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60-481: In ancient Rome a similar relationship had existed between the client ( cliens ) and his patronus (hence 'patron'); as Rome's power grew, a still closer analogy is visible between the Roman institution and the modern ecclesiastical protectorate. Nearly every provincial city had its patronus , or procurator , in imperial Rome, usually a Roman patrician or eques , and such persons were held in high esteem. Thus Cicero

120-442: A general and his soldiers , a founder and colonists , and a conqueror and a dependent foreign community . Benefits a client may be granted include legal representation in court, loans of money, influencing business deals or marriages , and supporting a client's candidacy for political office or a priesthood . Arranging marriages for their daughters, clients were often able to secure new patrons and extend their influence in

180-543: A bull was issued that threatened excommunication for any dealers in Christian slave and ordered Jews to wear a "badge of infamy" to deter, in part, the buying of Christians. In June 1425 Martin anathematized those who sold Christian slaves to Muslims. Traffic in Christian slaves was not banned, purely the sale to non-Christian owners. The papal bull of excommunication issued to the Genoese merchants of Caffa related to

240-399: A major role in the patron client system. Favors given from patron to client and client to patron do not cancel the other, instead the giving of favors and counter favors was symbolic of the personal relationship between patron and client. As a consequence, the act of returning a favor was done more out of a sense of gratuity and less so because a favor needed to be returned. The regulation of

300-630: A minimal form of administration bound by personal relations between parties and thus in the late Republic patronage served as a model for ruling. Conquerors or governors abroad established personal ties as patron to whole communities, ties which then might be perpetuated as a family obligation. One such instance was the Marcelli's patronage of the Sicilians , as Claudius Marcellus had conquered Syracuse and Sicily. Extending rights or citizenship to municipalities or provincial families

360-443: A patron and client might even hold the same social rank, but the former would possess greater wealth, power, or prestige that enabled him to help or do favors for the client. From the emperor at the top to the commoner at the bottom, the bonds between these groups found formal expression in legal definition of patrons' responsibilities to clients. Patronage relationships were not exclusively between two people and also existed between

420-415: A procession to the town hall, where under the leadership of Jan Žižka of Trocnov , a noble of southern Bohemia, the building was stormed and people found inside were thrown out of the windows on to the spears and swords of the processionists, and hacked to pieces. In Kuttenberg, hundreds of captured Hussites were thrown by the miners into the shafts of disused silver mines. King Wenceslaus swore death to all

480-479: A social institution during the 2nd century BC; Fergus Millar doubts that it was the dominant force in Roman elections that it has often been seen as. Throughout the evolution from republic to empire we see the most diversity between patrons. Patrons from all positions of power sought to build their power through the control of clients and resources. More and more patronage extended over entire communities whether on

540-723: A town in what was then the Duchy of Brabant, and what is modern day Belgium . Martin V died in Rome of a stroke on 20 February 1431 at the age of 62. He is buried at St. John Lateran Basilica . The excitement of the Church during the Hussite movement rendered the Jews apprehensive, and through Emperor Sigismund , they obtained from Pope Martin V various bulls (1418 and 1422) in which their former privileges were confirmed and in which he exhorted

600-550: Is also, since the reign of John Paul II, called the Cardinal protector of the title ( titular church s.s. for a Cardinal priest or Cardinal-deaconry for a Cardinal deacon ) in or near Rome to which he is assigned, which gives him his title and benefits from his material support for upkeep or restoration, especially when he is the ordinary of a wealthy see. The Roman Church adopted this, with many other imperial institutions, as one serviceable for external administration, not that

660-560: The Aedui of Gaul wherein he was able to restore their influence over the other Gallic tribes who were once their clients. Hereafter he was asked on several occasions to serve the duties of a patron by the Aedui and was thus regarded by many in Rome as the patron of the Aedui. Augustus established colonies in all parts of the empire during his conquests which extended his influence to its furthest reaches. He also made many acts of kindness to

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720-524: The Council of Constance and followed him in his escape at Schaffhausen on 21 March 1415. Later he returned to Constance and took part in the process leading to the deposition of John XXIII. After deposing Antipope John XXIII in 1415, the Council of Constance was long divided by the conflicting claims of Pope Gregory XII (1406–15) and Antipope Benedict XIII (1394–1423). Martin was elected pope, at

780-399: The Council of Pisa , and was one of the supporters of Antipope Alexander V . Later he confirmed his allegiance to Alexander's successor, John XXIII , by whom his family obtained several privileges, while Oddone obtained for himself the vicariate of Todi , Orvieto , Perugia and Umbria . He was excommunicated for this in 1411 by Pope Gregory XII . Oddone was with John XXIII's entourage at

840-539: The Holy Roman Empire , England , France and Spain . By 1415 Bohemia was in turmoil and the subject of much discussion at the Council of Constance. Adherents of Jan Hus , who had been previously burned at the stake as a heretic by the council, adopted the practice of Communion under both kinds . The Council sent letters to the civil and ecclesiastical authorities in Bohemia, insisting they deal with

900-487: The patronus–cliens relationship was "peculiarly congenial" to Roman politics and the sense of familia in the Roman Republic . An important person demonstrated their prestige or dignitas by the number of clients they had. When a slave was manumitted , the former owner became their patron. The freedman (libertus) had social obligations to their patron, which might involve campaigning on their behalf if

960-427: The salutatio . The patron would receive his clients at dawn in the atrium and tablinum , after which the clients would escort the patron to the forum . The number of clients who accompanied their patron was seen as a symbol of the patron's prestige. The client was regarded as a minor member of their patron's gens , entitled to assist in its sacra gentilicia , and bound to contribute to the cost of them. The client

1020-553: The Kingdom of Portugal was the only state with a cardinal protector. Within the Roman curia , a cardinal is appointed as protector of the Pontifical Ecclesiastical Academy , which trains papal diplomats . Patronage in ancient Rome Patronage ( clientela ) was the distinctive relationship in ancient Roman society between the patronus ('patron') and their cliens ('client'). Apart from

1080-653: The Lateran to Santa Maria Maggiore and, from 1424, the Basilica of Santi Apostoli near the Palazzo Colonna . He also frequently sojourned in towns held by his family in the Latium ( Tivoli , Vicovaro , Marino , Gallicano and others). When the second Pope to take the name Martin was elected in 1281, there was confusion over how many Popes had taken the name before. It was believed then that there were three, so

1140-721: The Roman Curia. A lengthy section addressed the position and functions of cardinals. Leo points out that cardinals give assistance to the common Father of all Christian faithful, and that advocates of individuals are an annoyance. He therefore orders that cardinals should not take up any position of partiality, either of princes or communities, or of other people against some one person, nor should they become promoters or defenders unless some point of justice or equity demands it, or their own dignity and condition requires it. They should separate themselves from every private passion. The just business of princes and other persons, and especially

1200-541: The abuses committed by the cardinal protector of the Franciscans; Pope Martin V (1417–31) forbade the acceptance by the protector of a religious order of any payment for his protection. While Sixtus IV and Julius II defined more particularly the limits of the office, Pope Innocent XII (1691–1700) must be credited with a lasting regulation of the duties and rights of a cardinal protector. Cardinals could also act as representatives of foreign rulers, even though this

1260-404: The age of 48, at the Council of Constance on St. Martin's Day , 11 November 1417. Participants in the conclave included 23 cardinals and 30 delegates of the council. He was ordained a priest on 13 November 1417, and consecrated bishop the next day. Martin left Constance at the close of the council (May 1418), but travelled slowly through Italy and lingered at Florence . His authority in Rome

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1320-414: The basis of political decree, benefaction by an individual who becomes the communities' patron, or by the community formally adopting a patron. Both sides had expectations of one another. The community expected protection from outside forces, while the patron expected a loyal following for things such as political campaigning and manpower should the need arise. The extent of a person's client relationships

1380-529: The buying and selling of Christians, but has been considered ineffectual as prior injunctions against the Viennese, including the Laws of Gazaria, made allowances for the sale of both Christian and Muslim slaves. Ten black African slaves were presented to Martin by Prince Henry of Portugal . According to Koschorke, Martin supported colonial expansion. Davidson (1961) argues that Martin's injunction against slavery

1440-427: The church or main edifice of the institute, or on the municipal palace of the city in question. In the early modern period, a portrait of the cardinal protector was often on display in the premises of the institution. The first to hold such an office was Cardinal Ugolino Conti (later Pope Gregory IX ), who sought thereby to paralyze the intrigues of his many enemies at Rome; at the request of St. Francis himself, he

1500-548: The council duly decreed: "And as the cardinals should assist him who is the common father of all [the pope], it is highly improper for them to make distinctions between persons or to become their advocates. Therefore this Holy Synod decrees forbids them, as co-judges, to represent any particular interest even if they themselves come from the country concerned. And they should not be partial protectors or defenders of any prince or community or anybody else against anybody, with or without payment. But freed of all passion, they should assist

1560-526: The dilapidated churches, palaces, bridges, and other public structures. For this reconstruction he engaged some famous masters of the Tuscan school and helped instigate the Roman Renaissance. Faced with competing plans for general reform offered by various nations, Martin V submitted a counter-scheme and entered into negotiations for separate concordats , for the most part vague and illusory, with

1620-557: The enslavement of Christians. However, voyages and discoveries brought other continents, where slavery still existed, into European consciousness, raising the question of whether slavery of unbelievers and outside of Europe was permitted. According to Burton, Martin authorized a crusade against Africa in 1418, and this, coupled with a later bull of Pope Eugene IV (1441), sanctioned the Portuguese trade in African slaves. In March 1425

1680-628: The friars to use moderate language. In the last years of his pontificate, however, he repealed several of his ordinances. A gathering, convoked by the Jews in Forlì , sent a deputation asking Pope Martin V to abolish the oppressive laws promulgated by Antipope Benedict XIII . The deputation succeeded in its mission. During the Middle Ages, slavery had fallen out of usage in Europe. The Church denounced

1740-659: The heresy. Bohemian and Moravian nobles responded that the sentence on Hus was unjust and insulting to their country, and promised to protect priests against episcopal prosecutions for heresy. Prague was placed under interdict for sheltering the excommunicated Jan of Jesenice . Beghards arrived attracted by Bohemia's reputation for religious liberty. In 1419 King Wenceslaus IV , who had resisted what he considered interference in his kingdom, commanded that all ejected Catholic beneficiaries should be reinstated in their offices and revenues. Prague prepared for armed resistance. Jan Želivský , an extreme anti-Catholic preacher of Prague, led

1800-516: The nephew of Pope Pius II , served as the protector of England at the Roman Curia from 1492 to 1503, He also served as Protector of Germany. Cardinal Marco Vigerio was Protector of King Christian I of Denmark and the Danish nation, ca. 1513–1516. On 5 May 1514, in the ninth session of the Lateran Council , Pope Leo X promulgated his bull, "Supernae dispositionis", extensively reforming

1860-548: The oldest and most distinguished families of Rome . His brother Giordano became Prince of Salerno and Duke of Venosa , while his sister Paola was Lady of Piombino between 1441 and 1445. Oddone studied law at the University of Pavia . He became apostolic protonotary under Pope Urban VI (1378–1389), and was created Cardinal-Deacon of San Giorgio in Velabro by Pope Innocent VII in 1405. In 1409 he took part in

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1920-431: The option of the seller, were lawful. When the lawfulness of annuities was established, they were widely used in commerce; it seems that city states used them to raise compulsory loans from their citizens. A decree of the Council of Constance ( Frequens ) ordered that councils should be held every five years. Martin V summoned a council in 1423 that met first at Pavia and later at Siena (the " Council of Siena "). It

1980-519: The part of the patron and loyalty on the part of the client. The patronage relationship was not a discrete one, but a network, since a patronus might himself be obligated to someone of higher status or greater power. A cliens might have more than one patron, whose interests could come into conflict. While the Roman familia ('family', but more broadly the "household") was the building block of society, interlocking networks of patronage created highly complex social bonds. Reciprocity ethics played

2040-427: The patron ran for election, doing requested jobs or errands, or continuing a sexual relationship that began in servitude . In return, the patron was expected to ensure a certain degree of material security for their client. Allowing one's clients to become destitute or entangled in unjust legal proceedings would reflect poorly on the patron and diminish their prestige. The complex patronage relationships changed with

2100-417: The patron-client relationship between individuals, there were also client kingdoms and tribes, whose rulers were in a subordinate relationship to the Roman state. The relationship was hierarchical, but obligations were mutual. The patron was the protector, sponsor, and benefactor of the client; the technical term for this protection was patrocinium . Although typically the client was of inferior social class,

2160-586: The patronage relationship was believed by the Greek historians Dionysius and Plutarch to be one of the early concerns of Romulus . Hence, it was dated to the very founding of Rome . In the earliest periods, patricians would have served as patrons. Both patricius , 'patrician', and patronus are related to the Latin word pater , 'father', in this sense symbolically, indicating the patriarchal nature of Roman society. Although other societies have similar systems,

2220-417: The political arena. In return for these services, the clients were expected to offer their services to their patron as needed. A client's service to the patron included accompanying the patron in Rome or when he went to war, ransoming him if he was captured, and supporting him during political campaigns. Requests were usually made by clientela at a daily morning reception at the patron's home, known as

2280-487: The poor and religious persons should move them with pious feeling, and they should help the oppressed and unjustly harassed according to their abilities and the obligation of their office. A great deal of maneuvering space was left for the cardinalatial conscience and ingenuity by the "unless" clause. No mention of annuities, subsidies, or anything financial is made. Until the Portuguese Revolution of 1910 ,

2340-611: The pope commanded that the remains of Wycliffe , who was posthumously declared a heretic in 1415, be dug up and burned. The crusades against the Lollards, however, were ultimately unsuccessful. According to Burton, Pope Martin authorized a crusade against Africa in 1418 in relation to the slave trade . In addition to the Hussite Crusades, Martin declared a Crusade against the Ottoman Empire in 1420 in response to

2400-476: The pope in settling conflicts through concord and justice. But this Holy Synod encourages them to promote the just affairs of princes and all others, especially the poor and the religious orders, without payment and profit, but purely as a work of charity.” Cardinals, therefore, could not be Protectors, but they could be Promoters. The door had been reopened a crack. The prohibition was renewed in 1492 by Pope Alexander VI . Cardinal Francesco Todeschini-Piccolomini,

2460-657: The pope's niece Caterina Colonna. In exchange for the recognition of Joan II of Naples , Martin obtained the restitution of Benevento , several fiefs in the Kingdom of Naples for his relatives and, most important of all, an agreement that Muzio Attendolo, then hired by the Neapolitans, should leave Rome. After a long stay in Florence while these matters were arranged, Martin was able to enter Rome in September 1420. He at once set to work establishing order and restoring

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2520-538: The popes who first conferred this office and title sought to copy an ancient Roman usage, but because analogous conditions and circumstances created a similar situation. The office is conferred by the pope through the Cardinal secretary of state , sometimes by spontaneous designation of the Pope, sometimes at the request of those who seek such protection. Such a cardinal protector had the right to place his coat-of-arms on

2580-609: The rebels, but died of a stroke in August, 1419. The next months were marked by deeds of violence; many citizens, especially Germans, had to flee. Wenceslaus was succeeded by his brother Sigismund, King of the Romans and King of Hungary , who prepared to restore order. On 1 March 1420, Pope Martin V issued a Bull inviting all Christians to unite in a crusade against the Wycliffites ( Lollards ), Hussites, and other heretics. In 1428,

2640-472: The respective sovereigns of these states, lest through love of money they should be led to abet works of injustice. In 1424 Pope Martin V forbade the cardinals to accept the protectorate of kings and princes. Pope Eugenius IV , in his instructions to Cardinal Giulio Cesarini, his legate and president of the Council of Basel, wrote that cardinals should not be protectors of lords or communities. And in March 1436,

2700-588: The rising pressure from the Ottoman Turks. In 1419–1420 Martin had diplomatic contacts with the Byzantine emperor Manuel II , who was invoking a council in Constantinople. On 12 July 1420 the Pope conceded to attach an indulgence to anyone who would contribute to a crusade against the latter, which would be led by Sigismund , King of the Romans. The main concern of Martin's pontificate from 1423

2760-542: The social order during late antiquity . By the 10th century, clientela meant a contingent of armed retainers ready to enforce their lord 's will. A young man serving in a military capacity, separate from the entourage that constituted a noble's familia or "household", might be termed a vavasor in documents. Several influential Romans, such as Caesar and Augustus , established client–patron relationships in conquered regions. This can be seen in Caesar’s relations with

2820-486: The social pressures during the late Republic , when terms such as patronus , cliens and patrocinium are used in a more restricted sense than amicitia , 'friendship', including political friendships and alliances, or hospitium , reciprocal "guest–host" bonds between families. It can be difficult to distinguish patrocinium or clientela , amicitia , and hospitium, since their benefits and obligations overlap. Traditional clientela began to lose its importance as

2880-433: The war with Braccio da Montone in exchange for his recognition as vicar and reconciled with the deposed John XXIII, to whom he gave the title of Cardinal of Tusculum. Canon law prohibited interest upon a loan. To avoid this, annuities were paid, interest in effect but not in name. The dispute as to the legality of annuity contracts was brought before Martin V in 1423. He held that purchased annuities, which were redeemable at

2940-459: The whole of Rome at large, including food and monetary handouts, as well as settling soldiers in new colonies that he sponsored, which indebted a great many people to him. Through these examples, Augustus altered the form of patronage to one that suited his ambitions for power, encouraging acts that would benefit Roman society over selfish interests. Although rare, it was possible for women to be patronesses. Patronage and its many forms allowed for

3000-525: Was always regarded with suspicion by the pope, since it created contrasting loyalties. The earliest known example of a cardinal protector occurs in correspondence between Pope Urban V and King Louis of Hungary (1342–1382), in which Cardinal Guillaume de Jugié has entered into a mutual agreement with King Louis to protect (promote) each other's interests. Emperors, kings, and other dignitaries, were permitted to have cardinal protectors, until Pope Urban VI (1378–89) forbade such cardinals to receive anything from

3060-477: Was named protector of the Franciscans by Pope Innocent III , and again by Honorius III . Alexander IV and Nicholas III retained for themselves the office of protector of the Franciscans. Indeed, the latter were long the only order that could boast of a cardinal protector; it was only in the fourteenth century that gradually the office was extended. As early as 1370 Pope Gregory XI was obliged to restrain

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3120-554: Was not a condemnation of slavery itself, but rather driven through fear of "infidel power". Norman Housley finds it "...   hard to avoid the conclusion that the pope was agreeing to whatever was asked of him by the king.   ... [P]olitical weakness compelled the Renaissance Papacy to adopt an acquiescent and unchallenging position when approached for requests for privileges in favour of these ventures." During his permanence in Rome, Martin moved his residence from

3180-501: Was often taken into account when looking for an expression of their potential political power. Patronage in the late empire differed from patronage in the republic. Patrons protected individual clients from the tax collector and other public obligations. In return, clients gave them money or services. Some clients even surrendered ownership of their land to their patron. The emperors were unable to prevent this type of patronage effectively. The significance of clientela changed along with

3240-850: Was one way to add to the number of one's clients for political purposes, as Pompeius Strabo did among the Transpadanes . This form of patronage contributed to the new role created by Augustus as sole ruler after the collapse of the Republic, when he cultivated an image as the patron of the Empire as a whole. Various professional and other corporations, such as collegia and sodalitates , awarded statutory titles such as patronus or pater patratus to benefactors. Chronologically: Pope Martin V Pope Martin V ( Latin : Martinus V ; Italian : Martino V ; January/February 1369 – 20 February 1431), born Otto (or Oddone ) Colonna ,

3300-543: Was patronus of Dyrrachium (later Durazzo, now Durrës) and of Capua , in which Campanian city a gilded statue was raised to him. In time the office became hereditary in certain families; Suetonius wrote, in his life of Tiberius , that the [imperial] Claudian family ( gens Claudia ) was from ancient times protector of Sicily and the Peloponnesus . Every cardinal (except the Cardinal-Patriarchs )

3360-614: Was rather poorly attended, which gave the Pope a pretext for dissolving it, as soon as it had come to the resolution that "internal church union by reform ought to take precedence over external union". It was prorogued for seven years. The seventeenth council then met as the " Council of Basel " in February 1431 shortly before Martin's death. On December 9, 1425, Martin founded the University of Louvain or Universitas Lovaniensis in Leuven (also known as "Louvain" in both English and French),

3420-786: Was represented by his brother Giordano, who had fought under Muzio Attendolo against the condottiero Braccio da Montone . The Pope at the time ruled only Rome (when not rebellious) and its environs: Braccio held Umbria , Bologna as an independent commune, while much of Romagna and the Marche was held by local "vicars", who were in fact petty hereditary lords. In particular, Martin confirmed Giorgio Ordelaffi in Forlì , Ludovico Alidosi in Imola , Malatesta IV Malatesta in Rimini , and Guidantonio da Montefeltro in Spoleto , who would later marry

3480-451: Was subject to the jurisdiction and discipline of the gens, and was entitled to burial in its common sepulchre . One of the major spheres of activity within patron–client relations was the law courts , but clientela was not itself a legal contract, although it was supported by law from earliest Roman times . The pressures to uphold one's obligations were primarily moral, founded on ancestral custom , and on qualities of good faith on

3540-600: Was the head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 11 November 1417 to his death in February 1431. His election effectively ended the Western Schism of 1378–1417. He is the last pope to date to take on the pontifical name "Martin". Oddone Colonna was born at Genazzano , the son of Agapito Colonna and Caterina Conti, between 26 January and 20 February 1369. He belonged to one of

3600-475: Was the resumed war against Braccio da Montone. The following year, the combined Papal-Neapolitan army, led by Giacomo Caldora and Francesco Sforza , defeated him at the Battle of L'Aquila (2 June 1424); Braccio died a few days later. In the same year Martin obtained a reduction of the autonomy of the commune of Bologna, whose finances would be thenceforth under the authority of a papal treasurer. He also ended

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