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37-476: Timeline The Sabines ( US : / ˈ s eɪ b aɪ n z / , SAY -bynes , UK : / ˈ s æ b aɪ n z / , SAB -eyens ; Latin : Sabini  ) were an Italic people who lived in the central Apennine Mountains (see Sabina ) of the ancient Italian Peninsula , also inhabiting Latium north of the Anio before the founding of Rome . The Sabines divided into two populations just after

74-621: A Sabine. Many of these deities were shared with the Etruscan religion , and were also adopted into the derivative Samnite and ancient Roman religion . Roman author Varro , who was himself of Sabine origin, gives a list of Sabine gods who were adopted by the Romans. Elsewhere, Varro claims Sol Indiges – who had a sacred grove at Lavinium – as Sabine but at the same time equates him with Apollo . Of those listed, he writes, "several names have their roots in both languages, as trees that grow on

111-623: A group of Lacedaemonians fled Sparta since they regarded the laws of Lycurgus as too severe. In Italy, they founded the Spartan colony of Foronia (near the Pomentine plains) and some from that colony settled among the Sabines. According to the account, the Sabine habits of belligerence (aggressive or warlike behavior) and frugality (prudence in avoiding waste) were known to have derived from

148-601: A large number of kinship terms. There is little record of the Sabine language; however, there are some glosses by ancient commentators, and one or two inscriptions have been tentatively identified as Sabine. There are also personal names in use on Latin inscriptions from the Sabine country, but these are given in Latin form. Robert Seymour Conway , in his Italic Dialects , gives approximately 100 words which vary from being well-attested as Sabine to being possibly of Sabine origin. In addition to these he cites place names derived from

185-820: A number of innovations , some of them shared by its neighbor to the west, Latin. (Below, following convention, bold text for Umbrian and Oscan indicates words written in the native, Etruscan derived script, while italics represents words written in Latin-derived script.) All diphthongs are simplified into monophthongs , a process only partly seen in Latin, and only very rarely in Oscan. So Proto-Italic * ai and * ei become Umbrian low ē : kvestur  : Oscan kvaísstur , Latin quaestor 'official in charge of public revenue and expenditure'; prever 'single' : Oscan preivatud , Latin prīvus ; furthermore, Proto-Italic * oi , * ou and * au become ō (written u in

222-401: A property line creep into both fields. Saturn, for instance, can be said to have another origin here, and so too Diana." Varro makes various claims for Sabine origins throughout his works, some more plausible than others, and his list should not be taken at face value. But the importance of the Sabines in the early cultural formation of Rome is evidenced, for instance, by the bride abduction of

259-472: Is as follows: Pure: i, e, a, o, u; ā, ē, ī, ō, ū Diphthongs: ai, ei, ou Classes of nouns roughly match those in Latin: long a-stems matching Latin first declension, historical o-stems matching Latin second declension, consonant- and i-stems matching Latin third declension, with some more sparse attestation of u-stem (Latin fourth) and long e-stem (Latin fifth) declensions. There are seven attested cases in

296-399: Is represented by a single character in the native script (generally transcribed as ř ; this represents an unknown sound that developed regularly from intervocalic *-d- in most cases). To clearly distinguish them, the native script is generally transcribed in bold, the Latin in italics. The exact phonetics of much of what follows are not completely clear. The consonant inventory of Umbrian

333-583: The Etruscan alphabet , and was written right-to-left, essentially equivalent to the Neo-Etruscan, but using a letter shaped like a 'P' from the Archaic Etruscan alphabet for the unique Umbrian sound discussed below. The newer was written in the Latin script . The texts are sometimes called Old Umbrian and New Umbrian. The differences are mainly orthographic. For example, rs in the Latin alphabet

370-660: The -a- was altered from an -o- during some prehistoric residence in Illyria , he derives the names from an o-grade extension * swo-bho- of an extended e-grade * swe-bho- of the possessive adjective, * s(e)we- , of the reflexive pronoun, * se- , "oneself" (the source of English self ). The result is a set of Indo-European tribal names (if not the endonym of the Indo-Europeans): Germanic Suebi and Semnones , Suiones ; Celtic Senones ; Slavic Serbs and Sorbs ; Italic Sabelli , Sabini , etc., as well as

407-635: The 3rd person: singular primary -ter , singular secondary -(n)tur , plural -endi . Perfect stems are derived from the present stem in different ways. Latin -vī- perfects are not attested in Umbrian. Instead, Umbrian uses its own set of forms, including reduplicated perfects such as dede 'gave', the -s- suffix, as in sesu-s-t 'will have sat', and the -nçi- suffix, as in purdi-nçi-ust 'will have presented'. Some verbs also use suppletive forms. Other tenses are formed by suffixation: The following non-finite forms are attested (all of them are based on

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444-622: The Opici and encamped in that region. Zenodotus of Troezen claimed that the Sabines were originally Umbrians that changed their name after being driven from the Reatine territory by the Pelasgians . Porcius Cato argued that the Sabines were a populace named after Sabus , the son of Sancus (a divinity of the area sometimes called Jupiter Fidius). In another account mentioned in Dionysius's work,

481-623: The Sabine king. A variation of the story is recounted in the pseudepigraphal Sefer haYashar (see Jasher 17:1–15 ). Tradition suggests that the population of the early Roman kingdom was the result of a union of Sabines and others. Some of the gentes of the Roman republic were proud of their Sabine heritage, such as the Claudia gens , assuming Sabinus as a cognomen or agnomen . Some specifically Sabine deities and cults were known at Rome: Semo Sancus and Quirinus , and at least one area of

518-446: The Sabine women by Romulus 's men, and in the Sabine ethnicity of Numa Pompilius , second king of Rome , to whom are attributed many of Rome's religious and legal institutions. Varro, however, says that the altars to most of these gods were established at Rome by King Tatius as the result of a vow ( votum ). During the expansion of ancient Rome , there were a series of conflicts with the Sabines. Manius Curius Dentatus conquered

555-592: The Sabine, sometimes giving attempts at reconstructions of the Sabine form. Based on all the evidence, the Linguist List tentatively classifies Sabine as a member of the Umbrian group of Italic languages of the Indo-European family , while Glottolog classifies it as an Old Sabellic dialect alongside South Picene and Pre-Samnite . Latin -speakers called the Sabines' original territory, straddling

592-493: The Sabines in 290 BC. The citizenship without the right of suffrage was given to the Sabines in the same year. The right of suffrage was granted to the Sabines in 268 BC. Timeline of Italian history Timeline This is a timeline of Italian history , comprising important legal and territorial changes and political events in Italy and its predecessor states, including Ancient Rome and Prehistoric Italy . Date of

629-627: The Sabines in relation to the Aborigines , from whom they allegedly stole their capital Lista, with a surprise war action starting from Amiternum . Ancient historians debated the specific origins of the Sabines. According to Strabo the Sabines, after a long war with the Umbrians, migrated to the land of the Opici , following the ancient Italic rite of the Ver Sacrum . The Sabines then drove out

666-749: The Spartans. Plutarch also mentions, in the Life of Numa Pompilius, "Sabines, who declare themselves to be a colony of the Lacedaemonians". Plutarch also wrote that the Pythagoras of Sparta, who was Olympic victor in the foot-race, helped Numa arrange the government of the city and many Spartan customs introduced by him to the Numa and the people. Legend says that the Romans abducted Sabine women to populate

703-629: The average reign of a Roman Emperor was just 18 months, down from average just over 9 years during the first centuries of the Empire. Umbrian language Umbrian is known from about 30 inscriptions dated from the 7th through 1st centuries BC. The largest cache by far is the Iguvine Tablets , seven inscribed bronze tablets found in 1444 near the village of Scheggia or, according to another tradition, in an underground chamber at Gubbio (ancient Iguvium ). The seven tablets contain notes on

740-471: The ceremonies and statutes for priests of the ancient religion in the region. Sometimes they are called the Eugubian tablets after the medieval name of Iguvium/Eugubium. The tablets contain 4000–5000 words. Other minor inscriptions are from Todi , Assisi and Spoleto . The Iguvine tablets were written in two alphabets. The older, the Umbrian alphabet, like other Old Italic script , was derived from

777-477: The city" (note that Umbrian continues the PIE case, while Latin innovates here to -ae); Dat. tute "to the city"; Abl. asa "from the altar"; Loc. tote "in the city"; Voc. Prestota "Oh, Prestota" Plural: Nom. fameřias "families"; Acc. porca "pigs"; Gen. pracatarum "of the ramparts"?; Dat.-Abl. plenasier "for the annual festival" (with final rhotacism from -s; thought to be related to Latin plenus "full" with

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814-431: The founding of Rome, which is described by Roman legend. The division, however it came about, is not legendary. The population closer to Rome transplanted itself to the new city and united with the preexisting citizenry, beginning a new heritage that descended from the Sabines but was also Latinized . The second population remained a mountain tribal state, coming finally to war against Rome for its independence along with all

851-432: The initial syllable of words as a stress accent, since non-initial syllables are regularly lost or weakened. Since the same pattern occurs in the history of Etruscan , this must be assumed to be an areal feature. (By the time of classical Latin, the accent had shifted in that language to more of an Ancient Greek pattern--on the third syllable from the end (antepenult) unless the last syllable was long, in which case it fell on

888-460: The language, final -s also becomes -r (a change not seen in Latin). For example, the genitive plural ending of -ā stems: Umbrian -arum , Latin -arum vs Oscan -asúm (compare Sanskrit - āsām ). While initial * d- is preserved (spelled t in the native alphabet), earlier intervocalic *-d- (and sometimes *-l-) show up in the native alphabet as a character generally transliterated as ř , but as

925-562: The modern regions of Lazio , Umbria , and Abruzzo , Sabinum . To this day, it bears the ancient tribe's name in the Italian form of Sabina . Within the modern region of Lazio (or Latium ), Sabina constitutes a sub-region, situated north-east of Rome , around Rieti . The Sabines settled in Sabinum, around the tenth century BC, founding the cities of Reate , Trebula Mutuesca and Cures Sabini. Dionysius of Halicarnassus mentions

962-637: The native script) in initial syllables: unu 'one' : Old Latin oinus ; ute 'or' : Oscan auti , Latin aut ; tuta 'city' : Oscan touto . Velars are palatalized and spirantized before front vowels and the front glide /j/ to probably a palatalized sibilant (perhaps the postalveolar /ʃ/), written ç , ś or simply s . (A similar change happened later in most Romance languages.) For example: Umbrian śesna 'dinner' : Oscan kersnu , Latin cēna ; Umbrian façiu 'I do, I make' : Latin faciō . Like Latin, but unlike Oscan, intervocalic -s- rhotacized to -r- in Umbrian. In late forms of

999-634: The newly built Rome. The resultant war ended only by the women throwing themselves and their children between the armies of their fathers and their husbands. The Rape of the Sabine Women became a common motif in art; the women ending the war is a less frequent but still reappearing motif. According to Livy , after the conflict, the Sabine and Roman states merged, and the Sabine king Titus Tatius jointly ruled Rome with Romulus until Tatius' death five years later. Three new centuries of Equites were introduced at Rome, including one named Tatienses, after

1036-650: The other Italic tribes. Afterwards, it became assimilated into the Roman Republic . The Sabines derived directly from the ancient Umbrians and belonged to the same ethnic group as the Samnites and the Sabelli , as attested by the common ethnonyms of Safineis (in ancient Greek σαφινείς ) and by the toponyms safinim and safina (at the origin of the terms Samnium and Sabinum ). The Indo-European root * Saβeno or * Sabh evolved into

1073-418: The prehistoric era are approximate. For further background, see history of Italy and list of prime ministers of Italy . Lucius Sicinius Vellutus , the plebs abandoned Rome for the nearby Monte Sacro . Marius was elected consul for the first of three years in a row. Civil wars would follow with the first breaking out in 238, another in 249 followed by a third in 253. From 235 through 284

1110-421: The present stem): Umbrian shares some phonological changes with its sister language Oscan. This change is shared with Umbrian, and so is a common Sabellic change, reminiscent of the k/p split between Goidellic (Irish, etc) and Cymric (Welsh, etc). piře , pirse "what"; Oscan pídum vs Latin quid. At some point early in the history of all Indo-European Italic languages, the accent seems to have shifted to

1147-603: The second to last syllable (the penult).) The degree to which these shifts can be connected to similar shifts to initial stress in Celtic and Germanic is unclear; for discussion see J. Salmons' Accentual Change and Language Contact . Examples: Loss of unstressed short -e-: * onse "shoulder" < * omesei , compare Latin umerus ; destre "on the right" < * deksiterer ; ostendu "present" (imperative) < * obs-tendetōd , compare Latin ostendito . But compared to its highly conservative sister language Oscan, Umbrian exhibits

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1184-405: The semantic development > "of the full (year)"). Verbs in Umbrian are inflected for the following categories: Present, future and future perfect forms in the active voice use the following set of personal endings (primary): Imperfect, perfect indicative and all tenses of the subjunctive in the active voice use a different set of endings (secondary): Passive endings are attested only for

1221-443: The sequence rs in Umbrian texts using the Latin alphabet. The exact pronunciation is unknown: piře , pirse "what" vs. Oscan pídum , Latin quid. Proto-italic *ū became /i/, sim (accusative singular) <PI *sūm "pig" Taken from the Iguvine Tablets , tablet Va, lines 6–10 (written in the native alphabet on the tablet): In Latin: In English: Taken from the Iguvine Tablets , tablet VIa, lines 25–31 (written in

1258-603: The singular: nominative , accusative (along with the nom-acc neuter case), genitive , dative , ablative , locative , and vocative . In the plural, there are only four distinct cases: nominative; accusative; genitive; and dative-and-ablative combined into one form. There are no attested locative or vocative plurals. Examples from long a-stems (for use of bold versus italic script, see above under "Alphabet"): Singular: Nom. muta/mutu "fine" (related to Latin molta "fine"); Acc. tuta / totam "city, state"; Gen. tutas / totar (the later with rhotacism, on which see below) "of

1295-484: The town, the Quirinale , where the temples to those latter deities were located, had once been a Sabine centre. The extravagant claims of Varro and Cicero that augury , divination by dreams and the worship of Minerva and Mars originated with the Sabines are disputable, as they were general Italic and Latin customs, as well as Etruscan , even though they were espoused by Numa Pompilius , second king of Rome and

1332-538: The word Safen , which later became Safin . From Safinim , Sabinus , Sabellus and Samnis , an Indo-European root can be extracted, * sabh- , which becomes Sab- in Latino-Faliscan and Saf- in Osco-Umbrian : Sabini and * Safineis . At some point in prehistory, a population speaking a common language extended over both Samnium and Umbria . Salmon conjectures that it

1369-400: Was common Italic and puts forward a date of 600 BC, after which the common language began to separate into dialects. This date does not necessarily correspond to any historical or archaeological evidence; developing a synthetic view of the ethnology of proto-historic Italy is an incomplete and ongoing task. Linguist Julius Pokorny carries the etymology somewhat further back. Conjecturing that

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