150-852: Boletus edulis (English: cep , penny bun , porcino or porcini ) is a basidiomycete fungus, and the type species of the genus Boletus . Widely distributed in the Northern Hemisphere across Europe, Asia, and North America, it does not occur naturally in the Southern Hemisphere, although it has been introduced to southern Africa, Australia, New Zealand, and Brazil. Several closely related European mushrooms formerly thought to be varieties or forms of B. edulis have been shown using molecular phylogenetic analysis to be distinct species, and others previously classed as separate species are conspecific with this species. The western North American species commonly known as
300-470: A bipolar ( unifactorial ) or a tetrapolar ( bifactorial ) mating system. This results in the fact that following meiosis , the resulting haploid basidiospores and resultant monokaryons, have nuclei that are compatible with 50% (if bipolar) or 25% (if tetrapolar) of their sister basidiospores (and their resultant monokaryons) because the mating genes must differ for them to be compatible. However, there are sometimes more than two possible alleles for
450-771: A B. edulis species complex with a wide morphological , ecological and geographic range, and that the genetic variability in this complex is low. Similar molecular technology has been developed to rapidly and accurately identify B. edulis and other commercially important fungi. Three divergent lineages found in Yunnan province in China that are commonly marketed and sold as B. edulis (and are actually more closely related to B. aereus ) were described in 2013 as B. bainiugan , B. meiweiniuganjun and B. shiyong . The classification has since been updated and expanded. All lineages are still members of Boletus sect. Boletus ,
600-408: A dikaryon . The hyphae are then said to be dikaryotic. Conversely, the haploid mycelia are called monokaryons . Often, the dikaryotic mycelium is more vigorous than the individual monokaryotic mycelia, and proceeds to take over the substrate in which they are growing. The dikaryons can be long-lived, lasting years, decades, or centuries. The monokaryons are neither male nor female. They have either
750-400: A pioneer early stage shrub that is adapted for growth in degraded areas, such as burned forests. These and other rockrose species are ecologically important as fungal reservoirs, maintaining an inoculum of mycorrhizal fungi for trees that appear later in the forest regrowth cycle . The mushroom has been noted to often co-occur with Amanita muscaria or A. rubescens , although it
900-437: A pressure cooker or after canning or bottling, and are thus useful for manufacturers of soups or stews. The addition of a few pieces of dried porcino can significantly add to flavour, and they are a major ingredient of the pasta sauce known as carrettiera (carter's sauce). The drying process is known to induce the formation of various volatile substances that contribute to the mushroom's aroma. Chemical analysis has shown that
1050-442: A taxonomic rank ; groups of a given rank can be aggregated to form a more inclusive group of higher rank, thus creating a taxonomic hierarchy. The principal ranks in modern use are domain , kingdom , phylum ( division is sometimes used in botany in place of phylum ), class , order , family , genus , and species . The Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus is regarded as the founder of the current system of taxonomy, as he developed
1200-411: A Zimbabwean study; removal of the litter layer on the forest floor appeared to have a negative effect on fruit body production, but previous studies reported contradictory results. A Lithuanian study conducted in 2001 concluded that the maximal daily growth rate of the cap (about 21 mm or 0.8 in) occurred when the relative air humidity was the greatest, and the fruit bodies ceased growing when
1350-474: A basidium). In some smuts such as Mycosarcoma maydis the nuclei migrate into the promycelium that becomes septate (i.e., divided into cellular compartments separated by cell walls called septa ), and haploid yeast-like conidia/basidiospores sometimes called sporidia, bud off laterally from each cell. In various smuts, the yeast phase may proliferate, or they may fuse, or they may infect plant tissue and become hyphal. In other smuts, such as Tilletia caries ,
1500-469: A basis of morphological and physiological facts as possible, and one in which "place is found for all observational and experimental data relating, even if indirectly, to the constitution, subdivision, origin, and behaviour of species and other taxonomic groups". Ideals can, it may be said, never be completely realized. They have, however, a great value of acting as permanent stimulants, and if we have some, even vague, ideal of an "omega" taxonomy we may progress
1650-473: A brush (washing is not recommended), and then placing them in a wicker basket or bamboo steamer on top of a boiler or hot water tank. Another method is drying in an oven at 25 to 30 °C (77 to 86 °F) for two to three hours, then increasing the temperature to 50 °C (122 °F) until crisp or brittle. Once dry, they must be kept in an airtight container. Importantly for commercial production, porcini retain their flavour after industrial preparation in
SECTION 10
#17327875733811800-557: A chaotic and disorganized taxonomic literature. He not only introduced the standard of class, order, genus, and species, but also made it possible to identify plants and animals from his book, by using the smaller parts of the flower (known as the Linnaean system ). Plant and animal taxonomists regard Linnaeus' work as the "starting point" for valid names (at 1753 and 1758 respectively). Names published before these dates are referred to as "pre-Linnaean", and not considered valid (with
1950-458: A commercial scale does not. Picking B. edulis has become an annual seasonal income earner and pastime in countries like Bulgaria , especially for many Roma communities and the unemployed . A lack of control of the harvest has led to heavy exploitation of the mushroom resource. Like many other strictly mycorrhizal fungi, B. edulis has eluded cultivation attempts for years. The results of some studies suggest that unknown components of
2100-443: A different sense, to mean the delimitation of species (not subspecies or taxa of other ranks), using whatever investigative techniques are available, and including sophisticated computational or laboratory techniques. Thus, Ernst Mayr in 1968 defined " beta taxonomy " as the classification of ranks higher than species. An understanding of the biological meaning of variation and of the evolutionary origin of groups of related species
2250-442: A dikaryon. The dikaryon is long lasting but ultimately gives rise to either fruitbodies with basidia or directly to basidia without fruitbodies. The paired dikaryon in the basidium fuse (i.e. karyogamy takes place). The diploid basidium begins the cycle again. Coprinopsis cinerea is a basidiomycete mushroom. It is particularly suited to the study of meiosis because meiosis progresses synchronously in about 10 million cells within
2400-406: A distinctive anatomical feature (the clamp connection ), cell wall components, and definitively by phylogenetic molecular analysis of DNA sequence data. A 2007 classification, adopted by a coalition of 67 mycologists recognized three subphyla (Pucciniomycotina, Ustilaginomycotina, Agaricomycotina) and two other class level taxa ( Wallemiomycetes , Entorrhizomycetes ) outside of these, among
2550-485: A distinctive aroma reminiscent of sourdough . Young, small porcini are most appreciated, as the large ones often harbour maggots (insect larvae), and become slimy, soft and less tasty with age. The fruit bodies are collected by holding the stipe near the base and twisting gently. Cutting the stipe with a knife may risk the part left behind rotting and the mycelium being destroyed. Peeling and washing are not recommended. The fruit bodies are highly perishable , due largely to
2700-436: A given locus, and in such species, depending on the specifics, over 90% of monokaryons could be compatible with each other. The maintenance of the dikaryotic status in dikaryons in many Basidiomycota is facilitated by the formation of clamp connections that physically appear to help coordinate and re-establish pairs of compatible nuclei following synchronous mitotic nuclear divisions. Variations are frequent and multiple. In
2850-466: A greenish-yellow. The stout stipe , or stem, is white or yellowish in colour, up to 20 cm (8 in), rarely 30 cm (12 in) tall and 10 cm (4 in) thick, and partially covered with a raised network pattern, or reticulations . Prized as an ingredient in various culinary dishes, B. edulis is an edible mushroom held in high regard in many cuisines, and is commonly prepared and eaten in soups , pasta, or risotto . The mushroom
3000-500: A grouping of about 30 related boletes united by several characteristics: a mild-tasting, white flesh that does not change colour when exposed to air; a smooth to distinctly raised, netted pattern over at least the uppermost portion of the stem; a yellow-brown or olive-brown spore print ; white tubes that later become yellowish then greenish, which initially appear to be stuffed with cotton; and cystidia that are not strongly coloured. Molecular analysis published in 1997 established that
3150-530: A huge specimen collected on the Isle of Skye , Scotland, in 1995 bore a cap of 42 cm ( 16 + 1 ⁄ 2 in), with a stipe 18 cm (7 in) in height and 14 cm ( 5 + 1 ⁄ 2 in) wide, and weighed 3.2 kg (7 lb 1 oz). A similarly sized specimen found in Poland in 2013 made international news. Boletus edulis is considered one of the safest wild mushrooms to pick for
SECTION 20
#17327875733813300-417: A large brown cap which on occasion can reach 30 cm (12 in), rarely 40 cm (16 in) in diameter and 3 kg (6 lb 10 oz) in weight. Like other boletes , it has tubes extending downward from the underside of the cap, rather than gills; spores escape at maturity through the tube openings, or pores. The pore surface of the B. edulis fruit body is whitish when young, but ages to
3450-455: A little way down the Greek alphabet. Some of us please ourselves by thinking we are now groping in a "beta" taxonomy. Turrill thus explicitly excludes from alpha taxonomy various areas of study that he includes within taxonomy as a whole, such as ecology, physiology, genetics, and cytology. He further excludes phylogenetic reconstruction from alpha taxonomy. Later authors have used the term in
3600-504: A notable renaissance, principally with respect to theoretical content. Part of the theoretical material has to do with evolutionary areas (topics e and f above), the rest relates especially to the problem of classification. Taxonomy is that part of Systematics concerned with topics (a) to (d) above. A whole set of terms including taxonomy, systematic biology, systematics , scientific classification, biological classification, and phylogenetics have at times had overlapping meanings – sometimes
3750-412: A processing step before freezing can extend the freezer life to 12 months. They are also one of the few species sold commercially as pickled mushrooms . Boletus edulis is well suited to drying—its flavour intensifies, it is easily reconstituted, and its resulting texture is pleasant. Reconstitution is done by soaking in hot, but not boiling, water for about twenty minutes; the water used is infused with
3900-516: A ranked system known as Linnaean taxonomy for categorizing organisms and binomial nomenclature for naming organisms. With advances in the theory, data and analytical technology of biological systematics, the Linnaean system has transformed into a system of modern biological classification intended to reflect the evolutionary relationships among organisms, both living and extinct. The exact definition of taxonomy varies from source to source, but
4050-437: A separate compatible thallus being involved. These fungi are said to be homothallic, versus the normal heterothallic species with mating types. Others are secondarily homothallic, in that two compatible nuclei following meiosis migrate into each basidiospore, which is then dispersed as a pre-existing dikaryon. Often such species form only two spores per basidium, but that too varies. Following meiosis, mitotic divisions can occur in
4200-409: A sheath of tissue around terminal, nutrient-absorbing root tips, often inducing a high degree of branching in the tips of the host, and penetrating into the root tissue, forming, to some mycologists, the defining feature of ectomycorrhizal relationships, a hartig net . The ectomycorrhizal fungi are then able to exchange nutrients with the plant, effectively expanding the root system of the host plant to
4350-477: A single continuum, as per the scala naturae (the Natural Ladder). This, as well, was taken into consideration in the great chain of being. Advances were made by scholars such as Procopius , Timotheus of Gaza , Demetrios Pepagomenos , and Thomas Aquinas . Medieval thinkers used abstract philosophical and logical categorizations more suited to abstract philosophy than to pragmatic taxonomy. During
4500-503: A study of aroma compounds, 1-octen-3-one was the most prevalent chemical detected in raw mushrooms, with pyrazines having increased aroma effect and elevated content after drying. Footnotes Citations Basidiomycete Basidiomycota ( / b ə ˌ s ɪ d i . oʊ m aɪ ˈ k oʊ t ə / ) is one of two large divisions that, together with the Ascomycota , constitute the subkingdom Dikarya (often referred to as
4650-557: A survival benefit for these fungi by promoting successful infection. A characteristic central feature of meiosis is recombination between homologous chromosomes. This process is associated with repair of DNA damage, particularly double-strand breaks . The ability of C. neoformans and M. maydis to undergo meiosis may contribute to their virulence by repairing the oxidative DNA damage caused by their host's release of reactive oxygen species . Many variations occur: some variations are self-compatible and spontaneously form dikaryons without
Boletus edulis - Misplaced Pages Continue
4800-484: A term used by the Ancient Romans and still in use in southern Italian terms for this species. The derivation has been ascribed to the resemblance of young fruit bodies to piglets, or to the fondness pigs have for eating them. It is also known as "king bolete". The English penny bun refers to its rounded brownish shape. The German name Steinpilz (stone mushroom) refers to the species' firm flesh. In Austria, it
4950-524: A truly scientific attempt to classify organisms did not occur until the 18th century, with the possible exception of Aristotle, whose works hint at a taxonomy. Earlier works were primarily descriptive and focused on plants that were useful in agriculture or medicine. There are a number of stages in this scientific thinking. Early taxonomy was based on arbitrary criteria, the so-called "artificial systems", including Linnaeus 's system of sexual classification for plants (Linnaeus's 1735 classification of animals
5100-413: A typical Basidiomycota lifecycle the long lasting dikaryons periodically (seasonally or occasionally) produce basidia , the specialized usually club-shaped end cells, in which a pair of compatible nuclei fuse ( karyogamy ) to form a diploid cell. Meiosis follows shortly with the production of 4 haploid nuclei that migrate into 4 external, usually apical basidiospores. Variations occur, however. Typically
5250-458: A variety of B. aereus , is also a choice edible. It is generally smaller than B. edulis , and unlike that species, is typically found in mixed forests . The spring king bolete ( Boletus rex-veris ), formerly considered a variety of B. edulis or B. pinophilus , is found throughout western North America. In contrast to B. edulis , B. rex-veris tends to fruit in clusters, and, as its common name suggests, appears in
5400-497: A variety of forests, such as coastal forests, dry interior oak forests and savannas and interior high-elevation montane mixed forests , to an altitude of 3,500 m (11,500 ft). In northwestern Spain, they are common in scrublands dominated by the rock rose species Cistus ladanifer and Halimium lasianthum . In the Midi region of south-west France , they are especially favoured and locally called cèpe de Bordeaux after
5550-427: Is 7–30 cm (3–12 in) broad at maturity. Slightly sticky to touch, it is convex in shape when young and flattens with age. The colour is generally reddish-brown fading to white in areas near the margin, and continues to darken as it matures. The stipe , or stem, is 8–25 cm (3–10 in) in height, and up to 7 cm (3 in) thick—rather large in comparison to the cap; it is club-shaped, or bulges out in
5700-497: Is a critical component of the taxonomic process. As a result, it informs the user as to what the relatives of the taxon are hypothesized to be. Biological classification uses taxonomic ranks, including among others (in order from most inclusive to least inclusive): Domain , Kingdom , Phylum , Class , Order , Family , Genus , Species , and Strain . The "definition" of a taxon is encapsulated by its description or its diagnosis or by both combined. There are no set rules governing
5850-400: Is a novel analysis of the variation patterns in a particular taxon . This analysis may be executed on the basis of any combination of the various available kinds of characters, such as morphological, anatomical , palynological , biochemical and genetic . A monograph or complete revision is a revision that is comprehensive for a taxon for the information given at a particular time, and for
6000-458: Is a resource for fossils. Biological taxonomy is a sub-discipline of biology , and is generally practiced by biologists known as "taxonomists", though enthusiastic naturalists are also frequently involved in the publication of new taxa. Because taxonomy aims to describe and organize life , the work conducted by taxonomists is essential for the study of biodiversity and the resulting field of conservation biology . Biological classification
6150-400: Is a traditional Italian autumn dish. Porcini are a feature of many cuisines, including Provençal , and Viennese . In Thailand they are used in soups and consumed blanched in salads. Porcini can also be frozen, either while raw or after cooking in butter. The colour, aroma, and taste of porcini deteriorate noticeably after being frozen for four months. Blanching (or soaking and blanching) as
Boletus edulis - Misplaced Pages Continue
6300-470: Is also one of the few fungi sold pickled . Boletus edulis was first described in 1782 by the French botanist Pierre Bulliard and still bears its original name. The starting date of fungal taxonomy had been set as January 1, 1821, to coincide with the date of the works of the 'father of mycology', Swedish naturalist Elias Magnus Fries , which meant the name required sanction by Fries (indicated in
6450-548: Is an example. By convention, the stages and spore states are numbered by Roman numerals . Typically, basidiospores infect host one, also known as the alternate or sexual host, and the mycelium forms pycnidia , which are miniature, flask-shaped, hollow, submicroscopic bodies embedded in the host tissue (such as a leaf). This stage, numbered "0", produces single-celled spores that ooze out in a sweet liquid and that act as nonmotile spermatia , and also protruding receptive hyphae . Insects and probably other vectors such as rain carry
6600-513: Is another recognized look-alike known to cause severe gastrointestinal disorders . The spores are elliptical to spindle-shaped, with dimensions of 12–17 by 5–7 μm . The basidia , the spore-bearing cells, are produced in a layer lining the tubes, and arrange themselves so their ends are facing the center of the tube; this layer of cells is known technically as a hymenium . The basidia are thin-walled, mostly attached to four spores, and measure 25–30 by 8–10 μm. Another cell type present in
6750-579: Is another term in Catalan. The French-born King Charles XIV John popularised B. edulis in Sweden after 1818, and is honoured in the local vernacular name Karljohanssvamp , as well as the Danish name Karl Johan svamp . The monarch cultivated the fungus about his residence, Rosersberg Palace . The Finnish name is herkkutatti , from herkku 'delicacy', and tatti , 'bolete'. The cap of this mushroom
6900-593: Is called Herrenpilz , the "noble mushroom", while in Mexico, the Spanish name is panza , meaning "belly". Another Spanish name, rodellon , means "small round boulder", while the Dutch name eekhoorntjesbrood means "squirrel's bread". Russian names are belyy grib ( ru:белый гриб ; "white mushroom" as opposed to less valuable "black mushrooms") and borovik ( ru:боровик ; from bor —"pine forest"). The vernacular name cep
7050-408: Is conferred by a biochemical called a phytochelatin —an oligopeptide whose production is induced after exposure to metal. Phytochelatins are chelating agents , capable of forming multiple bonds with the metal; in this state, the metal cannot normally react with other elements or ions and is stored in a detoxified form in the mushroom tissue. The fruit bodies of B. edulis can be infected by
7200-454: Is considered a part of taxonomy (definitions 1 and 2), or a part of systematics outside taxonomy. For example, definition 6 is paired with the following definition of systematics that places nomenclature outside taxonomy: In 1970, Michener et al. defined "systematic biology" and "taxonomy" (terms that are often confused and used interchangeably) in relation to one another as follows: Systematic biology (hereafter called simply systematics)
7350-605: Is derived from the Catalan cep or its French name cèpe , although the latter is a generic term applying to several related species. In France, it is more fully cèpe de Bordeaux , derived from the Gascon cep "trunk" for its fat stalk, ultimately from the Latin cippus "stake". Ceppatello , ceppatello buono , ceppatello bianco , giallo leonato , ghezzo , and moreccio are names from Italian dialects, and ciurenys or surenys
7500-419: Is even more important for the second stage of taxonomic activity, the sorting of species into groups of relatives ("taxa") and their arrangement in a hierarchy of higher categories. This activity is what the term classification denotes; it is also referred to as "beta taxonomy". How species should be defined in a particular group of organisms gives rise to practical and theoretical problems that are referred to as
7650-593: Is less rainfall. Some find its flavour as good as if not better than B. edulis . The California king bolete ( Boletus edulis var. grandedulis ) can reach massive proportions, and is distinguished from B. edulis by a mature pore surface that is brown to slightly reddish. The cap colour appears to be affected by the amount of light received during its development, and may range from white in young specimens grown under thick canopy , to dark-brown, red-brown or yellow brown in those specimens receiving more light. The queen bolete ( Boletus regineus ), formerly considered
SECTION 50
#17327875733817800-401: Is low in fat and digestible carbohydrates , and high in protein , vitamins , minerals and dietary fibre . Although it is sold commercially, it is very difficult to cultivate . Available fresh in autumn throughout Europe and Russia, it is most often dried, packaged, and distributed worldwide. It keeps its flavour after drying, and it is then reconstituted and used in cooking. B. edulis
7950-519: Is low. Boletus edulis fruit bodies contain diverse phytochemicals , including 500 mg of ergosterol per 100 g of dried mushroom, and ergothioneine . The fruit bodies contain numerous polyphenols , especially a high content of rosmarinic acid , and organic acids (such as oxalic , citric , malic , succinic and fumaric acids ), and alkaloids . Aroma compounds giving B. edulis mushrooms their characteristic fragrance include some 100 components, such as esters and fatty acids . In
8100-731: Is not believed to be indigenous . It is often found underneath oak and silver birch in Hagley Park in central Christchurch , New Zealand, where it is likely to have been introduced , probably on the roots of container-grown beech, birch, and oak in the mid-19th century—around the time exotic trees began to be planted in the Christchurch area. Similarly, it has been collected in Adelaide Hills region of Australia in association with three species of introduced trees. It has been growing plentifully in association with pine forests in
8250-502: Is not yet placed in a subdivision, but recent genomic evidence suggests that it is a sister group of Agaricomycotina . The Pucciniomycotina include the rust fungi, the insect parasitic/symbiotic genus Septobasidium , a former group of smut fungi (in the Microbotryomycetes , which includes mirror yeasts), and a mixture of odd, infrequently seen, or seldom recognized fungi, often parasitic on plants. The eight classes in
8400-400: Is the field that (a) provides scientific names for organisms, (b) describes them, (c) preserves collections of them, (d) provides classifications for the organisms, keys for their identification, and data on their distributions, (e) investigates their evolutionary histories, and (f) considers their environmental adaptations. This is a field with a long history that in recent years has experienced
8550-487: Is unclear whether this is due to a biological association between the species, or because of similarities in growing season, habitat, and ecological requirements. An association has also been reported between B. edulis and Amanita excelsa on Pinus radiata ectomycorrhizae in New Zealand, suggesting that other fungi may influence the life cycle of porcini. A 2007 field study revealed little correlation between
8700-529: The Aristotelian system , with additions concerning the philosophical and existential order of creatures. This included concepts such as the great chain of being in the Western scholastic tradition, again deriving ultimately from Aristotle. The Aristotelian system did not classify plants or fungi , due to the lack of microscopes at the time, as his ideas were based on arranging the complete world in
8850-762: The Gasteromycetes (another obsolete class that included species mostly lacking hymenia and mostly forming spores in enclosed fruitbodies ), as well as most of the jelly fungi . This sub-phyla also includes the "classic" mushrooms, polypores, corals, chanterelles, crusts, puffballs and stinkhorns. The three classes in the Agaricomycotina are the Agaricomycetes , the Dacrymycetes , and the Tremellomycetes . The class Wallemiomycetes
9000-585: The Neomura , the clade that groups together the Archaea and Eucarya , would have evolved from Bacteria, more precisely from Actinomycetota . His 2004 classification treated the archaeobacteria as part of a subkingdom of the kingdom Bacteria, i.e., he rejected the three-domain system entirely. Stefan Luketa in 2012 proposed a five "dominion" system, adding Prionobiota ( acellular and without nucleic acid ) and Virusobiota (acellular but with nucleic acid) to
9150-512: The Renaissance and the Age of Enlightenment , categorizing organisms became more prevalent, and taxonomic works became ambitious enough to replace the ancient texts. This is sometimes credited to the development of sophisticated optical lenses, which allowed the morphology of organisms to be studied in much greater detail. One of the earliest authors to take advantage of this leap in technology
SECTION 60
#17327875733819300-451: The Rust ( Pucciniales )) tend to have mutually indistinguishable, compatible haploids which are usually mycelia being composed of filamentous hyphae . Typically haploid Basidiomycota mycelia fuse via plasmogamy and then the compatible nuclei migrate into each other's mycelia and pair up with the resident nuclei. Karyogamy is delayed, so that the compatible nuclei remain in pairs, called
9450-514: The boletus of Latin writers like Martial , Seneca and Petronius , is often identified as the much prized Amanita caesarea . The specific epithet edulis in Latin means "eatable" or "edible". Common names for B. edulis vary by region. The standard Italian name, porcino (pl. porcini ), means porcine ; fungo porcino , in Italian, echoes the term suilli , literally "hog mushrooms",
9600-410: The dietary minerals , sodium , iron, calcium , and magnesium , with amounts varying according to the mushroom component and to soil composition in the geographic region of China where they were sampled. They also have high content of B vitamins and tocopherols . B. edulis contains appreciable amounts of selenium , a trace mineral , although the bioavailability of mushroom-derived selenium
9750-561: The fall of the Iron Curtain and the subsequent reduction of economic and political barriers, central and eastern European countries with local mushroom harvesting traditions, such as Albania, Bulgaria, Macedonia, Romania, Serbia and Slovenia, developed into exporters of porcini, concentrating primarily on the Italian market. Porcini and other wild fungi from these countries are also destined for France, Germany and other western European markets, where demand for them exists but collection on
9900-445: The monosaccharides glucose , mannitol and α,α- trehalose , the polysaccharide glycogen , and the water-insoluble structural polysaccharide chitin , which accounts for up to 80–90% of dry matter in mushroom cell walls . Chitin, hemicellulose , and pectin -like carbohydrates—all indigestible by humans—contribute to the high proportion of insoluble fibre in B. edulis . The total lipid , or crude fat, content makes up 3% of
10050-439: The species problem . The scientific work of deciding how to define species has been called microtaxonomy. By extension, macrotaxonomy is the study of groups at the higher taxonomic ranks subgenus and above, or simply in clades that include more than one taxon considered a species, expressed in terms of phylogenetic nomenclature . While some descriptions of taxonomic history attempt to date taxonomy to ancient civilizations,
10200-467: The vertebrates ), as well as groups like the sharks and cetaceans , are commonly used. His student Theophrastus (Greece, 370–285 BC) carried on this tradition, mentioning some 500 plants and their uses in his Historia Plantarum . Several plant genera can be traced back to Theophrastus, such as Cornus , Crocus , and Narcissus . Taxonomy in the Middle Ages was largely based on
10350-491: The " higher fungi ") within the kingdom Fungi . Members are known as basidiomycetes . More specifically, Basidiomycota includes these groups: agarics , puffballs , stinkhorns , bracket fungi , other polypores , jelly fungi , boletes , chanterelles , earth stars , smuts , bunts , rusts , mirror yeasts , and Cryptococcus , the human pathogenic yeast. Basidiomycota are filamentous fungi composed of hyphae (except for basidiomycota-yeast ) and reproduce sexually via
10500-488: The 1960s. In 1958, Julian Huxley used the term clade . Later, in 1960, Cain and Harrison introduced the term cladistic . The salient feature is arranging taxa in a hierarchical evolutionary tree , with the desideratum that all named taxa are monophyletic. A taxon is called monophyletic if it includes all the descendants of an ancestral form. Groups that have descendant groups removed from them are termed paraphyletic , while groups representing more than one branch from
10650-404: The 1990s some of the dried porcino mushrooms exported to Italy from China contained species of genus Tylopilus , which are rather similar in appearance and when dried are difficult for both mushroom labourers and mycologists alike to distinguish from Boletus . Tylopilus species typically have a very bitter taste, which is imparted to the flavour of the porcini with which they are mixed. After
10800-934: The American Pacific Northwest , it can be found from May to October. In China, the mushroom can be found from the northeastern Heilongjiang to the Yunnan–Guizhou Plateau and Tibet . It has been recorded growing under Pinus and Tsuga in Sagarmatha National Park in Nepal, as well as in the Indian forests of Arunachal Pradesh . In West Asia, the species has been reported from the northwest forests of Iran. Some steps have been made towards cultivating Boletus edulis , including mycorrhization of rockrose shrubs enhanced by helper bacteria. Boletus edulis grows in some areas where it
10950-491: The Basidiomycota that are 1) poorly known, 2) have not been subjected to DNA analysis, or 3) if analysed phylogenetically do not group with as yet named or identified families, and have not been assigned to a specific family (i.e., they are incertae sedis with respect to familial placement). These include: Unlike animals and plants which have readily recognizable male and female counterparts, Basidiomycota (except for
11100-520: The Basidiomycota were divided into two classes, now obsolete: Nonetheless these former concepts continue to be used as two types of growth habit groupings, the "mushrooms" (e.g. Schizophyllum commune ) and the non-mushrooms (e.g. Mycosarcoma maydis ). The Agaricomycotina include what had previously been called the Hymenomycetes (an obsolete morphological based class of Basidiomycota that formed hymenial layers on their fruitbodies ),
11250-874: The Basidiomycota. As now classified, the subphyla join and also cut across various obsolete taxonomic groups (see below) previously commonly used to describe Basidiomycota. According to a 2008 estimate, Basidiomycota comprise three subphyla (including six unassigned classes) 16 classes, 52 orders, 177 families, 1,589 genera, and 31,515 species. Wijayawardene et al. 2020 produced an update that recognized 19 classes ( Agaricomycetes , Agaricostilbomycetes , Atractiellomycetes , Bartheletiomycetes , Classiculomycetes , Cryptomycocolacomycetes , Cystobasidiomycetes , Dacrymycetes , Exobasidiomycetes , Malasseziomycetes , Microbotryomycetes , Mixiomycetes , Monilielliomycetes , Pucciniomycetes , Spiculogloeomycetes , Tremellomycetes , Tritirachiomycetes , Ustilaginomycetes and Wallemiomycetes ) with multiple orders and genera. Traditionally,
11400-525: The California king bolete ( Boletus edulis var. grandedulis ) is a large, darker-coloured variant first formally identified in 2007. The fungus grows in deciduous and coniferous forests and tree plantations , forming symbiotic ectomycorrhizal associations with living trees by enveloping the tree's underground roots with sheaths of fungal tissue. The fungus produces spore -bearing fruit bodies above ground in summer and autumn. The fruit body has
11550-491: The Origin of Species (1859) led to a new explanation for classifications, based on evolutionary relationships. This was the concept of phyletic systems, from 1883 onwards. This approach was typified by those of Eichler (1883) and Engler (1886–1892). The advent of cladistic methodology in the 1970s led to classifications based on the sole criterion of monophyly , supported by the presence of synapomorphies . Since then,
11700-864: The Pucciniomycotina are Agaricostilbomycetes , Atractiellomycetes , Classiculomycetes , Cryptomycocolacomycetes , Cystobasidiomycetes , Microbotryomycetes , Mixiomycetes , and Pucciniomycetes . The Ustilaginomycotina are most (but not all) of the former smut fungi and the Exobasidiales . The classes of the Ustilaginomycotina are the Exobasidiomycetes , the Entorrhizomycetes, and the Ustilaginomycetes . There are several genera classified in
11850-528: The Roman writers Pliny the Elder and Martial, although ranked below the esteemed Amanita caesarea . When he was served suilli instead of boleti , the disgruntled Martial wrote: sunt tibi boleti; fungos ego sumo suillos (Ep. iii. 60) ("You eat the choice boletus, I have mushrooms that swine grub up.") The flavour of porcini has been described as nutty and slightly meaty, with a smooth, creamy texture, and
12000-493: The UK), their growth is known to be triggered by rainfall during warm periods of weather followed by frequent autumn rain with a drop in soil temperature. Above average rainfall may result in the rapid appearance of large numbers of boletes, in what is known in some circles as a "bolete year". A 2004 field study indicated that fruit body production is enhanced by an open and sunny wood habitat, corroborating an earlier observation made in
12150-482: The absence of dikaryon formation, diploid nuclei, and meiosis. A rare few number of taxa have extended diploid lifecycles, but can be common species. Examples exist in the mushroom genera Armillaria and Xerula , both in the Physalacriaceae . Occasionally, basidiospores are not formed and parts of the "basidia" act as the dispersal agents, e.g. the peculiar mycoparasitic jelly fungus, Tetragoniomyces or
12300-497: The abundance of fruit bodies and presence of its mycelia below ground, even when soil samples were taken from directly beneath the mushroom; the study concluded that the triggers leading to formation of mycorrhizae and production of the fruit bodies were more complex. Boletus edulis is known to be able to tolerate and even thrive on soil that is contaminated with toxic heavy metals, such as soil that might be found near metal smelters . The mushroom's resistance to heavy- metal toxicity
12450-416: The air humidity dropped below 40%. Factors most likely to inhibit the appearance of fruit bodies included prolonged drought, inadequate air and soil humidity, sudden decreases of night air temperatures, and the appearance of the first frost . Plots facing north tend to produce more mushrooms compared to equivalent plots facing south. Boletus edulis is mycorrhizal —it is in a mutualistic relationship with
12600-522: The animal and plant kingdoms toward the end of the 18th century, well before Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species was published. The pattern of the "Natural System" did not entail a generating process, such as evolution, but may have implied it, inspiring early transmutationist thinkers. Among early works exploring the idea of a transmutation of species were Zoonomia in 1796 by Erasmus Darwin (Charles Darwin's grandfather), and Jean-Baptiste Lamarck 's Philosophie zoologique of 1809. The idea
12750-533: The basidiospores are ballistic , hence they are sometimes also called ballistospores . In most species, the basidiospores disperse and each can start a new haploid mycelium, continuing the lifecycle. Basidia are microscopic but they are often produced on or in multicelled large fructifications called basidiocarps or basidiomes, or fruitbodies , variously called mushrooms, puffballs , etc. Ballistic basidiospores are formed on sterigmata which are tapered spine-like projections on basidia, and are typically curved, like
12900-633: The basidium. Multiple numbers of basidiospores can result, including odd numbers via degeneration of nuclei, or pairing up of nuclei, or lack of migration of nuclei. For example, the chanterelle genus Craterellus often has six-spored basidia, while some corticioid Sistotrema species can have two-, four-, six-, or eight-spored basidia, and the cultivated button mushroom, Agaricus bisporus . can have one-, two-, three- or four-spored basidia under some circumstances. Occasionally, monokaryons of some taxa can form morphologically fully formed basidiomes and anatomically correct basidia and ballistic basidiospores in
13050-606: The bolete mushrooms are all derived from a common ancestor , and established the Boletales as an order separate from the Agaricales. The generic name is derived from the Latin term bōlētus "mushroom", which was borrowed in turn from the Ancient Greek βωλίτης, "terrestrial fungus". Ultimately, this last word derives from bōlos /βῶλος "lump", "clod", and, metaphorically, "mushroom". The βωλίτης of Galen , like
13200-527: The coffee leaf parasite, Mycena citricolor , and its Decapitatus flavidus propagules called gemmae. Biological classification In biology , taxonomy (from Ancient Greek τάξις ( taxis ) 'arrangement' and -νομία ( -nomia ) ' method ') is the scientific study of naming, defining ( circumscribing ) and classifying groups of biological organisms based on shared characteristics. Organisms are grouped into taxa (singular: taxon) and these groups are given
13350-421: The core expression program of meiosis has been conserved in these fungi for over half a billion years of evolution since these species diverged. Cryptococcus neoformans and Mycosarcoma maydis are examples of pathogenic basidiomycota. Such pathogens must be able to overcome the oxidative defenses of their respective hosts in order to produce a successful infection. The ability to undergo meiosis may provide
13500-426: The core of the discipline remains: the conception, naming, and classification of groups of organisms. As points of reference, recent definitions of taxonomy are presented below: The varied definitions either place taxonomy as a sub-area of systematics (definition 2), invert that relationship (definition 6), or appear to consider the two terms synonymous. There is some disagreement as to whether biological nomenclature
13650-550: The definition of taxa, but the naming and publication of new taxa is governed by sets of rules. In zoology , the nomenclature for the more commonly used ranks ( superfamily to subspecies ), is regulated by the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature ( ICZN Code ). In the fields of phycology , mycology , and botany , the naming of taxa is governed by the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants ( ICN ). The initial description of
13800-406: The dry matter of the mushroom. The proportion of fatty acids (expressed as a % of total fatty acids) are: linoleic acid 42%, oleic acid 36%, palmitic acid 10%, and stearic acid 3%. A comparative study of the amino acid composition of eleven Portuguese wild edible mushroom species showed Boletus edulis to have the highest total amino acid content. B. edulis mushrooms are rich in
13950-602: The edges of the pores. The hyphae of B. edulis do not have clamp connections . Several similar brownish-coloured species are sometimes considered subspecies or forms of this mushroom. In Europe, in addition to B. edulis (or cèpe de Bordeaux ), the most popular are: Molecular phylogenetic analyses have proven these three are all distinctive and separate species; other taxa formerly believed to be unique species or subspecies, such as B. betulicola , B. chippewaensis , B. persoonii , B. quercicola and B. venturii , are now known to be part of
14100-517: The elongated haploid basidiospores form apically, often in compatible pairs that fuse centrally resulting in H-shaped diaspores which are by then dikaryotic. Dikaryotic conidia may then form. Eventually the host is infected by infectious hyphae. Teliospores form in host tissue. Many variations on these general themes occur. Smuts with both a yeast phase and an infectious hyphal state are examples of dimorphic Basidiomycota. In plant parasitic taxa,
14250-865: The entire "basidium" acts as a "spore", e.g. in some false puffballs ( Scleroderma ). In the human pathogenic genus Cryptococcus , four nuclei following meiosis remain in the basidium, but continually divide mitotically, each nucleus migrating into synchronously forming nonballistic basidiospores that are then pushed upwards by another set forming below them, resulting in four parallel chains of dry "basidiospores". Other variations occur: some as standard lifecycles (that themselves have variations within variations) within specific orders. Rusts ( Pucciniales , previously known as Uredinales ) at their greatest complexity, produce five different types of spores on two different host plants in two unrelated host families. Such rusts are heteroecious (requiring two hosts) and macrocyclic (producing all five spores types). Wheat stem rust
14400-399: The entire world. Other (partial) revisions may be restricted in the sense that they may only use some of the available character sets or have a limited spatial scope. A revision results in a conformation of or new insights in the relationships between the subtaxa within the taxon under study, which may lead to a change in the classification of these subtaxa, the identification of new subtaxa, or
14550-494: The evidentiary basis has been expanded with data from molecular genetics that for the most part complements traditional morphology . Naming and classifying human surroundings likely began with the onset of language. Distinguishing poisonous plants from edible plants is integral to the survival of human communities. Medicinal plant illustrations show up in Egyptian wall paintings from c. 1500 BC , indicating that
14700-524: The exception of spiders published in Svenska Spindlar ). Even taxonomic names published by Linnaeus himself before these dates are considered pre-Linnaean. Modern taxonomy is heavily influenced by technology such as DNA sequencing , bioinformatics , databases , and imaging . A pattern of groups nested within groups was specified by Linnaeus' classifications of plants and animals, and these patterns began to be represented as dendrograms of
14850-486: The first modern groups tied to fossil ancestors was birds. Using the then newly discovered fossils of Archaeopteryx and Hesperornis , Thomas Henry Huxley pronounced that they had evolved from dinosaurs, a group formally named by Richard Owen in 1842. The resulting description, that of dinosaurs "giving rise to" or being "the ancestors of" birds, is the essential hallmark of evolutionary taxonomic thinking. As more and more fossil groups were found and recognized in
15000-687: The formal naming of clades. Linnaean ranks are optional and have no formal standing under the PhyloCode , which is intended to coexist with the current, rank-based codes. While popularity of phylogenetic nomenclature has grown steadily in the last few decades, it remains to be seen whether a majority of systematists will eventually adopt the PhyloCode or continue using the current systems of nomenclature that have been employed (and modified, but arguably not as much as some systematists wish) for over 250 years. Well before Linnaeus, plants and animals were considered separate Kingdoms. Linnaeus used this as
15150-410: The formation of specialized club-shaped end cells called basidia that normally bear external meiospores (usually four). These specialized spores are called basidiospores . However, some Basidiomycota are obligate asexual reproducers. Basidiomycota that reproduce asexually (discussed below) can typically be recognized as members of this division by gross similarity to others, by the formation of
15300-601: The furthest reaches of the symbiont fungi. Compatible hosts may belong to multiple families of vascular plants that are widely distributed throughout the Northern Hemisphere; according to one 1995 estimate, there are at least 30 host plant species distributed over more than 15 genera. Examples of mycorrhizal associates include Chinese red pine , Mexican weeping pine , Scots pine , Norway spruce , Coast Douglas-fir , mountain pine , and Virginia pine . The fungus has also been shown to associate with gum rockrose ,
15450-490: The globalisation of the mushroom trade most of the porcini commercially available in Italy or exported by Italy no longer originate there. Porcini and other mushrooms are also imported into Italy from various locations, especially China and eastern European countries; these are then often re-exported under the "Italian porcini" label. In Italy the disconnect with local production has had an adverse effect on quality; for example in
15600-525: The high water content (around 90%), the high level of enzyme activity, and the presence of a flora of microorganisms. Caution should be exercised when collecting specimens from potentially polluted or contaminated sites, as several studies have shown that the fruit bodies can bioaccumulate toxic heavy metals like mercury , cadmium , caesium and polonium . Bioaccumulated metals or radioactive fission decay products are like chemical signatures: chemical and radiochemical analysis can be used to identify
15750-702: The horns of a bull. In some Basidiomycota the spores are not ballistic, and the sterigmata may be straight, reduced to stubs, or absent. The basidiospores of these non-ballistosporic basidia may either bud off, or be released via dissolution or disintegration of the basidia. In summary, meiosis takes place in a diploid basidium. Each one of the four haploid nuclei migrates into its own basidiospore. The basidiospores are ballistically discharged and start new haploid mycelia called monokaryons. There are no males or females, rather there are compatible thalli with multiple compatibility factors. Plasmogamy between compatible individuals leads to delayed karyogamy leading to establishment of
15900-415: The hymenium is the cystidia, larger sterile cells that protrude beyond the basidia into the lumen of the hymenium, and act as air traps, regulating humidity. B. edulis has pleurocystidia (cystidia located on the face of a pore) that are thin-walled, roughly spindle-shaped to ventricose , and measure 30–45 by 7–10 μm; the "stuffed" feature of the hymenium is caused by cheilocystidia—cells found on
16050-577: The infection process, rather it remains dormant for a period and then germinates to form basidia (stage "IV"), sometimes called a promycelium . In the Pucciniales, the basidia are cylindrical and become 3- septate after meiosis, with each of the 4 cells bearing one basidiospore each. The basidiospores disperse and start the infection process on host 1 again. Autoecious rusts complete their life-cycles on one host instead of two, and microcyclic rusts cut out one or more stages. The characteristic part of
16200-466: The late 19th and early 20th centuries, palaeontologists worked to understand the history of animals through the ages by linking together known groups. With the modern evolutionary synthesis of the early 1940s, an essentially modern understanding of the evolution of the major groups was in place. As evolutionary taxonomy is based on Linnaean taxonomic ranks, the two terms are largely interchangeable in modern use. The cladistic method has emerged since
16350-405: The life-cycle of smuts is the thick-walled, often darkly pigmented, ornate, teliospore that serves to survive harsh conditions such as overwintering and also serves to help disperse the fungus as dry diaspores . The teliospores are initially dikaryotic but become diploid via karyogamy. Meiosis takes place at the time of germination. A promycelium is formed that consists of a short hypha (equated to
16500-401: The merger of previous subtaxa. Taxonomic characters are the taxonomic attributes that can be used to provide the evidence from which relationships (the phylogeny ) between taxa are inferred. Kinds of taxonomic characters include: The term " alpha taxonomy " is primarily used to refer to the discipline of finding, describing, and naming taxa , particularly species. In earlier literature,
16650-445: The middle. It is finely reticulate on the upper portion, but smooth or irregularly ridged on the lower part. The under surface of the cap is made of thin tubes, the site of spore production; they are 1 to 2 cm ( 1 ⁄ 2 to 3 ⁄ 4 in) deep, and whitish in colour when young, but mature to a greenish-yellow. The angular pores, which do not stain when bruised, are small—roughly 2 to 3 pores per millimetre. In youth,
16800-433: The mushroom aroma and it too can be used in subsequent cooking. Dried porcini have more protein than most other commonly consumed vegetables, apart from soybeans . Some of their protein is indigestible, though digestibility is improved with cooking. Like other boletes, porcini can be dried by being strung separately on twine and hung close to the ceiling of a kitchen. Alternatively, the mushrooms can be dried by cleaning with
16950-403: The mushroom cap, and the meiotic prophase stage is prolonged. Burns et al. studied the expression of genes involved in the 15-hour meiotic process, and found that the pattern of gene expression of C. cinerea was similar to two other fungal species, the yeasts Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Schizosaccharomyces pombe . These similarities in the patterns of expression led to the conclusion that
17100-669: The name by a colon) to be considered valid, as Bulliard's work preceded this date. It was thus written Boletus edulis Bull.:Fr. A 1987 revision of the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature set the starting date at May 1, 1753, the date of publication of Linnaeus ' work, the Species Plantarum . Hence, the name no longer requires the ratification of Fries' authority. Early alternate names include Boletus solidus by English naturalist James Sowerby in 1809, and Gray's Leccinum edule . Gray's transfer of
17250-533: The odour of the dried mushroom is a complex mixture of 53 volatile compounds. A 1998 estimate suggested that the total annual worldwide consumption of Boletus edulis and closely related species ( B. aereus , B. pinophilus , and B. reticulatus ) was between 20,000 and 100,000 tons. Approximately 2,700 tonnes (3,000 tons ) were sold in France, Italy and Germany in 1988, according to official figures. The true amount consumed far exceeds this, as
17400-592: The official sales figures did not account for informal sales or consumption by collectors. They are widely exported and sold in dried form, reaching countries where they do not occur naturally, such as Australia and New Zealand. The autonomous community of Castile and León in Spain produces 7,700 tonnes (8,500 tons) annually. In autumn, the price of porcini in the Northern Hemisphere typically ranges between $ 20 and $ 80 per kilogram, although in New York in 1997
17550-585: The origin of imported specimens, and for long-term radioecological monitoring of polluted areas. Porcini are sold fresh in markets in summer and autumn in Europe and Russia, and dried or canned at other times of the year, and distributed worldwide to countries where they are not otherwise found. They are eaten and enjoyed raw, sautéed with butter, ground into pasta, in soups, and in many other dishes. In France, they are used in recipes such as cèpes à la Bordelaise , cèpe frits and cèpe aux tomates . Porcini risotto
17700-503: The parasitic mould-like fungus Hypomyces chrysospermus , known as the bolete eater, which manifests itself as a white, yellow, or reddish-brown cottony layer over the surface of the mushroom. Some reported cases of stomach ache following consumption of dried porcini have been attributed to the presence of this mould on the fruit bodies. The mushroom is also used as a food source by several species of mushroom flies, as well as other insects and their larvae . An unidentified species of virus
17850-705: The pleiomorphic rusts are examples of fungi with anamorphs , which are the asexual stages. Some Basidiomycota are only known as anamorphs. Many are called basidiomycetous yeasts, which differentiates them from ascomycetous yeasts in the Ascomycota . Aside from yeast anamorphs and uredinia, aecia, and pycnidia, some Basidiomycota form other distinctive anamorphs as parts of their life cycles. Examples are Collybia tuberosa with its apple-seed-shaped and coloured sclerotium , Dendrocollybia racemosa with its sclerotium and its Tilachlidiopsis racemosa conidia, Armillaria with their rhizomorphs , Hohenbuehelia with their Nematoctonus nematode infectious, state and
18000-454: The pores are white and appear as if stuffed with cotton (which are actually mycelia ); as they age, they change colour to yellow and later to brown. The spore print is olive brown. The flesh of the fruit body is white, thick and firm when young, but becomes somewhat spongy with age. When bruised or cut, it either does not change colour, or turns a very light brown or light red. Fully mature specimens can weigh about 1 kg (2 lb 3 oz);
18150-434: The possibilities of closer co-operation with their cytological, ecological and genetics colleagues and to acknowledge that some revision or expansion, perhaps of a drastic nature, of their aims and methods, may be desirable ... Turrill (1935) has suggested that while accepting the older invaluable taxonomy, based on structure, and conveniently designated "alpha", it is possible to glimpse a far-distant taxonomy built upon as wide
18300-436: The primary host a repeating spore stage is formed, numbered "II", the urediospores in dry pustules called uredinia . Urediospores are dikaryotic and can infect the same host that produced them. They repeatedly infect this host over the growing season. At the end of the season, a fourth spore type, the teliospore , is formed. It is thicker-walled and serves to overwinter or to survive other harsh conditions. It does not continue
18450-818: The rank of Order, although both exclude fossil representatives. A separate compilation (Ruggiero, 2014) covers extant taxa to the rank of Family. Other, database-driven treatments include the Encyclopedia of Life , the Global Biodiversity Information Facility , the NCBI taxonomy database , the Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera , the Open Tree of Life , and the Catalogue of Life . The Paleobiology Database
18600-463: The reticulation on the stalk; in porcini, it is a whitish, net-like pattern on a brownish stalk, whereas it is a dark pattern on white in the latter. Porcini have whitish pores while the other has pink. If in doubt, tasting a tiny bit of flesh will yield a bitter taste. It can also resemble the "bolete-like" Gyroporus castaneus , which is generally smaller, and has a browner stem. Boletus huronensis , an uncommon mushroom of northeastern North America,
18750-495: The roots of plants (hosts), in which the fungus exchanges nitrogen and other nutrients extracted from the environment for fixed carbon from the host. Other benefits for the plant are evident: in the case of the Chinese chestnut , the formation of mycorrhizae with B. edulis increases the ability of plant seedlings to resist water stress , and increases leaf succulence , leaf area, and water-holding ability. The fungus forms
18900-407: The same, sometimes slightly different, but always related and intersecting. The broadest meaning of "taxonomy" is used here. The term itself was introduced in 1813 by de Candolle , in his Théorie élémentaire de la botanique . John Lindley provided an early definition of systematics in 1830, although he wrote of "systematic botany" rather than using the term "systematics". Europeans tend to use
19050-495: The saprotrophic phase is normally the yeast while the infectious stage is hyphal. However, there are examples of animal and human parasites where the species are dimorphic but it is the yeast-like state that is infectious. The genus Filobasidiella forms basidia on hyphae but the main infectious stage is more commonly known by the anamorphic yeast name Cryptococcus , e.g. Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii . The dimorphic Basidiomycota with yeast stages and
19200-486: The sensu sticto "porcini clade" of the genus. Western North America has several species closely related to B. edulis . The white king bolete ( Boletus barrowsii ), found in parts of Colorado , New Mexico , Arizona , and California (and possibly elsewhere), is named after its discoverer Chuck Barrows. It is lighter in colour than B. edulis , having a cream-coloured cap with pink tones; often mycorrhizal with Ponderosa pine , it tends to grow in areas where there
19350-652: The soil microflora might be required for B. edulis to establish a mycorrhizal relationship with the host plant. Successful attempts at cultivating B. edulis have been made by Spanish scientists by mycorrhization of Cistus species, with Pseudomonas fluorescens bacteria helping the mycorrhiza. Boletus edulis mushrooms are 9% carbohydrates , 3% fat, and 7% protein (table). Fresh mushrooms consist of over 80% moisture, although reported values tend to differ somewhat as moisture content can be affected by environmental temperature and relative humidity during growth and storage. The carbohydrate component contains
19500-551: The southern KwaZulu-Natal Midlands in South Africa for more than 50 years and is believed to have been introduced with the import of pine trees. It also grows in pine plantations in neighboring Zimbabwe. Italian folklore holds that porcini sprout up at the time of the new moon; research studies have tried to investigate more scientifically the factors that influence the production of fruit bodies. Although fruit bodies may appear any time from summer to autumn (June to November in
19650-411: The species epithet edulis ( Latin : edible ) indicates, is an edible mushroom. Italian chef and restaurateur Antonio Carluccio has described it as representing "the wild mushroom par excellence ", and hails it as the most rewarding of all fungi in the kitchen for its taste and versatility. Considered a choice edible, particularly in France, Germany, Poland and Italy, it was widely written about by
19800-471: The species to Leccinum was later determined to be inconsistent with the rules of botanical nomenclature , and he apparently was unfamiliar with the earlier works of Fries when he published his arrangement of bolete species. Boletus edulis is the type species of the genus Boletus . In Rolf Singer 's classification of the Agaricales mushrooms, it is also the type species of section Boletus ,
19950-448: The spermatia from spermagonium to spermagonium, cross inoculating the mating types. Neither thallus is male or female. Once crossed, the dikaryons are established and a second spore stage is formed, numbered "I" and called aecia , which form dikaryotic aeciospores in dry chains in inverted cup-shaped bodies embedded in host tissue. These aeciospores then infect the second host, known as the primary or asexual host (in macrocyclic rusts). On
20100-505: The spring. B. fibrillosus is edible but considered inferior in taste. The fruit bodies of Boletus edulis can grow singly or in small clusters of two or three specimens. The mushroom's habitat consists of areas dominated by pine ( Pinus spp.), spruce ( Picea spp.), hemlock ( Tsuga spp.) and fir ( Abies spp.) trees, although other hosts include chestnut , chinquapin , beech , Keteleeria spp., Lithocarpus spp., and oak . In California, porcini have been collected in
20250-400: The table, as few poisonous species closely resemble it, and those that do may be easily distinguished by careful examination. The most similar poisonous mushroom may be the devil's bolete ( Rubroboletus satanas ), which has a similar shape, but has a red stem and stains blue on bruising. It is often confused with the very bitter and unpalatable Tylopilus felleus , but can be distinguished by
20400-472: The term had a different meaning, referring to morphological taxonomy, and the products of research through the end of the 19th century. William Bertram Turrill introduced the term "alpha taxonomy" in a series of papers published in 1935 and 1937 in which he discussed the philosophy and possible future directions of the discipline of taxonomy. ... there is an increasing desire amongst taxonomists to consider their problems from wider viewpoints, to investigate
20550-482: The terms "systematics" and "biosystematics" for the study of biodiversity as a whole, whereas North Americans tend to use "taxonomy" more frequently. However, taxonomy, and in particular alpha taxonomy , is more specifically the identification, description, and naming (i.e., nomenclature) of organisms, while "classification" focuses on placing organisms within hierarchical groups that show their relationships to other organisms. A taxonomic revision or taxonomic review
20700-510: The three-domain method is the separation of Archaea and Bacteria , previously grouped into the single kingdom Bacteria (a kingdom also sometimes called Monera ), with the Eukaryota for all organisms whose cells contain a nucleus . A small number of scientists include a sixth kingdom, Archaea, but do not accept the domain method. Thomas Cavalier-Smith , who published extensively on the classification of protists , in 2002 proposed that
20850-427: The top rank, dividing the physical world into the vegetable, animal and mineral kingdoms. As advances in microscopy made the classification of microorganisms possible, the number of kingdoms increased, five- and six-kingdom systems being the most common. Domains are a relatively new grouping. First proposed in 1977, Carl Woese 's three-domain system was not generally accepted until later. One main characteristic of
21000-643: The town from which they are traded to the north and abroad. Boletus edulis has a cosmopolitan distribution , concentrated in cool- temperate to subtropical regions. It is common in Europe—from northern Scandinavia, south to the extremities of Greece and Italy—and North America, where its southern range extends as far south as Mexico. It is well known from the Borgotaro area of Parma , Italy, and has PGI status there. The European distribution extends north to Scandinavia and south to southern Italy and Morocco. In
21150-436: The traditional three domains. Partial classifications exist for many individual groups of organisms and are revised and replaced as new information becomes available; however, comprehensive, published treatments of most or all life are rarer; recent examples are that of Adl et al., 2012 and 2019, which covers eukaryotes only with an emphasis on protists, and Ruggiero et al., 2015, covering both eukaryotes and prokaryotes to
21300-518: The tree of life are called polyphyletic . Monophyletic groups are recognized and diagnosed on the basis of synapomorphies , shared derived character states. Cladistic classifications are compatible with traditional Linnean taxonomy and the Codes of Zoological and Botanical nomenclature , to a certain extent. An alternative system of nomenclature, the International Code of Phylogenetic Nomenclature or PhyloCode has been proposed, which regulates
21450-642: The uses of different species were understood and that a basic taxonomy was in place. Organisms were first classified by Aristotle ( Greece , 384–322 BC) during his stay on the Island of Lesbos . He classified beings by their parts, or in modern terms attributes , such as having live birth, having four legs, laying eggs, having blood, or being warm-bodied. He divided all living things into two groups: plants and animals . Some of his groups of animals, such as Anhaima (animals without blood, translated as invertebrates ) and Enhaima (animals with blood, roughly
21600-486: The wholesale price rose to more than $ 200 per kilogram due to scarcity. In the vicinity of Borgotaro in the Province of Parma of northern Italy, the four species Boletus edulis , B. aereus , B. aestivalis and B. pinophilus have been recognised for their superior taste and officially termed Fungo di Borgotaro . Here these mushrooms have been collected for centuries and exported commercially. Owing to
21750-486: Was Methodus Plantarum Nova (1682), in which he published details of over 18,000 plant species. At the time, his classifications were perhaps the most complex yet produced by any taxonomist, as he based his taxa on many combined characters. The next major taxonomic works were produced by Joseph Pitton de Tournefort (France, 1656–1708). His work from 1700, Institutiones Rei Herbariae , included more than 9000 species in 698 genera, which directly influenced Linnaeus, as it
21900-555: Was entitled " Systema Naturae " ("the System of Nature"), implying that he, at least, believed that it was more than an "artificial system"). Later came systems based on a more complete consideration of the characteristics of taxa, referred to as "natural systems", such as those of de Jussieu (1789), de Candolle (1813) and Bentham and Hooker (1862–1863). These classifications described empirical patterns and were pre- evolutionary in thinking. The publication of Charles Darwin 's On
22050-615: Was popularized in the Anglophone world by the speculative but widely read Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation , published anonymously by Robert Chambers in 1844. With Darwin's theory, a general acceptance quickly appeared that a classification should reflect the Darwinian principle of common descent . Tree of life representations became popular in scientific works, with known fossil groups incorporated. One of
22200-496: Was reported to have infected specimens found in the Netherlands and in Italy; fruit bodies affected by the virus had relatively thick stems and small or no caps, leading to the name "little-cap disease". Boletus edulis is a food source for animals such as the banana slug (Ariolimax columbianus) , the long-haired grass mouse , the red squirrel , and, as noted in one isolated report, the fox sparrow . Boletus edulis , as
22350-488: Was the Italian physician Andrea Cesalpino (1519–1603), who has been called "the first taxonomist". His magnum opus De Plantis came out in 1583, and described more than 1500 plant species. Two large plant families that he first recognized are in use: the Asteraceae and Brassicaceae . In the 17th century John Ray ( England , 1627–1705) wrote many important taxonomic works. Arguably his greatest accomplishment
22500-429: Was the text he used as a young student. The Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778) ushered in a new era of taxonomy. With his major works Systema Naturae 1st Edition in 1735, Species Plantarum in 1753, and Systema Naturae 10th Edition , he revolutionized modern taxonomy. His works implemented a standardized binomial naming system for animal and plant species, which proved to be an elegant solution to
#380619