep ruts that required the road to be frequently recut to a smooth surface. Their dating can only be deduced by that of settlements they pass between, and objects from tombs beside them. The 7th and 6th centuries BC show a move to replace earlier tracks only suitable for mules and pedestrians with wider and more engineered roads capable of taking wheeled vehicles, using gentler but longer routes through hilly country. Bridges were common, though fords more so where these would suffice. Presumably many were in timber, but some at least used stone underneath

288-486: A development through time as well as differences in income. Some types clearly replicate aspects of the richer houses, with a number of connected chambers, columns with capitals, and rock-cut ceilings given beams. Many tombs had fresco paintings, which does not seem to have been a Greek influence (though the style of the paintings are certainly based on Greek art), as the Greeks had ceased to use chamber tombs well before

360-544: A future city wall through a ritual plowing —to have been a continuation of similar Etruscan practices. Even before the Romans began to swallow up Etruscan territory, Italy had frequent wars, and by the later period had Celtic enemies to the north, and an expanding Rome to the south. There was an agger or rampart and a fossa or ditch in front of the wall. The towns had a number of gates where roads entered, which were sometimes given arched gateways. The best survivor of these

432-594: A good deal of information on what once existed. From about 630 BC, Etruscan architecture was heavily influenced by Greek architecture , which was itself developing through the same period. In turn it influenced Roman architecture , which in its early centuries can be considered as just a regional variation of Etruscan architecture. But increasingly, from about 200 BC, the Romans looked directly to Greece for their styling, while sometimes retaining Etruscan shapes and purposes in their buildings. The main monumental forms of Etruscan architecture, listed in decreasing order of

504-409: A large square-ish door for access, sometimes two, and the outline of windows in the walls may be indicated by ridges or marks in the clay. There is very often a window and exit for smoke, above the door in the roof, and at the opposite end. Such houses were made of earth and organic materials, using mud brick and wattle and daub . Stone hearths and perhaps stone rings at the base are found. Even

576-699: A man to workmen digging the foundations of the temple. This was said by the augurs (including augurs brought especially from Etruria ) to mean that Rome was to be the head of a great empire. Livy reports that the Temple was dedicated on September 13 in the year the Roman Republic replaced the Roman kingdom , which is 509 BC assuming the Varronian chronology . Cassius Dio and Plutarch agree with Livy's account. According to Dionysius of Halicarnassus , it

648-594: A row of sculptures along the central ridge of the roof, going beyond the acroterion group above a pediment in Greek and Roman temples. The Apollo of Veii was part of an acroterion group. Substantial but broken remains of late sculptured pediment groups survive in museums, in fact rather more than from Greek or Roman temples, partly because the terracotta was not capable of "recycling" as marble was. The groups from Luni and Talamone (both now in Florence ) are among

720-651: A timber roadway. Latin League The Latin League ( c.  8th century – 338 BC) was an ancient confederation of about 30 villages and tribes in the region of Latium near the ancient city of Rome , organized for mutual defense. The term "Latin League" is one coined by modern historians with no precise Latin equivalent. The Latin League was originally created for protection against enemies from surrounding areas (the Etruscans ) under

792-469: A type perhaps still sometimes built in his own day, rather than a really historically minded attempt to describe original Etruscan buildings, though he may well have seen examples of these. Many aspects of his description fit what archaeologists can demonstrate, but others do not. It is in any case clear that Etruscan temples could take a number of forms, and also varied over the 400-year period during which they were being made. Nonetheless, Vitruvius remains

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864-527: Is a term used for a few large sets of buildings relatively recently uncovered by archaeology, the term reflecting a lack of certainty over their function. The two leading examples are the Archaic building at Poggio Civitate and another at Acquarossa (Zone F); both are 6th-century or earlier. Both have sets of buildings round a courtyard, which use stone, at least in the foundations, roof tiles, and elaborate decorations in architectural terracotta. Their size

936-491: Is evidence for the portico columns sometimes using stone, as at Veii . This has left much about Etruscan temples uncertain. The only written account of significance on their architecture is by Vitruvius (died after 15 BC), writing some two centuries after the Etruscan civilization was absorbed by Rome. He describes how to plan a "Tuscan temple" that appears to be a Roman "Etruscan-style" ( tuscanicae dispositiones ) temple of

1008-474: Is exceptional for their early date. One obvious possible function is as palatial dwellings; another is as civic buildings, acting as places for assembly, and commemoration of aspects of the community. Only the stone foundations and ceramic fragments remain for excavations to discover. It seems clear from the richer tombs that the Etruscan elite lived in fairly spacious comfort, but there is little evidence as to what their homes looked like, although some furniture

1080-516: Is known of the first Temple of Jupiter is from later Roman tradition. King Lucius Tarquinius Priscus vowed this temple while battling with the Sabines and, according to Dionysius of Halicarnassus , began the terracing necessary to support the foundations of the temple. Much of the Cappellaccio tufa which forms the foundation of the Temple was probably mined directly from the site when it

1152-435: Is shown in tomb frescos. The rock-cut tomb chambers often form suites of "rooms", some quite large, which presumably resemble in part the atrium homes of the better-off Etruscans. Unlike several of the necropoli, Etruscan cities have generally been built over from the Romans onwards, and houses have left little trace. Where remains survive, there are tightly packed tufa bases, with perhaps mud-brick above, but in some places

1224-681: Is still unclear if the Latins had accepted Rome as a member of the League, or if the treaty had been signed as between Rome and the Latin League. During the Roman Kingdom and the early-to-mid Roman Republic there were numerous disputes between Rome and the Latins, which led to a number of wars between Rome and individual Latin cities and occasionally with the entire league. The increasing power of Rome gradually led to its domination of

1296-558: Is the 2nd-century Porta Marzia at Perugia , from the end of the period. Here, as in many cases, surviving work comes from the period just around the Roman takeover, but appears to represent Etruscan traditions. By the 4th century, Volterra had two walls, the second enclosing the whole city. The stonework is often of fine quality, sometimes using regular rectangular blocks in a rough ashlar , and sometimes "cyclopeian", using large polygonal blocks, partly shaped to fit each other, somewhat in

1368-596: The Palazzo dei Conservatori , in an exhibition area built in the Caffarelli Garden, and within the Musei Capitolini . A part of the eastern corner is also visible in the via del Tempio di Giove. The second Medici lion was sculpted in the late 16th century by Flaminio Vacca from a capital from the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus. The Area Capitolina was the precinct on the southern part of

1440-462: The Temple of Zeus and transported them back to Rome, where they were re-used in the Temple of Jupiter. Sulla hoped to live until the temple was rebuilt, but Quintus Lutatius Catulus Capitolinus had the honor of dedicating the new structure in 69 BC. The new temple was built to the same plan on the same foundations, but with more expensive materials for the superstructure. Literary sources indicate that

1512-537: The Capitoline Hill that revealed portions of the archaic foundations. According to Dionysius of Halicarnassus, the same plan and foundations were used for later rebuildings of the temple, but there is disagreement over what the dimensions he mentions referred to (the building itself or the podium). In 437 BC Aulus Cornelius Cossus unhorsed the Veientes' King Lars Tolumnius and struck him down. After taking

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1584-540: The Capitoline that surrounded the Temple of Jupiter, enclosing it with irregular retaining walls following the hillside contours. The precinct was enlarged in 388 BC, to about 3,000m. The Clivus Capitolinus ended at the main entrance in the center of the southeast side, and the Porta Pandana seems to have been a secondary entrance; these gates were closed at night. The sacred geese of Juno, said to have sounded

1656-534: The Etruscan Iron Age Villanovan culture and early burials, especially in northern areas. The hut urns show a conventional model with a single interior space. They are usually round or slightly oval, often with prominent wooden beams laid in two rows on the sloping roof, which cross at the central ridge and project some way in "V"s into the air; these projections seem to have been sometimes carved or otherwise decorated. The urns always have

1728-514: The Etruscans started to paint theirs in about 600; the Egyptians had also ceased painting tombs by then. Womb tombs were also regularly constructed for burying the deceased. Etruscan cities, which often sat on hill-tops, became walled from about the 8th century, first in mud-brick, then often in stone. The Romans considered the sulcus primigenius —the sanctification of the course of

1800-631: The Latin League would share loot from military conquests (which would later be one of the reasons for the Latin War 341–338 BC) and that any military campaigns between the two would be led by Roman generals. The alliance helped repel attacks from such peoples as the Aequi and the Volsci , tribes of the Apennine Mountains , who were prevented from invading Latium by the blending of armies. It

1872-575: The alarm during the Gallic siege of Rome , were kept in the Area , which was guarded during the Imperial period by dogs kept by a temple attendant. Domitian hid in the dog handler's living quarters when the forces of Vitellius overtook the Capitoline. Underground chambers called favissae held damaged building materials, old votive offerings , and dedicated objects that were not suitable for display. It

1944-514: The cella after the Third Punic War , and the gilding of the coffered ceiling inside the cella in 142 BC. Over the years the temple accrued countless statues and trophies dedicated by victorious generals, and in 179 some of these attached to the columns were removed to lessen the clutter. The plan and exact dimensions of the temple have been heavily debated. Five different plans of the temple have been published following recent excavations on

2016-584: The countryside to allow agricultural produce to be easily brought in. While not as heavily engineered as Roman roads, considerable efforts went into creating a road surface that on major routes could be as wide as 10.4 metres, on a 12 kilometre stretch connecting Cerveteri with its port Pyrgi , made in the 5th century. This had a gravel surface, between tufo edging-blocks, and a central drainage channel. The Vie Cave , narrow cuttings often running deeply through hills, are probably little changed since Etruscan times. As well as connecting sites, these may have had

2088-441: The cult statue of Jupiter in the main cella, was said to have been the work of Etruscan artisan Vulca of Veii . An image of Summanus , a thunder god, was among the pedimental statues. The cult statue of Jupiter showed the god standing and wielding a thunderbolt, dressed in a tunica palmata (a tunic decorated with images of palm leaves), and the toga picta , dyed purple and bearing designs in gold thread. This costume became

2160-428: The date of consecration. Livy records that in 495 BC the Latins , as a mark of gratitude to the Romans for the release of 6,000 Latin prisoners, delivered a crown of gold to the temple. The original temple may have measured almost 60 m × 60 m (200 ft × 200 ft), though this estimate is hotly disputed by some specialists. It was certainly considered the most important religious temple of

2232-486: The dictatorship of Sulla . Also lost in this fire were the Sibylline Books , which were said to have been written by classical sibyls , and stored in the temple (to be guarded and consulted by the quindecimviri (council of fifteen) on matters of state only in emergencies. During Lucius Cornelius Sulla's sack of Athens in 86 BC, while looting the city, Sulla seized some of the gigantic incomplete columns from

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2304-426: The early 4th century BC and anew at the end of the 3rd – early 2nd century BC. The removed material was dumped into the layers forming the square in front of the temple, the so-called Area Capitolina , in the middle years the 2nd century BC. Repairs and improvements were undertaken over the course of the temple's lifetime, including the re-stuccoing of the columns and walls in 179 BC, the addition of mosaic flooring in

2376-440: The entablature that the Romans pursued seems to have been lacking. Fluted Tuscan/Doric columns can also be found, against Greek and later Roman conventions. Etruscan architecture shared with Ancient Egyptian architecture the use of large cavetto mouldings as a cornice , though not on the same massive scale. The cavetto took the place of the Greek cymatium in many temples, often painted with vertical "tongue" patterns (as in

2448-483: The extensive terracotta elements of the entablature or upper parts, such as antefixes . But for the second building they were summoned from Greece. The first version is the largest Etruscan temple recorded, and much larger than other Roman temples for centuries after. However, its size remains heavily disputed by specialists; based on an ancient visitor it has been claimed to have been almost 60 m × 60 m (200 ft × 200 ft), not far short of

2520-460: The flight of birds at the time of foundation. The exteriors of both Greek and Roman temples were originally highly decorated and colourful, especially in the entablature and roofs, and this was if anything even more true of Etruscan temples. When wood was used for columns, the bases and capitals were often encased in painted terracotta. All the edges of the roof were decorated, mostly in brightly painted terracotta, and there seem often to have been

2592-518: The front portico. In Etruscan temples, more than Roman ones, the portico is deep, often representing, as Vitruvius recommends, half of the area under the roof, with multiple rows of columns. At least in later temples, versions of Greek Aeolic , Ionic and Corinthian capitals are found, as well as the main Tuscan order , a simpler version of the Doric , but the attention to the full Greek detailing in

2664-568: The goddess Roma in one hand as well. Brutus and the other assassins locked themselves inside it after murdering Caesar . The new temple of Quintus Lutatius Catulus was renovated and repaired by Augustus . The second building burnt down during the course of fighting on the hill on 19 December of 69 CE, when an army loyal to Vespasian battled to enter the city in the Year of the Four Emperors . The new emperor, Vespasian, rapidly rebuilt

2736-541: The inevitable starting point for a description, and a contrast of Etruscan temples with their Greek and Roman equivalents. There are also a few model temples in pottery, and depictions on tombs or vases. Remains of the architectural terracotta elements sometimes survive in considerable quantities, and museums, mostly in Italy, have good collections of attractively shaped and painted antefixes in particular. Vitruvius specifies three doors and three cellae , one for each of

2808-455: The known survivals have now been emptied, either by looters or archaeologists. Some tombs are stone buildings, often in rows, rather like small houses. Others are round tumuli with stone retaining walls, with steps down to rock-cut chambers below. Both types are found closely packed together in necropoli like Banditaccia and Monterozzi , the latter containing some 6,000 burials. Several different types of tombs have been identified, reflecting

2880-416: The largest Greek temples. Whatever its size, its influence on other early Roman temples was significant and long-lasting. Reconstructions usually show very wide eaves, and a wide colonnade stretching down the sides, though not round the back wall as it would have done in a Greek temple. A crude image on a coin of 78 BC shows only four columns, and a very busy roofline . "Monumental complex" or building

2952-406: The largest Greek temples. Whatever its size, its influence on other early Roman temples was significant and long-lasting. Reconstructions usually show very wide eaves, and a wide colonnade stretching down the sides, though not round the back wall as it would have done in a typical Greek temple. A crude image on a coin of 78 BC shows only four columns, and a very busy roofline. With two further fires,

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3024-464: The leadership of the city of Alba Longa . An incomplete fragment of an inscription recorded by Cato the Elder claims that at one time the league included Tusculum , Aricia , Lanuvium , Lavinium , Cora , Tibur , Pometia and Ardea . During the reign of Tarquinius Superbus , the Latins were persuaded to acknowledge the leadership of Rome. The treaty with Rome was renewed, and it was agreed that

3096-451: The league. The renewal of the original treaty in 358 BC formally established Roman leadership and eventually triggered the outbreak of the Latin War (343–338 BC). Following the Roman victory, the league was dissolved. After 338 BC, the end of the Latin league, Rome renamed the cities municipia and established coloniae inside them. This meant that the towns were now ruled by Rome (or

3168-473: The linen cuirass off Tolumnius' body, he decapitated the corpse and put the head on a lance and paraded it in front of the enemy, who retreated in horror. Cossus donated the captured armour, shield and sword to the Temple of Jupiter Feretrius on the Capitoline Hill , where as late as the reign of Emperor Augustus it could be seen. The first temple burned in 83 BC, during the civil wars under

3240-421: The lower parts of tufa walls survive even in small houses. One complete set of foundations shows a house 7.9m by 3.9m (25 x 13 feet). At large farms, mines, quarries and perhaps other sites employing many people, workers lived in dormitories. A form of models of houses in pottery, and sometimes bronze, called "hut urns" gives us some indications. These were apparently used to hold cremated ashes, and are found in

3312-408: The main Etruscan deities, but archaeological remains do not suggest this was normal, though it is found. Roman sources were in the habit of ascribing to the Etruscans a taste for triads in things such as city planning (with three gates to cities, for example), in ways that do not seem to reflect reality. The orientation of the temple is not consistent, and may have been determined by a priest watching

3384-515: The manner of the well-known Inca masonry , though not reaching that level of quality. Gaps are left, which are filled in with much smaller stones. Several important and unimportant Roman roads , such as the Via Cassia , overlie Etruscan precursors, but there are sufficient Etruscan sites that were neglected after their conquest to allow an understanding of the considerable Etruscan road system. Roads did not just run between cities, but out into

3456-405: The most impressive. Features shared by typical Etruscan and Roman temples, and contrasting with Greek ones, begin with a strongly frontal approach, with great emphasis on the front facade, less on the sides, and very little on the back. The podia are also usually higher, and can only be entered at a section of the front, just presenting a blank platform wall elsewhere. There may only be columns at

3528-706: The new building is presumed to have been essentially Greek in style , though like other Roman temples it retained many elements of Etruscan form. The second iteration of the temple was completed in 69 BC. Fires in the ensuing centuries necessitated two further reconstructions, evidently following contemporary Roman architectural style, although of exceptional size. The first version is the largest Etruscan-style temple recorded, and much larger than other Roman temples for centuries after. However, its size remains heavily disputed by specialists; based on an ancient visitor it has been claimed to have been almost 60 m × 60 m (200 ft × 200 ft), not far short of

3600-468: The reconstructed Etruscan temple at Villa Giulia , illustrated above), and combined with the distinctive "Etruscan round moulding", often painted with scales. The first building of the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus on the Capitoline Hill was the oldest large temple in Rome, dedicated to the Capitoline Triad consisting of Jupiter and his companion deities, Juno and Minerva , and had

3672-414: The right of the latter at the highest point of the pediment, the two statues serving as the central acroterion , and statues of the god Mars and goddess Venus surmounting the corners of the cornice , serving as acroteria. It was completed in 82 CE. In the centre of the pediment the god Jupiter was flanked by Juno and Minerva , seated on thrones. Below was an eagle with wings spread out. A biga driven by

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3744-403: The site. When the augurs carried out the rites seeking permission to remove them, only Terminus and Juventas were believed to have refused. Their shrines were therefore incorporated into the new structure. Because he was the god of boundaries, Terminus's refusal to be moved was interpreted as a favorable omen for the future of the Roman state. A second portent was the appearance of the head of

3816-463: The so-called Second Phase model (referring to the decorative systems of Etruscan and Latin temples), that had its first expression precisely with the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus. The temple, which immediately rose to fame, established a new model for sacred architecture that was adopted in the terracotta decorations of many temples in Italy up to the 2nd century BC. The original elements were partially replaced with other elements in different style in

3888-434: The standard dress for victorious generals celebrating a triumph. The original temple decoration was discovered in 2014. The findings allowed the archaeologists to reconstruct for the first time the real appearance of the temple in the earliest phase. The wooden elements of the roof and lintels were lined with terracotta revetment plaques and other elements of exceptional size and richly decorated with painted reliefs, following

3960-526: The sun god and a biga driven by the moon were depicted either side of the three gods. The temple completed by Domitian is thought to have lasted more or less intact for over three hundred years, until all pagan temples were closed by Emperor Theodosius I in 392 during the persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire. In the 4th century, Ammianus Marcellinus referred to the temple as "the Capitolium, with which revered Rome elevates herself to eternity,

4032-527: The surviving remains, were: the houses of the wealthy elite, the mysterious "monumental complexes", temples, city walls, and rock-cut tombs. Apart from the podia of temples and some house foundations, only the walls and rock-cut tombs were mainly in stone, and have therefore often largely survived. The early Etruscans seem to have worshipped in open air enclosures, marked off but not built over; sacrifices continued to be performed outside rather than inside temples in traditional Roman religion until its end. It

4104-432: The temple on the same foundations but with a lavish superstructure. It was taller than the previous structures, with a Corinthian order and statuary including a quadriga atop the gable and bigae driven by figures of Victory on either side at the base of the roof. The third temple of Jupiter was dedicated in 75 CE. The third temple burned during the reign of Titus in 80 CE. Domitian immediately began rebuilding

4176-402: The temple was not entirely completed until the late 60s BC. Around 65 CE the three new cult statues were completed. The chryselephantine statue of Jupiter was sculpted by Apollonius of Athens; its appearance is generally known from replicas created for other temples of Jupiter in the Roman colonies. It featured Jupiter seated with a thunderbolt and scepter in either hand, and possibly an image of

4248-475: The temple, again on the same foundations, but with the most lavish superstructure yet. According to Plutarch , Domitian used at least twelve thousand talents of gold for the gilding of the bronze roof tiles alone. Elaborate sculpture adorned the pediment . A Renaissance drawing of a damaged relief in the Louvre Museum shows a four-horse chariot ( quadriga ) beside a two-horse chariot ( biga ) to

4320-496: The third temple only lasted five years, to 80 AD, but the fourth survived until the fall of the empire. Remains of the last temple survived to be pillaged for spolia in the Middle Ages and Renaissance, but now only elements of the foundations and podium or base survive; as the subsequent temples apparently reused these, they may partly date to the first building. Much about the various buildings remains uncertain. Much of what

4392-564: The troops of the Latins would attend on an appointed day to form a united military force with the troops of Rome. That was done, and Tarquin formed combined units of Roman and Latin troops. The early Roman Republic formed an alliance with the Latin League in 493 BC. According to Roman tradition, the treaty, the Foedus Cassianum , followed a Roman victory over the league in the Battle of Lake Regillus . It provided that both Rome and

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4464-411: The tufa regions of southern Etruria, the burial chamber was cut from solid rock below ground, which is relatively easy with this rock, but there was a structure above, often rather large. In other regions they are normally built up above ground. They were reused for further burials in the same family over several generations, and would often have become very crowded with sarcophagi and grave goods, though

4536-576: The well-off seem rarely to have lived in stone houses, and rock-cut tomb chambers often represent wooden ceilings in stone. The "Tomb of the Reliefs" at Banditaccia suggests that possessions such as tools and weapons were often hung from the walls for storage. On the Palatine Hill in Rome, the Casa Romuli ("House of Romulus ") was long preserved, and when necessary rebuilt as before. It

4608-458: The whole state of Rome. Each deity of the Triad had a separate cella , with Juno Regina on the left, Minerva on the right, and Jupiter Optimus Maximus in the middle. The first temple was decorated with many terra cotta sculptures. The most famous of these was of Jupiter driving a quadriga , a chariot drawn by four horses, which was on top of the roof as an acroterion . This sculpture, as well as

4680-459: The whole world beholds nothing more magnificent." During the 5th century the temple was damaged by Stilicho (who according to Zosimus removed the gold that adorned the doors). Procopius states that the Vandals plundered the temple during the sack of Rome in 455 , stripping away half of the gilded bronze tiles. Despite this, in the early 6th century Cassiodorus described the temple as one of

4752-410: The wonders of the world. In 571, Narses removed many of the statues and ornaments. The ruins were still well preserved in 1447 when the 15th-century humanist Poggio Bracciolini visited Rome. The remaining ruins were destroyed in the 16th century, when Giovanni Pietro Caffarelli built a palace ( Palazzo Caffarelli ) on the site. Today, portions of the temple podium and foundations can be seen behind

4824-634: Was a hut made of wood posts and roof beams, wattle and daub walls and a thatched roof, and possibly typical of ordinary Etruscan housing outside crowded city centres. The site cannot be identified with certainty, but at one candidate location circle of six post-holes plus a central one have been found, cut into the tufa bedrock, with an ovoid 4.9m x 3.6m perimeter. Rich Etruscans left elaborate tombs, mostly gathered in large necropoli some way outside their cities. These were generously filled with grave goods , especially ceramics, which give us most of our understanding of Etruscan culture. Typically, in

4896-399: Was consecrated two years later, in 507 BC; Tacitus agrees with this interpretation. Dedication of the temple was the responsibility of the new joint heads of state, the two consuls that had been elected for that year. They allocated the duty by drawing lots ; it fell to Marcus Horatius Pulvillus . Horatius was consul in both 509 and 507 BC, which is the origin of the disagreement over

4968-438: Was created between about 900 BC and 27 BC, when the expanding civilization of ancient Rome finally absorbed Etruscan civilization . The Etruscans were considerable builders in stone, wood and other materials of temples, houses, tombs and city walls, as well as bridges and roads. The only structures remaining in quantity in anything like their original condition are tombs and walls, but through archaeology and other sources we have

5040-431: Was excavated and levelled for the structure. Modern coring on the Capitoline has confirmed the extensive work needed just to create a level building site. According to Dionysius of Halicarnassus and Livy , the foundations and most of the superstructure of the temple were completed by Lucius Tarquinius Superbus , the last King of Rome . Livy also records that before the temple's construction, shrines to other gods occupied

5112-440: Was only around 600 BC, at the height of their civilization, that they began to create monumental temples, undoubtedly influenced by the Greeks. That these buildings developed essentially from the largest types of Etruscan house has been both asserted and challenged. Usually, only the podium or base platform used stone, with the upper parts of wood and mud-brick, greatly reducing what survives for archaeologists. However, there

5184-460: Was religiously prohibited to disturb these. The precinct held numerous shrines, altars, statues, and victory trophies. Some plebeian and tribal assemblies met there. In late antiquity, it was a market for luxury goods, and continued as such into the medieval period: in a letter from 468 , Sidonius Apollinaris describes a shopper negotiating over the price of gems, silk, and fine fabrics. Etruscan architecture Etruscan architecture

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