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112-529: Accordingly, in the 19th century, the name "Celestial" was used to refer to Chinese people. Both terms were widely used in the English-language popular mass media of the day, but fell into disuse later on. Its usage has become popular again in the present day (2015), particularly among Chinese Internet users. It is used to refer to the current Communist regime, to imply either disapproval for its political suppression and arrogance or national pride in

224-430: A soft cover . Magazines fall into two broad categories: consumer magazines and business magazines. In practice, magazines are a subset of periodicals , distinct from those periodicals produced by scientific, artistic, academic or special interest publishers which are subscription-only, more expensive, narrowly limited in circulation, and often have little or no advertising. Magazines can be classified as: A newspaper

336-488: A book resembling a photo album. The first collection of records to be called an "album" was Tchaikovsky 's Nutcracker Suite , release in April 1909 as a four-disc set by Odeon Records . It retailed for 16 shillings —about £ 15 in modern currency. A music video (also promo) is a short film or video that accompanies a complete piece of music, most commonly a song . Modern music videos were primarily made and used as

448-438: A catchall phrase that encompasses the aforementioned along with any game made for any other device, including, but not limited to, advanced calculators, mobile phones, PDAs , etc. Sound recording and reproduction is the electrical or mechanical re-creation or amplification of sound , often as music . This involves the use of audio equipment such as microphones, recording devices and loudspeakers. From early beginnings with

560-492: A device used to access a mass medium (the Internet). Video games may also be evolving into a mass medium. Video games (for example, massively multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPGs), such as RuneScape ) provide a common gaming experience to millions of users across the globe and convey the same messages and ideologies to all their users. Users sometimes share the experience with one another by playing online. Excluding

672-491: A great increase in population; growing from a populace of approximately 150 million in the year 1700 to over 300 million people by the mid-19th century. The expansion of regional trade under the Qing rule saw an increase in the mass of the urban population. The duration of the reign of the Qing dynasty saw the production of a multitude of different creative mediums and art forms under the concept of Celestial Empire. This concept saw

784-645: A great influence on the creation of the concept of Celestial Empire. Ironically, the idea of the Central Kingdom originated in the Zhou dynasty , when China had a nominal central government but was, in fact, a collection of feudal states along the Yellow River . In addition, even if China was politically unified, its territory and power declined, and during the heyday, the early days of the Han, Tang, and Qing, and

896-684: A marketing device intended to promote the sale of music recordings. Although the origins of music videos go back much further, they came into their own in the 1980s, when Music Television 's format was based on them. In the 1980s, the term "rock video" was often used to describe this form of entertainment, although the term has fallen into disuse. Music videos can accommodate all styles of filmmaking, including animation , live-action films, documentaries , and non-narrative, abstract film . The Internet (also known simply as "the Net" or less precisely as "the Web")

1008-424: A modern state. It played an important role in the strategy of restoring state power by Chinese nationalists. The term ‘Celestial Empire’ was officially expressed and utilized by Chinese political powers under the rule of China's last imperial dynasty, the Qing dynasty (1644–1912). The Qing dynasty exercised control over an enormous, multi-ethnic and cultural empire, which consisted of numerous ethnic groups, including

1120-424: A more powerful media than either TV or the internet, starting with mobile being permanently carried and always connected. Mobile has the best audience accuracy and is the only mass media with a built-in payment channel available to every user without any credit cards or PayPal accounts or even an age limit. Mobile is often called the 7th Mass Medium and either the fourth screen (if counting cinema, TV and PC screens) or

1232-457: A newspaper, or watching the 10 o'clock news, people can log onto the internet to get the news they want, when they want it. For example, many workers listen to the radio through the Internet while sitting at their desk. Even the education system relies on the Internet. Teachers can contact the entire class by sending one e-mail. They may have web pages on which students can get another copy of

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1344-612: A number of technologies combined to produce podcasting . Podcasting is an asynchronous broadcast/narrowcast medium. Adam Curry and his associates, the Podshow , are principal proponents of podcasting. The term ' film ' encompasses motion pictures as individual projects, as well as the field in general. The name comes from the photographic film (also called film stock ), historically the primary medium for recording and displaying motion pictures. Many other terms for film exist, such as motion pictures (or just pictures and "picture"),

1456-462: A particular subject; others function as more personal online diaries. A typical blog combines text, images and other graphics, and links to other blogs, web pages, and related media. The ability for readers to leave comments in an interactive format is an important part of many blogs. Most blogs are primarily textual, although some focus on art (artlog), photographs (photoblog), sketchblog, videos (vlog), music (MP3 blog) and audio (podcasting), are part of

1568-515: A result of the wars, though the Taiping Rebellion and Dungan Revolt had a much larger economic effect. The First Opium War broke out in 1839 between China and Britain and was fought over trading rights (including the right of free trade ) and Britain's diplomatic status among Chinese officials. In the eighteenth century, China enjoyed a trade surplus with Europe, trading porcelain , silk , and tea in exchange for silver . By

1680-726: A second phase of fighting which included the sack of the Old Summer Palace and the occupation of the Forbidden City palace complex in Beijing , the treaty was confirmed by the Convention of Peking in 1860. In February 1860, the British and French imperialist authorities again appointed Elgin and Grotto as plenipotentiaries respectively, leading more than 15,000 British troops and about 7,000 French troops to expand

1792-545: A significant leader of the Self-Strengthening Movement, explained the importance of enforcing Western training techniques on all Chinese civilians for the elevation of nationalism: ‘Gymnastics concerns the future of the country. If everyone is as strong as soldiers, China will be a powerful country." The introduction of Western sports and training techniques to the Chinese populace was therefore vital in

1904-461: A theme, which can be exampled with The Wall Street Journal as they offer news on finance and business related-topics. The first printed newspaper was published in 1605, and the form has thrived even in the face of competition from technologies such as radio and television. Recent developments on the Internet are posing major threats to its business model, however. Paid circulation is declining in most countries, and advertising revenue, which makes up

2016-606: A vital sub-movement of modernization in order to promote industry, military force, commerce, agriculture and education. This modernization measure was reflective of the strengths found within the Western world. Modern factories and schools were introduced, and Chinese students were prompted to be sent abroad to study. Western technologies were therefore introduced to China in order to redefine the Celestial Empire; therefore, uplifting Chinese nationalism. Another component of

2128-496: A wide range of areas while performing their duties, and to appear in historical records, taking the opportunity to visit historic sites throughout the empire represented by poetry and prose. These exquisite print works contrast sharply with the crude examples of printing used for mass consumption. Popular religious print works can show considerable quality and elegance, while almanacs and cheap educational prints have limited and low quality. Mass media Mass media include

2240-463: A wider network of social media. Microblogging is another type of blogging which consists of blogs with very short posts. RSS is a format for syndicating news and the content of news-like sites, including major news sites like Wired , news-oriented community sites like Slashdot , and personal blogs. It is a family of Web feed formats used to publish frequently updated content such as blog entries, news headlines, and podcasts. An RSS document (which

2352-486: A worldwide attraction, especially with the addition of dubbing or subtitles that translate the original language. A video game is a computer-controlled game in which a video display, such as a monitor or television set, is the primary feedback device. The term "computer game" also includes games which display only text or which use other methods, such as sound or vibration, as their primary feedback device. There always must also be some sort of input device , usually in

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2464-436: Is a publication containing news and information and advertising, usually printed on low-cost paper called newsprint . It may be general or special interest, most often published daily or weekly. The most important function of newspapers is to inform the public of significant events. Local newspapers inform local communities and include advertisements from local businesses and services, while national newspapers tend to focus on

2576-490: Is a more interactive medium of mass media, and can be briefly described as "a network of networks". Specifically, it is the worldwide, publicly accessible network of interconnected computer networks that transmit data by packet switching using the standard Internet Protocol (IP). It consists of millions of smaller domestic, academic, business and governmental networks, which together carry various information and services, such as email , online chat , file transfer, and

2688-506: Is accessible through the Internet, along with many other services including e-mail, file sharing and others described below. Toward the end of the 20th century, the advent of the World Wide Web marked the first era in which most individuals could have a means of exposure on a scale comparable to that of mass media. Anyone with a web site has the potential to address a global audience, although serving to high levels of web traffic

2800-494: Is called a "feed" or "web feed" or "channel") contains either a summary of content from an associated web site or the full text. RSS makes it possible for people to keep up with web sites in an automated manner that can be piped into special programs or filtered displays. A podcast is a series of digital-media files which are distributed over the Internet using syndication feeds for playback on portable media players and computers. The term podcast, like broadcast, can refer either to

2912-403: Is not seen because of an effect known as persistence of vision , whereby the eye retains a visual image for a fraction of a second after the source has been removed. Also of relevance is what causes the perception of motion: a psychological effect identified as beta movement . Film has emerged as an important art form. They entertain, educate, enlighten and inspire audiences. Any film can become

3024-433: Is sometimes erroneously used as a synonym for " mainstream media ". Mainstream media are distinguished from alternative media by their content and point of view. Alternative media are also "mass media" outlets in the sense that they use technology capable of reaching many people, even if the audience is often smaller than the mainstream. In common usage, the term "mass" denotes not that a given number of individuals receives

3136-836: Is sometimes misunderstood in this way. It can be used for various purposes: Journalism is the discipline of collecting, analyzing, verifying and presenting information regarding current events , trends , issues and people. Those who practice journalism are known as journalists . News -oriented journalism is sometimes described as the "first rough draft of history" (attributed to Phil Graham ), because journalists often record important events, producing news articles on short deadlines. While under pressure to be first with their stories, news media organisations usually edit and proofread their reports prior to publication, adhering to each organisation's standards of accuracy, quality and style. Many news organisation claim proud traditions of holding government officials and institutions accountable to

3248-422: Is still relatively expensive. It is possible that the rise of peer-to-peer technologies may have begun the process of making the cost of bandwidth manageable. Although a vast amount of information, imagery, and commentary (i.e. "content") has been made available, it is often difficult to determine the authenticity and reliability of information contained in web pages (in many cases, self-published). The invention of

3360-593: The Pearl River forts on the approach to Canton and proceeded to bombard Canton itself, but had insufficient forces to take and hold the city. On 15 December, during a riot in Canton, European commercial properties were set on fire and Bowring appealed for military intervention. The execution of a French missionary inspired support from France. The United States and Russia also intervened in the war. Britain and France now sought greater concessions from China, including

3472-550: The 20,000 chests (1,300 metric tons) over to Lin, who had them destroyed at Humen . Elliott then wrote to London advising the use of military force to resolve the dispute with the Chinese government. A small skirmish occurred between British and Chinese warships in the Kowloon Estuary on 4 September 1839. After almost a year, the British government decided, in May 1840, to send a military expedition to impose reparations for

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3584-521: The 20th century, the relationship between sports and Chinese nationalism is close, and sports creates modern China in a historical context. The history of the late Qing and early republics clearly showed the close relationship between sports, nationalism and politics, reflecting the changes in Chinese society, the identity and mindset of the Chinese people. Sports had great importance not only in cultivating China's nationalism and national consciousness, but also in ultimately transforming China from heaven into

3696-487: The Celestial Empire's realization that it had lost its eminence as a prevailing world power. The defeats experienced by China within the Opium Wars (1840–1842, 1856–1860), impacted the perception of Chinese nationalism; therefore, encouraging the Qing dynasty to reconsider its nationalistic approach. Zhao Suisheng had placed an emphasis on the idea that the escalation of Chinese nationalism had an explicit correlation with

3808-486: The Celestial empire. The term " Celestial Land System " (天朝田畝制度) means a series of systems covering land, politics, society, and military as a whole (1853) announced by the Celestial empire, Taiping Heavenly Kingdom after occupying Nanjing and setting up the capital here. The system is rich in values that Chinese Celestial emperors have pursued in history. The land system is called Cheonjojeonmu system separately, or

3920-636: The Chinese Army. Within the Xiang Army , which was commanded by Zeng Guofan, who was one of the founding leaders of the self-strengthening movement; soldiers were obligated to exercise gymnastics at least twice a day as a requirement. Li Hongzhang, another leader of the movement and the commander of the Huai Army , saw that Western military generals were hired to train Chinese soldiers to be well acquainted modern military drills and exercises. Through

4032-595: The Heavenly Kingdom. Wang Geon , who founded the kingdom of Goryeo, named the unit Cheongun, which means the army of heaven, for the battle of Ilichon. In addition, the Buddhist monk of Goryeo, Myocheong , named the rebel army Chen Gyeon-chungun, and wanted to establish the people who were kings of Goryeo as the emperor of the Great Powers. They also called the marriage between royal families 'cheonin' in

4144-569: The Heavenly virtue and its principle, and the people who have not accepted it. China's neighbors were obliged to pay their respects to the 'excellent' Chinese emperors within these boundaries on a regular basis. It can be said that this was the most important element of the East Asian order, which was implicit in the name of Celestial Empire in the past. Under this order of China, the trade of goods between Empire and other dynasties took place in

4256-452: The Internet has also allowed breaking news stories to reach around the globe within minutes. This rapid growth of instantaneous, decentralised communication is often deemed likely to change mass media and its relationship to society. "Cross-media" means the idea of distributing the same message through different media channels. A similar idea is expressed in the news industry as "convergence". Many authors understand cross-media publishing to be

4368-516: The Internet, however, it is questionable whether players of video games are sharing a common experience when they play the game individually. It is possible to discuss in great detail the events of a video game with a friend one has never played with, because the experience is identical to each. The question, then, is whether this is a form of mass communication. Five characteristics of mass communication have been identified by sociologist John Thompson of Cambridge University : The term "mass media"

4480-663: The Manchus, Han Chinese , the Mongols , Uyghurs , as well as the Tibetans . Both the customs, as well as the cultural traditions of these diverse ethnic groups living under the dynasty were often assimilated into Chinese society as the dynasty expanded into new regions across China. As the Qing rule was of predominantly Manchu descent, an ethnic minority, the notion of ‘Celestial Empire’ was familiarised in order to consolidate and affirm their power. In order to consolidate and reaffirm

4592-692: The Master Settlement Agreement between the US and the tobacco industries prohibited the billboard advertising of cigarettes. In a 1994 Chicago-based study, Diana Hackbarth and her colleagues revealed how tobacco- and alcohol-based billboards were concentrated in poor neighbourhoods. In other urban centers, alcohol and tobacco billboards were much more concentrated in African-American neighbourhoods than in white neighbourhoods. Mass media encompasses much more than just news, although it

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4704-533: The North and South Song periods, almost the smallest of the countries, during the period of the North and South Song, the territory and power declined even during the course of modern pre-modern history. Especially during the Qing dynasty, China was ruled by the Manchurian people , a people across the border. The Manchurians sought to rule the vast Chinese territory by integrating China's traditional bureaucracy and

4816-576: The Yangsama system, the government marriage system, the support of the elderly, the elderly and the child widows were all defined as social and common responsibilities based on the traditional homily. It was the first attempt by the Taiping Heaven to embody the idea of Daedong, an ideal society where China's traditional great road is realized. The military system is represented by the single system of military and agricultural rule. In wartime, it

4928-472: The Yangsama system. The Yangsama system is an active reflection of the Chinese people's idea of the Zhou dynasty as the most ideal period. Twenty-five families were set up as one group and a higher group was assigned to control one group. He was responsible for various tasks such as administration, production, distribution, religion, judicial, education, reward and punishment, past examination, and recommendation. In

5040-399: The ability to publish in both print and on the web without manual conversion effort. An increasing number of wireless devices with mutually incompatible data and screen formats make it even more difficult to achieve the objective "create once, publish many". The Internet is quickly becoming the center of mass media. Everything is becoming accessible via the internet. Rather than picking up

5152-642: The activity of making information available for public view. In some cases, authors may be their own publishers. Traditionally, the term refers to the distribution of printed works such as books and newspapers . With the advent of digital information systems and the Internet , the scope of publishing has expanded to include websites , blogs and the like. Opium Wars The Opium Wars ( simplified Chinese : 鸦片战争 ; traditional Chinese : 鴉片戰爭 ; pinyin : Yāpiàn zhànzhēng ) were two conflicts waged between China and Western powers during

5264-529: The afternoon also joined the robbery, and the most precious things in the Old Summer Palace were looted. All twelve bronze statues of animal heads began to be lost overseas. On 18 October, the Old Summer Palace was burned down by British soldiers, and France refused to provide aid. The fire burned for three days and nights, razing the buildings of the Old Summer Palace to the ground and destroying nearby royal properties. As of December 2020, seven of

5376-454: The application of Western military physical exercises and techniques to improve the strength of Chinese armies, political elites and leaders of the self-strengthening movement then began to focus their attention to the promotion of Chinese people's physical strength. By promoting the physical strength of the Chinese people, the government would then be able to strengthen Chinese nationalism through this notion of ‘Celestial Empire’. Zhang Zhidong,

5488-666: The basis for the Celestial Empire, not forgetting their separate ethnic identity. During the era of Celestial Empire, people were able to interact with their past by collecting calligraphy , paintings and cultural artifacts. For many, traveling to the empire was an opportunity to see various places of historical significance. Information about written traditions also greatly influenced people's lives. Young people preparing for government posts studied philosophy, history and poetry. The study of historical figures, for example, allowed candidates to reflect on past choices. Only through this tradition could they leave their own footprints in history. By

5600-592: The bulk of a newspaper's income, is shifting from print to online; some commentators, nevertheless, point out that historically new media such as radio and television did not entirely supplant existing. The internet has challenged the press as an alternative source of information and opinion but has also provided a new platform for newspaper organisations to reach new audiences. According to the World Trends Report , between 2012 and 2016, print newspaper circulation continued to fall in almost all regions, with

5712-427: The case of kings of ancient Korea, it was the subject of the Chinese emperor. The most representative dynasty of Korea, Joseon's aristocrats voluntarily used the term "Cheonjo," meaning Celestial Empire, in official diplomatic documents between the two countries for the Qing dynasty. It was in the same vein that they called China's army a heavenly soldier. Meanwhile, another Korean dynasty, Goryeo , internally referred to

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5824-517: The class outline or assignments. Some classes have class blogs in which students are required to post weekly, with students graded on their contributions. Blogging , too, has become a pervasive form of media. A blog is a website, usually maintained by an individual, with regular entries of commentary, descriptions of events, or interactive media such as images or video. Entries are commonly displayed in reverse chronological order, with most recent posts shown on top. Many blogs provide commentary or news on

5936-524: The companies prepared to hand over a token amount to placate him. Charles Elliot , Chief Superintendent of British Trade in China, arrived 3 days after the expiry of Lin's deadline, as Chinese troops enforced a shutdown and blockade of the factories. The standoff ended after Elliot paid for all the opium on credit from the British government (despite lacking official authority to make the purchase) and handed

6048-423: The concept of Celestial empire, and these ideas have had a great influence on their neutralization ideas so far from generation to generation after generation. The Central Kingdom Complex was based on the understanding of China as "everything under the sky." According to Chinese studies, this concept of Chinese thought does not merely mean a glorious and powerful civilization. For them, they recognized their country as

6160-402: The country's emergence as a superpower in the 21st century, depending on the context. In modern times it has mostly fallen into disuse, but the name "Celestial Empire" still appears in various media such as articles, stories, movies and television. It is a literal translation of Tiāncháo' into English as mentioned above. The origin of the name goes back to traditional Chinese religion, in which

6272-403: The creation of a strong ‘Celestial Empire’. The Self-Strengthening Movement served as a significant symbol to the escalation of an embryonic nationalism across China which was dedicated to reconstructing the strength of the ‘Celestial Empire’ to contest against Western powers. In the century following the introduction of the self-strengthening movement, the overarching theme of Chinese nationalism

6384-431: The creative advancement of poetry and literature, calligraphy, paintings, as well as other cultural relics which assisted Chinese citizens living under the Qing dynasty to engage with their countries history and culture. The production of these different creative mediums offered those who travelled around the empire, an opportunity to appreciate Chinese sites of historical significance celebrated in literature produced through

6496-491: The definition. In the early 2000s, a classification called the "seven mass media" came into use. In order of introduction, they are: Each mass medium has its own content types, creative artists, technicians and business models. For example, the Internet includes blogs , podcasts , web sites and various other technologies built atop the general distribution network. The sixth and seventh media, Internet and mobile phones, are often referred to collectively as digital media ; and

6608-470: The destroyed opium, with six million to be paid immediately, and the rest through specified installments thereafter. Another treaty the following year gave most favoured nation status to Britain and added provisions for British extraterritoriality , making Britain exempt from Chinese law. France secured several of the same concessions from China in the Treaty of Whampoa in 1844. In 1853, northern China

6720-469: The diverse arrays of media that reach a large audience via mass communication . Broadcast media transmit information electronically via media such as films , radio , recorded music, or television . Digital media comprises both Internet and mobile mass communication. Internet media comprise such services as email , social media sites, websites , and Internet-based radio and television. Many other mass media outlets have an additional presence on

6832-497: The end of the eighteenth century China's Tianxia was still safe, but it was not until the middle of the nineteenth century that China, Celestial Empire, began to realize that they were no longer the dominant forces in the world. China's defeat in the Opium War (1840–1842, 1856–1860) forced them to reassess their opponents. At this time, at the same time, Tianxia was redefined, and China's political circles and scholars began to study

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6944-563: The entire system announced by the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom in 1853 is also called Cheonjojeonmu system. The land system is represented by the Cheonjojeonmu system as mentioned earlier. The principle of this system is that all land should be divided equally as needed in accordance with the principle of gender equality. As a result, the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom completely denied the old landlord protection system, and at

7056-837: The exception of Asia and the Pacific , where the dramatic increase in sales in a few select countries has offset falls in historically strong Asian markets such as Japan and the Republic of Korea . Most notably, between 2012 and 2016, India 's print circulation grew by 89 per cent. Outdoor media is a form of mass media which comprises billboards, signs, placards placed inside and outside commercial buildings/objects like shops/buses, flying billboards (signs in tow of airplanes), blimps, skywriting, AR advertising. Many commercial advertisers use this form of mass media when advertising in sports stadiums. Tobacco and alcohol manufacturers used billboards and other outdoor media extensively. However, in 1998,

7168-473: The financial losses experienced by opium traders in Canton and to guarantee future security for the trade. On 21 June 1840, a British naval force arrived off Macao and moved to bombard the port of Dinghai . In the ensuing conflict, the Royal Navy used its superior ships and guns to inflict a series of decisive defeats on Chinese forces. The war was concluded by the Treaty of Nanking (Nanjing) in 1842,

7280-521: The first of the Unequal treaties between China and Western powers. The treaty ceded the Hong Kong Island and surrounding smaller islands to Britain, and established five cities as treaty ports open to Western traders: Shanghai , Canton, Ningbo , Fuzhou , and Xiamen (Amoy). The treaty also stipulated that China would pay a twenty-one million dollar payment to Britain as reparations for

7392-412: The form of button/joystick combinations (on arcade games), a keyboard and mouse/ trackball combination (computer games), a controller ( console games), or a combination of any of the above. Also, more esoteric devices have been used for input, e.g., the player's motion. Usually there are rules and goals, but in more open-ended games the player may be free to do whatever they like within the confines of

7504-559: The form of the payment of tributes from neighboring states and the receipt of return goods from China. And this trade was sometimes more beneficial to tributaries than to China. In general, the Qing dynasty received special products from the Foreign Affairs Bureau, and the Qing dynasty received books and silk. The Chinese emperor also exercised power over the surrounding dynasty under the name of Celestial Empire. Especially in

7616-412: The fourth and fifth, radio and TV, as broadcast media . Some argue that video games have developed into a distinct mass form of media. While a telephone is a two-way communication device, mass media communicates to a large group. In addition, the telephone has transformed into a cell phone which is equipped with Internet access. A question arises whether this makes cell phones a mass medium or simply

7728-623: The free-trade port of Canton , and sold it to Chinese smugglers. In 1834, the EIC's monopoly on British trade with China ceased, and the opium trade burgeoned. Partly concerned with moral issues over the consumption of opium and partly with the outflow of silver, the Daoguang Emperor charged Governor General Lin Zexu with ending the trade. In 1839, Lin published in Canton an open letter to Queen Victoria requesting her cooperation in halting

7840-533: The intellectual search for answers to the questions regarding China's setback due to defeat in the Opium wars. This then oversaw a complete transformation in the characterisation of the term ‘Celestial Empire’ as Chinese scholars and political leaders began to evaluate the impact of the Western world. In 1864, prominent figures within the Qing government, including Prince Luanqi, Zhang Zhidong , Li Hongzhang , Zuo Zongtang , Zeng Guofan and Feng Guifeng launched what

7952-481: The interlinked web pages and other documents of the World Wide Web . Contrary to some common usage, the Internet and the World Wide Web are not synonymous: the Internet is the system of interconnected computer networks , linked by copper wires, fibre-optic cables, wireless connections etc.; the Web is the contents, or the interconnected documents , linked by hyperlinks and URLs . The World Wide Web

8064-414: The invention of digital recording and the compact disc in 1983 brought massive improvements in ruggedness and quality. The most recent developments have been in digital audio players . An album is a collection of related audio recordings, released together to the public, usually commercially. The term record album originated from the fact that 78 RPM phonograph disc records were kept together in

8176-414: The invention of the phonograph using purely mechanical techniques, the field has advanced with the invention of electrical recording, the mass production of the 78 record , the magnetic wire recorder followed by the tape recorder , the vinyl LP record . The invention of the compact cassette in the 1960s, followed by Sony's Walkman , gave a major boost to the mass distribution of music recordings, and

8288-920: The late 18th century, the British East India Company (EIC) expanded the cultivation of opium in the Bengal Presidency , selling it to private merchants who transported it to China and covertly sold it on to Chinese smugglers. By 1797, the EIC was selling 4,000 chests of opium (each weighing 77 kg) to private merchants per annum . In earlier centuries, opium was utilised as a medicine with anesthetic qualities, but new Chinese practices of smoking opium recreationally increased demand tremendously and often led to smokers developing addictions. Successive Chinese emperors issued edicts making opium illegal in 1729, 1799, 1814, and 1831, but imports grew as smugglers and colluding officials in China sought profit. Some American merchants entered

8400-443: The late 20th century, mass media could be classified into eight mass media industries: books, the Internet, magazines, movies, newspapers, radio, recordings and television. The explosion of digital communication technology in the late 20th and early 21st centuries made prominent the question: what forms of media should be classified as "mass media"? For example, it is controversial whether to include mobile phones and video games in

8512-450: The legalization of the opium trade, expanding of the transportation of coolies to European colonies, opening all of China to British and French citizens and exempting foreign imports from internal transit duties . The war resulted in the 1858 Treaty of Tientsin (Tianjin), in which the Chinese government agreed to pay war reparations for the expenses of the recent conflict, open a second group of ten ports to European commerce, legalize

8624-514: The legitimacy of the Manchu descended Qing, the government enforced regulations regarding hair and clothing standards in order to construct a notion of unity within the empire; becoming a part of Chinese culture. This was due to the Manchu ethnic group being viewed as foreigners to the Han Chinese ethnic groups. Under the concept of Celestial Empire, the Qing rule introduced a banner system, which

8736-407: The map of the entire empire based on the works of Huang Qianren 黃千人 (1694–1771). The printing culture of the Qing dynasty inherited some of the achievements made by former Celestial emperors, but the format was not the same. Some of the finest examples of Qing printing were destroyed at the beginning of the dynasty. Landscape portrayals were also their targets, with Cheng's officials able to travel to

8848-480: The mid-19th century. The First Opium War was fought from 1839 to 1842 between China and Britain . It was triggered by the Chinese government 's campaign to enforce its prohibition of opium , which included destroying opium stocks owned by British merchants and the British East India Company . The British government responded by sending a naval expedition to force the Chinese government to pay reparations and allow

8960-462: The most representative dynasty, serves as an indicator of the understanding and order of territory. Examples of Western teaching techniques could be seen in the Qing dynasty, but this had a considerable limited impact on traditional Chinese teaching. In their maps, geographical or artificial structures and forms were expressed in pictures, which show the influence of painting techniques. Text was also an integral part of map interpretation, which remains on

9072-414: The only true civilization in all respects, including geography. Furthermore, the concept began to converge with the" noble race" to create boundaries between Chinese thought and other things. For the emperors of the central kingdom of China, the world can be roughly divided into two broad and simple categories: civilization and non-civilization, which means the people who have accepted the emperor's supremacy,

9184-495: The opium trade, and grant foreign traders and missionaries rights to travel within China. This also included China being required to bend to Western diplomatic behaviors instead of their normal way of conducting business through a tribute system. This treaty led to the era in Chinese history known as the " Century of Humiliation ", this term referring to how China lost control of many territories to its enemies after being forced into treaties which were unfair in their own regard. After

9296-509: The opium trade. The Second Opium War was waged by Britain and France against China from 1856 to 1860, and consequently resulted in China being forced to legalise opium. In each war, the superior military advantages enjoyed by European forces led to several easy victories over the Chinese military , with the consequence that China was compelled to sign the unequal treaties to grant favourable tariffs, trade concessions, reparations and territory to Western powers. The two conflicts, along with

9408-622: The opium trade. The letter never reached the Queen. It was later published in The Times as a direct appeal to the British public for their cooperation. An edict from the Daoguang Emperor followed on 18   March, emphasising the serious penalties for opium smuggling that would now apply henceforth. Lin ordered the seizure of all opium in Canton, including that held by foreign governments and trading companies (called factories), and

9520-481: The other hand, two or more organisations may share a channel and each use it during a fixed part of the day, such as the Cartoon Network / Adult Swim . Digital radio and digital television may also transmit multiplexed programming, with several channels compressed into one ensemble . When broadcasting is done via the Internet the term webcasting is often used. In 2004, a new phenomenon occurred when

9632-410: The outside world where they had drawn boundaries. Since the arrival of the Western colonial power in the mid-19th century during the advent of the Celestial Empire as a modern country, sports have generally spurred and contributed to the creation of nationalism and the construction of national consciousness, which became the machine for the establishment of the Republic of China in 1912. In the turn of

9744-483: The products, but rather that the products are available in principle to a plurality of recipients. The sequencing of content in a broadcast is called a schedule . With all technological endeavours a number of technical terms and slang have developed. Radio and television programs are distributed over frequency bands which are highly regulated in the United States. Such regulation includes determination of

9856-418: The public, while media critics have raised questions about holding the press itself accountable to the standards of professional journalism. Public relations is the art and science of managing communication between an organisation and its key publics to build, manage and sustain its positive image. Examples include: Publishing is the industry concerned with the production of literature or information –

9968-405: The same time refused to recognize the ownership of the land, it decided to distribute a certain amount of land to farmers free of charge. Such a move by the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, of course, caused fierce opposition from the former Qing dynasty's ruling class and the landlord class, and caused the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom to retreat from its original purpose. The social system is represented by

10080-424: The self-strengthening movement which was vital in redefining the Celestial empire was the application of Western training techniques to the Chinese military . The leaders of the movement appointed Foreign military officers in order train Chinese soldiers and acquaint them with Western training techniques. Military drills that were largely influenced by both Swedish and German gymnastic techniques had been integrated by

10192-480: The sense of heavenly ties. The amnesty decree of the Goryeo dynasty was believed to provide compassion to the entire world by the son of heaven. The sinocentric term that is ‘Celestial Empire’ had many implications for the construction of Chinese nationalism. That is, the euphemistic nature of term elevated social perception of the nation to a status of authoritative and commanding nature for citizens; thus, highlighting

10304-552: The series of content itself or to the method by which it is syndicated; the latter is also called podcasting. The host or author of a podcast is often called a podcaster. Mobile phones were introduced in Japan in 1979 but became a mass media only in 1998 when the first downloadable ringing tones were introduced in Finland. Soon most forms of media content were introduced on mobile phones, tablets and other portable devices, and today

10416-404: The silver screen , photoplays , the cinema , picture shows , flicks and, most commonly, movies . Films are produced by recording people and objects with cameras , or by creating them using animation techniques or special effects . Films comprise a series of individual frames, but when these images are shown in rapid succession, an illusion of motion is created. Flickering between frames

10528-428: The sky is often considered the highest god, with emperors being Sons of Heaven ( tianzi ), born to govern the country. The emperors were also considered to be born of dragons. This was extremely significant in fostering Chinese nationalism and support for the emperor. In traditional Chinese history , the Chinese ruling class tended to perceive their country as a "great central kingdom." Such trends have helped create

10640-409: The system, and the lack of leadership, these systems gradually become distant from the original purpose of establishment. As the kingdom of Taepyeong grew further away from its original ideal, farmers withdrew their support for the kingdom, providing a decisive cause for the collapse of the kingdom. When one discusses China's Celestial Empire, the map produced during the Qing dynasty, which is chosen as

10752-665: The ten best-selling printed books were originally released as mobile phone books. Similar to the internet, mobile is also an interactive media , but has far wider reach, with 3.3 billion mobile phone users at the end of 2007 to 1.3 billion internet users (source ITU). Like email on the internet, the top application on mobile is also a personal messaging service, but SMS text messaging is used by over 2.4 billion people. Practically all internet services and applications exist or have similar cousins on mobile, from search to multiplayer games to virtual worlds to blogs. Mobile has several unique benefits which many mobile media pundits claim make mobile

10864-433: The terms significance in fostering Chinese nationalism during the rule of the Qing dynasty. The presence of Western influences in China during the midst of the 19th century was noteworthy for both the formation and perception of Chinese nationalism as it eroded the traditional view of the concept of Celestial Empire; merging it with the concept of a modern statehood. The years of the mid- nineteenth century were instructive to

10976-434: The third screen (counting only TV and PC). A magazine is a periodical publication containing a variety of articles, generally financed by advertising or purchase by readers. Magazines are typically published weekly , biweekly , monthly , bimonthly or quarterly , with a date on the cover that is in advance of the date it is actually published. They are often printed in colour on coated paper , and are bound with

11088-477: The total value of media consumed on mobile vastly exceeds that of internet content, and was worth over $ 31 billion in 2007 (source Informa). The mobile media content includes over $ 8 billion worth of mobile music (ringing tones, ringback tones, truetones, MP3 files, karaoke, music videos, music streaming services, etc.); over $ 5 billion worth of mobile gaming; and various news, entertainment and advertising services. In Japan mobile phone books are so popular that five of

11200-519: The trade by smuggling opium from Turkey into China, including Warren Delano Jr. , the grandfather of twentieth-century American President Franklin D. Roosevelt , and Francis Blackwell Forbes ; in American historiography this is sometimes referred to as the Old China Trade . By 1833, the Chinese opium trade soared to 30,000 chests. British and American merchants sent opium to warehouses in

11312-434: The tribal structure of Manchuria and Mongolia. The administrative posts were open to everyone in principle, but at the top of the central bureaucracy were held by two officials whose ministries were Chinese and Manchurian. The rulers, at the same time, aimed at portraying themselves as legitimate successors following the will of heaven in the tradition of the Chinese dynasty, have developed the Chinese ideology, which serves as

11424-473: The various treaties imposed during the century of humiliation , weakened the Chinese government's authority and forced China to open specified treaty ports (including Shanghai ) to Western merchants. In addition, China ceded sovereignty over Hong Kong to the British Empire , which maintained control over the region until 1997 . During this period, the Chinese economy also contracted slightly as

11536-458: The virtual universe. In common usage, an " arcade game " refers to a game designed to be played in an establishment in which patrons pay to play on a per-use basis. A "computer game" or " PC game " refers to a game that is played on a personal computer. A " Console game " refers to one that is played on a device specifically designed for the use of such, while interfacing with a standard television set. A "video game" (or "videogame") has evolved into

11648-486: The war against China. The British and French forces invaded Beijing, and the Qing emperor fled to Chengde. The British and French forces broke into the Old Summer Palace, looted jewelry, and burned it. Among the cultural relics that were looted were the well-known Old Summer Palace bronze heads . On the morning of 7 October, the French army broke into the Old Summer Palace and began to rob it. British soldiers who arrived in

11760-432: The weakness of the Celestial Empire. Political leader Feng Guifeng suggested that the failure of the Celestial Empire was due to the absence of economic, political, cultural, as well as social development in China. In order to overcome the shortcomings of the Celestial Empire, Feng Guifeng prompted the insertion of Western technology to redefine Chinese nationalism. The leaders of the Self-Strengthening Movement then introduced

11872-1171: The web, by such means as linking to or running TV ads online, or distributing QR codes in outdoor or print media to direct mobile users to a website. In this way, they can use the easy accessibility and outreach capabilities the Internet affords, as thereby easily broadcast information throughout many different regions of the world simultaneously and cost-efficiently. Outdoor media transmits information via such media as augmented reality (AR) advertising ; billboards ; blimps ; flying billboards (signs in tow of airplanes); placards or kiosks placed inside and outside buses, commercial buildings, shops, sports stadiums, subway cars, or trains; signs; or skywriting . Print media transmit information via physical objects, such as books , comics , magazines , newspapers , or pamphlets . Event organising and public speaking can also be considered forms of mass media. Mass media organisations or mass media companies that control these technologies include movie studios, publishing companies, and radio and television stations (the latter are also sometimes known as mass media networks ); they often form media conglomerates . In

11984-570: The width of the bands, range, licensing, types of receivers and transmitters used, and acceptable content. Cable television programs are often broadcast simultaneously with radio and television programs, but have a more limited audience. By coding signals and requiring a cable converter box at individual recipients' locations, cable also enables subscription -based channels and pay-per-view services. A broadcasting organisation may broadcast several programs simultaneously, through several channels ( frequencies ), for example BBC One and Two . On

12096-425: Was a system that allowed soldiers to return to the peasantry, and had the advantage of very cheap defense. By completing this system as a social system, the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom tried to build an ideal society where land was shared as much as needed, the rich and the poor did not exist, and the socially disadvantaged were protected. However, due to the resistance of the vested interests, the lack of will to implement

12208-593: Was convulsed by the Taiping Rebellion , which established its capital at Nanjing . In spite of this, a new Imperial Commissioner, Ye Mingchen , was appointed at Canton, determined to stamp out the opium trade, which was still technically illegal. In October 1856, he seized the Arrow , a ship claiming British registration, and threw its crew into chains. Sir John Bowring , Governor of British Hong Kong, called up Rear Admiral Sir Michael Seymour 's East Indies and China Station fleet, which, on 23 October, bombarded and captured

12320-563: Was inspired by this notion. Through the authority of this concept of embryonic nationalism, China's utilisation of advanced Western technology and skill served as a medium for the government to enhance the military power of the nation. China's history, which was not completely politically unified and was divided into several feudal states (the Warring States period of 476~221 BC or the Three Kingdoms period of 220~264 AD), had

12432-423: Was known as the ‘ Self-Strengthening Movement ’ in order to redefine the Celestial Empire. The Self-Strengthening Movement was then moulded through the slogans that were: “‘Learn advanced technology from the barbarians to defeat the barbarians’, ‘Self-strengthening’, as well as ‘Seek Wealth’.” A dominant issue for the leaders of the Self-Strengthening Movement was attempting to determine the internal catalyst for

12544-437: Was originally created as a military function, however it then became the fundamental structural framework of society under the Qing rule. This system then further allowed the Qing rule to consolidate their political power, while also becoming a staple political tool used throughout the eighteenth century to uphold the status and conceptualisation of the Celestial Empire. Chinese society under the three centuries of Qing rule oversaw

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