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56-544: The treaty was significant in serving as a model for later treaties between Rome and other Italic polities, outlining the terms of mutual assistance and equality of status within the defensive alliance. In their first treaty with Carthage , the Romans listed the surrounding countryside as part of its territory, which the Latin League contested, claiming that the said territory actually belonged to them. A war followed, with

112-614: A Greek historian whose calculations are based on the years of the Persian expedition against the Greek free cities, produced a slightly different date; he wrote that the events of the treaty took place "twenty-eight years before the passage of Xerxes into Greece". Xerxes , the king of Persia , crossed the Hellespont with his armies in June 480 BC. During the war with Ardea , following

168-509: A bronze copy survived in the Roman Forum until Cicero 's day, was a landmark in the early history of Rome. The original does not survive. A version given by Dionysius of Halicarnassus is Dionysius' version mentions a mutual defense pact between the Romans and Latins, but omits any mention of a joint command structure or any provision for mutual consultation. A few fragmentary sentences from L. Cincius (as quoted by Festus) indicated that

224-457: A large amount of territory that was larger, if not richer, than its perennial rival Syracuse. Moreover, the fact that Carthage allowed Phoenician merchants to operate in Rome shows that Carthage did not fear commercial competition from Rome and that it could operate its own territories and treated Rome as an upcoming potential client that should be put under its political control. It is therefore to

280-674: A precise definition of Samnium's borders. Moreover, the areas it included vary depending on the time period considered. The main configurations are the borders it had during the floruit of the Oscan speakers, from about 600 BC to about 290 BC, when it was finally absorbed by the Roman Republic . The original territory of Samnium should not be confused with the later territory of the same name. Rome's first Emperor , Augustus , divided Italy into 11 regions. Although these entities only served administrative purposes, and were identified with

336-532: A synthetic view of the ethnology of proto-historic Italy is an incomplete and ongoing task. The linguist Julius Pokorny carries the etymology somewhat further back. Conjecturing that the -a- was altered from an -o- during some prehistoric residence in Illyria he derives the names from an o-grade extension *swo-bho- of an extended e-grade *swe-bho- of the possessive adjective, *s(e)we-, of the reflexive pronoun, *se-, "oneself" (the source of English self). The result

392-469: A treaty that fixed the limits of Roman navigation at the Lacine promontory (see Capo Colonna ), and by 306 BC, Rome had come to an agreement with Rhodes , another city undergoing strong commercial expansion. While Polybius claimed that the treaty never existed but was a forgery of the pro-Carthaginian historian Philinus , recent research suggests that such a treaty did in fact exist. Philinus claimed that

448-724: Is a Latin exonym for a region of Southern Italy anciently inhabited by the Samnites . Their own endonyms were Safinim for the country (attested in one inscription and one coin legend) and Safineis for the people. The language of these endonyms and of the population was the Oscan language . However, not all the Samnites spoke Oscan, and not all the Oscan-speakers lived in Samnium. Ancient geographers were unable to relay

504-608: Is a set of Indo-European tribal names (if not the endonym of the Indo-Europeans): Germanic Suebi and Semnones , Suiones; Celtic Senones ; Slavic Serbs and Sorbs ; Italic Sabelli , Sabini , etc., as well as a large number of kinship terms. The general concept is "our own kith and kin", Pokorny's von eigener Art ("of our own kind"), Gesamtheit der eigenen Leute ("the totality of our own people"), Liebe ("love"), Sippegenossen ("clan comrades"), Sippenangehörigen ("clan members"), and

560-757: The Hirpini (main cities: Beneventum , Abellinum , Aquilonia ). They may have later been joined by the Frentani (capital Larinum , the modern Larino ). The earliest written record of the people is a treaty with the Romans from 354 BC, which set their border at the Liris River . Shortly thereafter the Samnite Wars broke out; they won an important battle against the Roman army in 321 BC, and their imperium reached its peak in 316 BC after further gains from

616-533: The Populares in the civil war against Lucius Cornelius Sulla , but unfortunately for them, Sulla ended up winning the war and was declared the dictator of Rome. Sulla ordered all those who went against him to be punished. Thousands of people in Rome and all over Italy were brutally hunted down and killed. Samnites, who were one of the most prominent supporters of the Populares, were punished so severely that it

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672-583: The Carthaginians, Tyrians, and [the] township of Utica" on the conditions listed, and that Romans were allowed to trade and do business in the Carthaginian province of Sicily and in Carthage, and Carthaginians were allowed to trade and do business in Rome. Carthage saw Rome as a possible adversary that had resisted invasion and in war was proving itself potentially dangerous. Rome also controlled

728-617: The Etruscans in competition with the Phocaeans. That resulted, subsequently, in the Phocaeans being driven out, Corsica and the Tyrrhenian Sea becoming Etruscan and Sardinia and the western half of Sicily becoming Carthaginian (eastern Sicily would remain Greek for centuries). Additionally, in 510 BC, Carthage had to fight to hold off Spartan incursions into western Sicily. The treaty stated that there "shall be friendship between

784-527: The Great had created the beginnings of a unified state, Dionysius the Younger , his son, tried to enlarge his inheritance, but met with resistance from other Greek forces. A flurry of alliances, including some with the Carthaginians, led to the disintegration of Dionysius' power and his deposition in 345 BC. Taranto, which had been left out of the fighting, grew in power, and other forces arrived from Greece. Rome

840-456: The Great , Egypt ). The western Mediterranean was the commercial zone of the Carthaginians, with the exception of the Tyrrhenian Sea , which Carthage shared with the Etruscans and the Greek colonies of southern Italy. The first treaty between the two city-states was signed the year the Roman Republic was founded, in 509 BC, as dated by the Varronian method. The calculations of Polybius ,

896-682: The Greeks and Etruscans, both of whom were militarily and economically more powerful and dangerous than Rome. In the graphic at right, the following areas are highlighted and labelled: Roman expansion before the fall of Tarquin the Proud was directed towards the Tyrrhenian coast to the southwest, and the Roman Republic was proclaimed while Tarquin's army was fighting Ardea . It can be supposed that Rome, with its small size, wanted to formalise

952-545: The Latins would meet at the spring of Ferentina to discuss the issue of command. In addition, he describes the process followed "in a year when it was the responsibility of the Romans to supply a commander for the army by order of the Latin name". The passage is somewhat vague, and seems to imply that command of the army would alternate in years between the Latins and the Romans. However, this appears to have never occurred, and so

1008-536: The Macedonian army; Egypt, Greece, Macedonia, Asia Minor, and Syria were involved in incessant wars that threatened peaceful trade; and Agathocles ascended the throne of Syracuse in 316 BC and began a campaign to rid Sicily of the Carthaginians and in 311 BC, having been defeated in Sicily, carried the war to Africa before allying himself with Cyrenaica the following year. In 303 BC, Rome and Taranto concluded

1064-470: The Roman army. Taranto was experiencing a period of wealth and expansion, to the point of securing a treaty that limited Roman navigation (see above). In 282 BC, ten Roman ships appeared in Tarantine waters, violating the treaty, but they were either destroyed or forced to escape. When a Roman delegation was sent to request restitution for the ships and the captured prisoners, it was insulted, and war between

1120-402: The Romans and their allies, and the Carthaginians and their allies" on the conditions listed below. The conditions imposed by the treaty on Rome and her allies were that The conditions imposed by the treaty on Carthage and her allies were that Per the treaty, Carthage did not renounce any military action except against a small territory, Latium, and maintained a free hand for action against

1176-663: The Romans. By 290 BC, the Romans were able to break the Samnites' power after some hard-fought battles. The Samnites were one of the Italian peoples that allied with King Pyrrhus of Epirus during the Pyrrhic War . After Pyrrhus left for Sicily , the Romans invaded Samnium and were crushed at the Battle of the Cranita hills , but after the defeat of Pyrrhus, the Samnites could not resist on their own and surrendered to Rome. Some of

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1232-558: The Sabines, Sabus, seems to support this view. The Greek terms, Saunitai and Saunitis, remain outside the group. Nothing is known of their origin. At some point in prehistory, a population speaking a common language extended over both Samnium and Umbria . Salmon conjectures that it was common Italic and puts forward a date of 600 BC, after which the common language began to separate into dialects. This date does not necessarily correspond to any historical or archaeological evidence; developing

1288-567: The Samnites joined and aided Hannibal during the Second Punic War , but most stayed loyal. The Samnites and several other Italic people rebelled against Rome and started the Social War (91–87 BC) , after Romans refused to grant them Roman Citizenship. The war lasted almost three years, and resulted in a Roman victory. However, Samnites and other Italic tribes were granted Roman citizenship, to avoid another war. The Samnites supported

1344-652: The Samnites were landlocked, but during a brief period they controlled parts of both coasts of the Italian peninsula . The Samnites were composed of at least four tribes: the Pentri (capital: Bovianum ), the Caraceni (principal cities: Cluviae , the modern Casoli , and Juvanum , the ruins of which are spread between Torricella Peligna and Montenerodomo ), the Caudini (capital: Caudium , today Montesarchio ) and

1400-461: The Samnites. Begun in 343 BC, they would not be concluded until 290 BC and had become a regional revolt, with the populations of Latium and Etruria trying to free themselves from Roman rule. There were other incidents causing unrest, in other parts of the region. Alexander the Great died in June 323 BC, and the territory that he had conquered was being fought over by the Diadochi , the generals of

1456-464: The Tyrrhenian Sea to control traffic there. The second treaty was an attempt to copy the first treaty, with the addition of some cities. The Carthaginians added Tyre and Utica and promised not to attack the coastal cities of Latium that had allied themselves with Rome. Similar to the first treaty, the new treaty stated that there "shall be friendship between the Romans and their allies, and

1512-548: The actual Foedus Cassianum between Rome and the Latin allies. The treaty strengthened Rome greatly, as it essentially added the military power of the Latins to the army of the fledgling Roman Republic. This allowed Rome to expand further, conquering much of the Italian Peninsula . The treaty was renewed in 358 BC. However, Rome reneged on the treaty soon after that, and the Latin War began. Rome eventually overcame

1568-512: The advance of the Italic barbarians. Pyrrhus's attack on Rome was heralded as a success: the Battle of Heraclea in Lucania against the legions under Publius Valerius Laevinus was won thanks to the use of elephants, which the Romans had never seen and called them Lucanian bulls. In 279 BC, a second great battle, the Battle of Asculum , at Ascoli Satriano , was seen as a victory by Pyrrhus over

1624-542: The aristocratic party was inclined to extend the power of the city into surrounding lands, but the commercial party was more interested in exploiting trade routes and markets. By stipulating and observing four main treaties, the relationship between Rome and Carthage was one of tolerance for centuries. Carthage and Rome also concluded two treaties to end the First and the Second Punic Wars in 241 BC and 201 BC, when

1680-503: The coasts of Numidia and Iberia . The coasts of Sardinia and Corsica were already under Carthaginian control when the city-state attempted,in three wars between 480 and 307 BC to conquer Sicily. Those attempts were stopped by the Greeks , who had by then heavily colonized the island. Primarily interested in commerce, Carthage had no standing army and used mostly mercenary forces composed of Numidian cavalry, Libyans and Iberians . Rome

1736-399: The control and the exploitation of its territory. To the Romans, if an area was deserted it would be substantially occupied. If the area was inhabited, it would be conquered and forced to pay in assets and troops and eventually to accept Roman or Latin colonies. During this period, Rome was in control of most of southern Etruria and the territory of Campania, and in the middle of its wars with

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1792-433: The cost of supplies and cargo. The treaty also implied that Carthage was offering Rome the help of its navy against Pyrrhus since Roman generals, such as Publius Cornelius Scipio , commonly used the sailors of its transport ships alongside the soldiers in battle. An improvement in Rome's condition followed soon after the treaty was put in place, which acknowledged Rome's increased military and economic powers. The treaty, on

1848-432: The credit of Carthaginian diplomacy that the revision to the 509 BC treaty imposed additional restrictions on Rome. It was written while Carhage was heavily engaged in military and therefore financial obligations. Additionally, the prohibition against Rome's founding of cities did not appear in the first treaty and shows that Carthage may have caught on to the method of Roman expansion; commerce did not interest Rome as much as

1904-622: The defeat of Maleventum ( Beneventum ), Pyrrhus returned to Epirus, and Rome was left master of the entire Italian peninsula south of the Tusco-Emilian Apennines . The First Punic War began eleven years later, in 264 BC. The Treaty of Lutatius was the agreement between Carthage and Rome of 241 BC (amended in 237 BC), that ended the First Punic War after 23 years of conflict. Samnium Second Samnite War Third Samnite War Samnium ( Italian : Sannio )

1960-480: The exclusion of competition from Carthage while it began pressuring the Greeks. Otherwise, the contrast of that diplomacy with the war against Ardea would not be so pronounced, and it would not make sense to specifically exclude Carthaginian fortresses. After 150 years of campaigning, Rome had conquered a good portion of Etruria, destroyed Veii and repelled the Gallic invasion of 390 BC although it felt threatened by

2016-455: The fact that Pyrrhus had married Agathocles's daughter, offered him the crown of Sicily in exchange for helping it throw off the Carthaginians. Pyrrhus accepted, partly to leave the peninsula and to avoid the Romans. Pyrrhus landed in Sicily and was successful in pushing the Carthaginians to the Lilybaeum , on the western coast. Those manoeuvres by Syracuse and Pyrrhus prompted Carthage to sign

2072-423: The forces of the consuls Publius Sulpicius Saverrio and Publius Decius Mus . That battle, however, exacted heavy losses on the victor that were so great that it inspired the term " Pyrrhic victory ". Pyrrhus subsequently returned to Taranto. Syracuse remained at war with Carthage and, after the death of Agathocles , was further embroiled in a civil war. The former, trying to change its lot and taking advantage of

2128-429: The fourth treaty with Rome. The treaty contained the same provisions as the two earlier treaties, with the addition of the following. While each party to the treaty was not obliged to come to the aid of the other, the treaty was an attempt by Carthage, which felt itself less able to carry out land warfare, to drag Rome into a land war in Sicily. The Carthaginians would supply ships for the transport of troops and pay

2184-547: The like. Samnium mostly lay on the Apennine area; it was delimited by Latium to the north, by Lucania to the south, by Campania to the west, and by Apulia to the east. The principal cities of the region were Bovaiamom , renamed Bovianum by Latins (today: Bojano or Boiano) and Maleventum ( Maloenton in Oscan ), which was later renamed Beneventum by the Romans (today: Benevento ). For most of their history

2240-576: The most probable explanation is that a Roman commander was summoned only in years when a campaign actually took place. In 486 BC, Rome (again through the efforts of Spurius Cassius Vecellinus) entered into a treaty with the Hernici . The terms were apparently similar to the Foedus Cassianum, and there is a suggestion (though not certain) that the Hernici may have been admitted as a party to

2296-530: The non-Roman members of the league, and the Foedus Cassianum was rendered void. Treaties between Rome and Carthage#First treaty The treaties between Rome and Carthage are the four treaties between the two states that were signed between 509 BC and 279 BC. The treaties influenced the course of history in the Mediterranean and are important for understanding the relationship between

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2352-474: The other hand, betrayed Carthage's relative weakness in conceding that Rome was an equal, which was probably a result of its difficulties in Sicily. It may also have been the treaty that led the Romans to appreciate their growing importance and power of and the limits of Carthaginian power. Rome would subsequently defeat Pyrrhus, who had defeated the Carthaginians. Rome needed only to extend its reach to conquer rich Sicily, with its grain reserves. In 275 BC, after

2408-575: The overthrow of Tarquin the Proud , Rome found that it needed to secure itself and its supplies, which were controlled mostly by Greek and Etruscan merchants since the Etruscan Caere and its port of Pyrgi supplied Rome. Rome therefore tried to gain the support of the Carthaginians, who were now already operating in Caere, as evidenced by votive writings found in Etruscan and Phoenician. At

2464-412: The relationship between the powers had changed considerably. Carthage was founded in 812 BC by Phoenician colonists from Tyre , and by the 6th century BC, the sailors and merchants of Carthage were known throughout the western Mediterranean. In the 4th century BC, after a series of military conquests, Carthage controlled many territories west of the gulf of Sirte , in present-day Libya , and much of

2520-493: The result of a victory for the Romans at the Battle of Lake Regillus and conditional surrender soon after. The treaty was concluded in 493 between Rome and thirty Latin cities as two independent powers. The foedus took its name from Spurius Cassius Vecellinus , who was a consul of the Roman Republic at the time the treaty was signed, and ratified the treaty in Rome on Rome's behalf. The treaty laid out several terms. Not only did it stipulate that there would be peace between

2576-518: The same time, Carthage was engaged in fighting the Greek colonies that had spread from Greece across the western Mediterranean. The presence of Greek cities along the coasts of southern Italy and the eastern part of Sicily limited Phoenician commerce to the region's interior. In Spain and Provence , Carthage fought to compete with Phocaean colonies, and in Sardinia and Corsica, Carthage was joined by

2632-689: The second Gallic invasion of 360 BC. Rome had been and still was shaken by internal strife, especially between the patricians and the plebeians for access to public office and therefore to political activity and the management of land and spoils of the incessant wars. Rome was also fighting the Ernici , the Volsci , the Tiburtini and the Etruscans and was preparing for battle with the Samnites , who were beginning to raid rich Campania, which Rome also desired. In Sicily and in southern Italy, where Dionysius

2688-785: The sole numeral, by scholarly convention the Regio IV has been dubbed " Samnium ". Ancient Samnium had actually been divided into three of the Augustan regions. Etymologically the name Samnium is generally recognized to be a form of the name of the Sabines , who were Umbrians . From Safinim, Sabinus, Sabellus and Samnis an Indo-European root can be extracted, * sabh -, which becomes Sab- in Latino-Faliscan and Saf- in Osco-Umbrian : Sabini and *Safineis. The eponymous god of

2744-607: The subjugated peoples to supply troops in support of Rome (becoming socii , or allies). With respect to maritime commerce, the Romans simply entrusted themselves to the Etruscan and Greek fleets. In the 4th century BC, a great line divided the commerce of the Mediterranean. The Aegean , Adriatic and Ionian Seas were largely controlled by the maritime cities of the Greeks (in Greece ; Asia Minor ; and, after Alexander

2800-547: The treaty included Rome's agreement not to enter Sicily and Carthage's agreement not to set foot on the peninsula, and the stipulations on Carthage did not change, but Rome now found itself shut out of the Sicilian market. The Samnite Wars officially ended in 290 BC, and the subsequent actions of Rome within its territory had reduced the pressure of the Italian populace on the Greek cities in southern Italy, and particularly Taranto . The Italians themselves were being attacked by

2856-406: The two most important cities of the region during that era. They reveal changes in how Rome perceived itself and how Carthage perceived Rome, and the differences between the perception of the cities and their actual characteristics. As city-states that became empires , Rome and Carthage eventually found it necessary to formalize their reciprocal interests and zones of influence. For centuries,

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2912-462: The two operated side by side, even as allies. Their economic interests and methods of expansion were different. Rome did not look to the sea but engaged first in defending itself against the neighbouring Samnites , Etruscans , Gauls , and Greeks and then in conquering them. Carthage, lacking a real civic army and repelled in Sicily by the Greeks, appeared indecisive regarding its expansion strategy:

2968-502: The two parties, the treaty mandated that the Roman and Latin armies would be joined to provide mutual defence from Italic tribes. Another term was that the Latin League and Rome would split all spoils taken in war. Also, the two parties agreed to set up joint colonies in captured territory so that they both might prosper. Finally, it established a community of private rights between citizens of Rome and any Latin city. The treaty, of which

3024-481: The two states began in 281 BC. The Tarantines at first tried to form an anti-Roman league with the Italic populace, but it was considered to be insufficient. Thus, in 280 BC, they requested the assistance of Pyrrhus to lead the war against the Romans. Pyrrhus arrived with an army of 25,000 men and 20 elephants in Taranto, when it was succumbing to the Roman army, and presented himself as the champion of Greece against

3080-466: Was beginning to assert its influence in these struggles. Carthage, after ending its war with Cyrenaica , thus stabilizing the eastern boundary of their territory, had been always at war with the Greeks, in particular with Syracuse, for control of Sicily. It was also in conflict with the Etruscans, who, blocked by the Gauls from northern Italy and by the Romans from Latium, applied themselves aggressively to

3136-498: Was founded only 70 years after Carthage (in 753 BC, following Varronian chronology ). For the first several centuries of its history, Rome was involved in a lengthy series of wars with its neighbours, which resulted in the Roman Army's specialization in land warfare. The Roman economy and social structure began to incorporate the results of those wars by taking loot or tribute, redistributing conquered land and in all cases requiring

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