Misplaced Pages

#971028

89-691: Red Cloud ( Lakota : Maȟpíya Lúta ; c.  1822 – December 10, 1909) was a leader of the Oglala Lakota from 1865 to 1909. He was one of the most capable Native American opponents whom the United States Army faced in the western territories. He led the Lakota to victory over the United States during Red Cloud's War , establishing the Lakota as the only nation to defeat the United States on American soil. The largest action of

178-543: A Seneca and a resident of the United States. Beginning in the 1840s, when Ely was a teenager, the Parker home became a meeting place of non-Indian scholars who were interested in the Haudenosaunee, including Lewis Henry Morgan , Henry Rowe Schoolcraft , and John Wesley Powell . They all played a role in the studies that formed ethnology and anthropology as an academic discipline. As a young man, Parker worked in

267-520: A century later. In 2023, the school elected to rebrand to the Lakota language translation of Red Cloud’s name - ‘Maȟpíya Lúta’ Theodore Sorensen wrote in Kennedy that President John F. Kennedy considered naming one of the 41 for Freedom ballistic missile submarines after Red Cloud but bowed to Pentagon concerns that the name could be misinterpreted as being pro- Communist even though Red Cloud

356-500: A fluent speaker to use. In 2013 Lakota teachers at Red Cloud Indian School on Pine Ridge Indian Reservation discussed their use of orthography for their K–12 students as well as adult learners. The orthography used at Red Cloud "is meant to be more phonetic than other orthographies... That means there are usually more 'H's than other versions. While many orthographies use tipi ... Red Cloud spells it thípi." He continues, "the orthography also makes heavy use of diacritical marks... that

445-454: A following ⟨ƞ⟩ , ⟨ŋ⟩ , or ⟨n⟩ ; historically, these were written with ogoneks underneath, ⟨į ą ų⟩ . No syllables end with consonantal /n/ . A neutral vowel ( schwa ) is automatically inserted between certain consonants, e.g. into the pairs ⟨gl⟩ , ⟨bl⟩ and ⟨gm⟩ . So the clan name written phonemically as ⟨Oglala⟩ has become

534-482: A good place, and there I want to stay. ... You speak of another country, but it is not my country; it does not concern me, and I want nothing to do with it. I was not born there. ... If it is such a good country, you ought to send the white men now in our country there and let us alone. Although Red Cloud was unsuccessful in finding a peaceful solution, he did not take part in the Great Sioux War of 1876 , which

623-516: A grammatical sentence that contains only a verb. (interjection) (conjunction) (adverb(s)) (nominal) (nominal) (nominal) (adverb(s)) verb (enclitic(s)) (conjunction) When interjections are used, they begin the sentence or end it. A small number of interjections are used only by one gender, for instance the interjection expressing disbelief is ečéš for women but hóȟ for men; for calling attention women say máŋ while men use wáŋ . Most interjections, however, are used by both genders. It

712-481: A higher tone than all other vowels in the word. This is generally the vowel of the second syllable of the word, but often the first syllable can be stressed, and occasionally other syllables as well. Stress is generally indicated with an acute accent: ⟨á⟩ , etc. Compound words will have stressed vowels in each component; proper spelling will write compounds with a hyphen. Thus máza-ská , literally "metal-white", i.e. "silver; money" has two stressed vowels,

801-622: A legal firm, reading law for the customary three years with an established firm in Ellicottville, New York , before applying to take the bar examination . He was not permitted to take it because as a Seneca, he was not then considered a United States citizen . All American Indians were not considered citizens until passage of the Indian Citizenship Act of 1924 , but by that time, some two-thirds were American citizens due to other circumstances, including having served in

890-428: A property. (In English, such descriptions are usually made with adjectives .) Verbs are inflected for first-, second- or third person , and for singular, dual or plural grammatical number . There are two paradigms for verb inflection . One set of morphemes indicates the person and number of the subject of active verbs. The other set of morphemes agrees with the object of transitive action verbs or

979-673: A shortage of engineers. Parker was commissioned a captain in May 1863 and ordered to report to Brig. Gen. John Eugene Smith . Smith appointed Parker as the chief engineer of his 7th Division during the siege of Vicksburg , and later said Parker was a "good engineer". When Ulysses S. Grant became commander of the Military Division of the Mississippi , Parker became his adjutant during the Chattanooga Campaign . He

SECTION 10

#1732802403972

1068-661: A small Native American war party that had attacked a wood-gathering party days before. Captain Frederick Brown accompanied Fetterman; the two were confident in their troops and anxious to go to battle with the Native Americans. They disobeyed orders to stay behind the Lodge Trail Ridge and pursued a small decoy band of warriors led by a Native American on an injured horse. The decoy was the prominent warrior Crazy Horse . Fetterman and his troops followed

1157-652: A state in 1867), and including parts of South Dakota. Uneasy relations between the expanding United States and the natives continued. In 1870, Red Cloud visited Washington D.C. and met with Commissioner of Indian Affairs Ely S. Parker (a Seneca and U.S. Army General), and President Ulysses S. Grant . In 1871, the government established the Red Cloud Agency on the Platte River , downstream from Fort Laramie . By 1874 it had been moved to Nebraska, with Fort Robinson located nearby. Red Cloud took his band to

1246-657: A strong and collegial relationship that was useful later. Near the start of the American Civil War , Parker tried to raise a regiment of Iroquois volunteers to fight for the Union, but was turned down by New York Governor Edwin D. Morgan . He tried to enlist in the Union Army as an engineer, but was told by Secretary of War Simon Cameron that, as an Indian, he could not join. Parker contacted his colleague and friend Ulysses S. Grant, whose forces suffered from

1335-400: Is postpositional , with adpositions occurring after the head nouns: mas'óphiye él , "at the store" (literally 'store at'); thípi=kiŋ ókšaŋ , "around the house" (literally 'house=the around') (Rood and Taylor 1996). Rood and Taylor (1996) suggest the following template for basic word order. Items in parentheses are optional; only the verb is required. It is therefore possible to produce

1424-524: Is common for a sentence to begin with a conjunction. Both čhaŋké and yuŋkȟáŋ can be translated as and ; k’éyaš is similar to English but . Each of these conjunctions joins clauses. In addition, the conjunction na joins nouns or phrases. Lakota uses postpositions , which are similar to English prepositions, but follow their noun complement. Adverbs or postpositional phrases can describe manner, location, or reason. There are also interrogative adverbs, which are used to form questions. To

1513-478: Is marked with an acute accent : ⟨á, é, í, ó, ú, áŋ, íŋ, úŋ⟩ on stressed vowels (which receive a higher tone than non-stressed ones) The following consonants approximate their IPA values: ⟨b, g, h, k, l, m, n, ŋ, p, s, t, w, z⟩ . ⟨Y⟩ has its English value of /j/ . An apostrophe, ⟨'⟩ , is used for the glottal stop . A caron is used for sounds, other than /ŋ/ , which are not written with Latin letters in

1602-398: Is more appropriate. They are both used in matters of time and space. As mentioned above, nominals are optional in Lakota, but when nouns appear the basic word order is subject–object–verb. Pronouns are not common, but may be used contrastively or emphatically. Lakota has four articles : waŋ is indefinite, similar to English a or an , and kiŋ is definite, similar to English

1691-440: Is not popular among some educators and academics". Delphine Red Shirt, an Oglala Lakota tribal member and a lecturer on languages at Stanford University , disagrees and prefers a Lakota orthography without diacritical marks. "I'm very against any orthography that requires a special keyboard to communicate," she said. First language speaker and veteran language teacher at Red Cloud, the late Philomine Lakota, had similar concerns with

1780-484: Is often written without diacritics . Besides failing to mark stress, this also results in the confusion of numerous consonants: /s/ and /ʃ/ are both written ⟨s⟩ , /h/ and /χ/ are both written ⟨h⟩ , and the aspirate stops are written like the unaspirates, as ⟨p, t, c, k⟩ . All digraphs (i.e. characters created by two letters, such as kh, kȟ, k') are treated as groups of individual letters in alphabetization. Thus for example

1869-420: Is phonetically [laˈkˣota] ). For some speakers, there is a phonemic distinction between the two, and both occur before /e/ . No such variation occurs for the affricate /tʃʰ/. Some orthographies mark this distinction; others do not. The uvular fricatives /χ/ and /ʁ/ are commonly spelled ⟨ȟ⟩ and ⟨ǧ⟩ . All monomorphemic words have one vowel which carries primary stress and has

SECTION 20

#1732802403972

1958-811: Is spent teaching and speaking the language. On May 3, 2022, the Tribal Council of the Standing Rock Sioux , in a near-unanimous vote, banished the Lakota Language Consortium (and specifically, LLC linguist Jan Ullrich and co-founder Wilhelm Meya) from ever again setting foot on the reservation. The council's decision was based on the LLC's history with not only the Standing Rock community, but also with at least three other communities that also voiced concerns about Meya and

2047-712: The Tonawanda Reservation in New York state . Parker became Morgan's main source of information and an entrée to others in the Seneca and other Haudenosaunee nations. Morgan later dedicated his book League of the Iroquois , published in 1851, to Parker, noting that, "the materials are the fruit of our joint researches". The relationship proved important for both men; as Parker helped Morgan become an anthropological pioneer, Morgan helped Parker make connections in

2136-550: The "SLO" or even "Suggested Lakota Orthography." Tasha Hauff writes, Choosing a writing system, or orthography, is often a serious point of contention in Indigenous communities engaging in revitalization work (Hinton, 2014). While writing a traditionally oral language can itself be considered a colonial act, standardizing a writing system is fraught with political as well as pedagogical complications. Because teachers at Standing Rock were in need of language-teaching materials, and

2225-426: The . In addition, waŋží is an indefinite article used with hypothetical or irrealis objects, and k’uŋ is a definite article used with nouns that have been mentioned previously. There are also nine demonstratives , which can function either as pronouns or as determiners . Verbs are the only word class that are obligatory in a Lakota sentence. Verbs can be active, naming an action, or stative , describing

2314-660: The Civil War, Parker was commissioned as an officer in the 2nd United States Cavalry on July 1, 1866. He again became the military secretary to Grant, with the rank of colonel, as Grant completed his appointment as commanding general of the U.S. Army. Parker was a member of the Southern Treaty Commission , which renegotiated treaties with tribes who had sided with the Confederacy, were mostly from Indian Territory . On April 26, 1869, Parker resigned from

2403-713: The Committee on Supplies and Repairs of the Board of Commissioners of the New York Police Department . Parker received many visits from Jacob Riis , the photographer famous for documenting the lives of slum dwellers. After the war, in 1867 Parker married a white woman, Minnie Orton Sackett (1849–1932). They had one daughter, Maud Theresa Parker (1878–1956). Parker lived his last years in poverty, dying in Fairfield, Connecticut , on August 31, 1895. He

2492-640: The Czech linguist advocates resembles the Czech orthography – making it easier for Czech people to read. The Europeans predominantly use the internet to give the impression that this "Czech orthography" is a Lakota product and the standard for writing Lakota." "The Rosebud Sioux Tribe was the first of the Lakota tribes to take legal action against the self-authorizing practices the LLC committed by utilizing names of Lakota language experts without their consent to obtain funding for their projects." Rosebud Resolution No. 2008–295 goes further and compares these actions to what

2581-485: The IPA: ⟨č⟩ /tʃ/ , ⟨ǧ⟩ /ʁ/ , ⟨ȟ⟩ /χ/ , ⟨š⟩ /ʃ/ , ⟨ž⟩ /ʒ/ . Aspirates are written with ⟨h⟩ : ⟨čh, kh, ph, th,⟩ and velar frication with ⟨ȟ⟩ : ⟨kȟ, pȟ, tȟ.⟩ Ejectives are written with an apostrophe: ⟨č', ȟ', k', p', s', š', t'⟩ . The spelling used in modern popular texts

2670-523: The Interior Delano , and Commissioner of Indian Affairs Smith . He told them on May 27 that Congress was ready to resolve the matter by paying the tribes $ 25,000 for their land and resettling them into Indian Territory . The delegates refused to sign such a treaty, with Spotted Tail saying about the proposal: When I was here before, the President gave me my country, and I put my stake down in

2759-572: The LLC materials but do not write in the orthography. These are usually Elders who remain in the habit of writing the way they learned. A few people at Standing Rock, however, have been offended by the notion of a standard way of writing Lakota/Dakota, especially one that seems unlike any of the systems used by Elders. Community members have been particularly wary of the SLO ["Standard Lakota Orthography"], which appears to be developed by outsiders who are not fluent speakers and would require considerable study for

Red Cloud - Misplaced Pages Continue

2848-422: The LLC was one of the few organizations developing such resources, Standing Rock adopted the new orthography, but not without resistance from members of the community. ... The new writing system at Standing Rock was often criticized or even rejected within the community. Some fluent speakers at Standing Rock have not accepted the new writing system. There are some who continue to work in language education and who use

2937-469: The LLC's promotion of their New Lakota Dictionary , websites and other Internet projects aimed at revising and standardizing their new spelling of the Lakota language. "Lakota first language speakers and Lakota language teachers criticize the "Czech orthography" for being overloaded with markings and – foremost – for the way it is being brought into Lakota schools"; it has been criticized as " neocolonial domination." Sonja John writes that "The new orthography

3026-510: The LLC, "saying he broke agreements over how to use recordings, language materials and historical records, or used them without permission." The "Standard Lakota Orthography" as the LLC calls it, is in principle phonemic, which means that each character ( grapheme ) represents one distinctive sound ( phoneme ), except for the distinction between glottal and velar aspiration, which is treated phonetically. Lakota vowels are ⟨a, e, i, o, u⟩ nasal vowels are aŋ, iŋ, uŋ. Pitch accent

3115-407: The Lakota Language Consortium and its " Czech orthography " from the reservation and its educational system. This ban was a response to a series of protests by community members and grassroots language preservation workers, at Rosebud and other Lakota communities, against the Lakota Language Consortium (LLC). Despite its name, the LLC is an organization formed by two Europeans. Concerns arose due to

3204-911: The Northern Cheyenne , allied with Lakota and Arapaho bands, against the Army from 1866 to 1868. In December 1866, the Native American allies attacked and defeated a United States unit in what they would call the Fetterman Massacre (or the Battle of the Hundred Slain), which resulted in the most U.S. casualties of any Plains battle up to that point. Captain William J. Fetterman was sent from Fort Phil Kearny with two civilians and 79 cavalry and infantrymen to chase away

3293-691: The Seneca chiefs in their negotiations with the United States government about land and treaty rights . In 1852, he was made sachem of the Seneca and given the name Donehogawa , "Keeper of the Western Door of the Long House of the Iroquois". As an engineer, Parker contributed to upgrades and maintenance of the Erie Canal , among other projects. As a supervisor of government projects in Galena, Illinois , he befriended Ulysses S. Grant , forming

3382-520: The U.S. military. Parker encountered scholar Lewis Henry Morgan through a chance meeting in a bookstore. At the time Morgan was a young lawyer involved in forming "The Grand Order of the Iroquois", a fraternity of young white men from Upstate New York who romanticized their image of the American Indian and wanted to model their group after "Iroquois" ideals. The two bridged their cultures to become friends, and Parker invited Morgan to visit

3471-528: The U.S. perception during Red Cloud's prominence in war, The New York Times article on his death mistakenly described him as leader of all the Sioux bands and tribes but noted his abilities as a leader and diplomat. This misconception was echoed by early white historians such as Grace Raymond Hebard and Earl Alonzo Brininstool , who judged "Red Napoleon of the Plains" a "most fitting title" for Red Cloud. While he

3560-469: The agency (a predecessor of the Native American reservation ), ready to receive government aid. Yet that aid was usually less than stipulated, and usually inferior in quality. According to Charles A. Eastman (Ohiyesa) Red Cloud was the last to sign "..having refused to do so until all of the forts within their territory should be vacated. All of his demands were acceded to, the new road abandoned,

3649-639: The approach... then the question is whose version will be adopted? This will cause dissent and politics to become a factor in the process." Also in 2002, Sinte Gleska University rejected a partnership with the European-owned Lakota Language Consortium. Sinte Gleska uses the orthography developed by Albert White Hat , which on December 13, 2012, was formally adopted by the Rosebud Sioux Tribe per Tribal Resolution No. 2012–343. This resolution also banned

Red Cloud - Misplaced Pages Continue

3738-652: The army with the rank of brevet brigadier general of the regular army. He was elected a Veteran Companion of the New York Commandery of the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States , a military society of officers of the Union armed forces and their descendants. Shortly after Grant took office as president in March 1869, he appointed Parker as Commissioner of Indian Affairs . He

3827-640: The commission recommended assigning definite territories to the Plains tribes. The Lakota, Northern Cheyenne, Arapaho, and other bands settled for peace with the U.S. under the Treaty of Fort Laramie . The U.S. agreed to abandon its forts and withdraw from Lakota territory. The treaty established the Great Sioux Reservation , covering the territory of West River, west of the Missouri River in present-day Nebraska (which had been admitted as

3916-651: The creation of the tribe. Other creation stories say language was invented by Iktomi . A wholly Lakota newspaper named the Anpao Kin ("Daybreak") circulated from 1878 by the Protestant Episcopal Church in Niobrara Mission , Nebraska until its move to Mission, South Dakota in 1908 continuing until its closure in 1937. The print alongside its Dakota counterpart Iapi Oaye ("The Word Carrier") played an important role in documenting

4005-450: The decoy into an ambush by more than 2,000 Sioux, Cheyenne, and Arapaho. Combined Native American forces suffered only 14 casualties, while they killed the entire 81-man U.S. detachment. Following this battle, a U.S. peace commission toured the Plains in 1867 to gather information to help bring about peace among the tribes and with the U.S. Finding that the Native Americans had been provoked by white encroachment and competition for resources,

4094-498: The development of a written form of Lakota was Ella Cara Deloria , also called Aŋpétu Wašté Wiŋ (Beautiful Day Woman), a Yankton Dakota ethnologist, linguist, and novelist who worked extensively with the Dakota and Lakota peoples, documenting their languages and cultures. She collaborated with linguists such as Franz Boas and Edward Sapir to create written materials for Lakota, including dictionaries and grammars. Another key figure

4183-477: The enlistment and affairs including obituaries of Native Sioux soldiers into the army as America became involved in World War I . Lakota has five oral vowels, /i e a o u/ , and three nasal vowels, /ĩ ã ũ/ (phonetically [ɪ̃ ə̃ ʊ̃] ). Lakota /e/ and /o/ are said to be more open than the corresponding cardinal vowels, perhaps closer to [ɛ] and [ɔ] . Orthographically, the nasal vowels are written with

4272-399: The first a in each component. If it were written without the hyphen, as mazaska , it would imply a single main stress. A common phonological process which occurs in rapid speech is vowel contraction , which generally results from the loss of an intervocalic glide. Vowel contraction results in phonetic long vowels ( phonemically a sequence of two identical vowels), with falling pitch if

4361-415: The first Native American to hold that post. Ely Parker was born in 1828 as the sixth of seven children to Elizabeth and William Parker at Indian Falls, New York , which was then part of the Tonawanda Reservation . He was named Ha-sa-no-an-da and later baptized as Samuel Parker. Both of his parents were of prominent Seneca families; while his father was a miller by trade and a Baptist minister, he

4450-415: The first underlying vowel is stressed, and rising pitch if the second underlying vowel is stressed: kê: (falling tone), "he said that", from kéye ; hǎ:pi (rising tone), "clothing", from hayápi . If one of the vowels is nasalized, the resulting long vowel is also nasalized: čhaŋ̌:pi , "sugar", from čhaŋháŋpi . When two vowels of unequal height contract, or when feature contrasts exist between

4539-653: The garrisons withdrawn, and the new treaty distinctly stated that the Black Hills and the Big Horn were Indian countries, set apart for their perpetual occupancy and that no white man should enter that region without the consent of the Sioux. ... Scarcely was this treaty signed, however, when gold was discovered in the Black Hills, and the popular cry was: "Remove the Indians!"... The government, at first, entered some small protest, just enough to "save its face"... but there

SECTION 50

#1732802403972

4628-452: The large tribe had several major divisions and was highly decentralized. Bands among the Oglala and other divisions operated independently, though some individual leaders were renowned as warriors and highly respected as leaders, such as Red Cloud. Red Cloud was born close to the forks of the Platte River , near the modern-day city of North Platte, Nebraska . His mother, Walks as She Thinks,

4717-561: The larger white-dominated society in which he later worked and lived. With Morgan's help, Parker gained admission to study engineering at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in Troy, New York . Parker worked as a civil engineer until the start of the American Civil War . Parker was later appointed by President Ulysses S. Grant to Commissioner of Indian Affairs , a position that Morgan once aspired to hold. Parker began his career in public service by working as an interpreter and diplomat for

4806-579: The leader of the Bad Faces. He brought Red Cloud into the Smoke household when the boy's parents died around 1825. At a young age, Red Cloud fought against neighboring Pawnee and Crow bands, gaining much war experience. Red Cloud's War was the name the U.S. Army gave to a series of conflicts fought with Native American Plains tribes in the Wyoming and Montana Territories. The battles were waged between

4895-434: The local Native Americans. Previously, the army had unsuccessfully tried to keep miners out of the region, and the threat of violence grew. In May 1875, Lakota delegations headed by Red Cloud, Spotted Tail , and Lone Horn traveled to Washington in an attempt to persuade President Grant to honor existing treaties and stem the flow of miners into their lands. The Native Americans met on various occasions with Grant, Secretary of

4984-404: The necessary signatures for approval only through subterfuge, such as using the signatures of children. Red Cloud negotiated strongly with Indian Agents such as Dr. Valentine McGillycuddy . A few years before he died, Red Cloud and his wife got baptized as Christians and adopted the named John and Mary. In 1909, Red Cloud died on Pine Ridge Reservation. At 87 years old, he outlived nearly all

5073-539: The non-Lakota speaker, the postpositions él and ektá sound like they can be interchangeable, but although they are full synonyms of each other, they are used in different occasions. Semantically (word meaning), they are used as locational and directional tools. In the English language they can be compared to prepositions like "at", "in", and "on" (when used as locatives) on the one hand, and "at", "in", and "on" (when used as directionals), "to", "into", and "onto", on

5162-507: The northern plains states of North Dakota and South Dakota . Many communities have immersion programs for both children and adults. Like many indigenous languages, the Lakota language did not have a written form traditionally. However, efforts to develop a written form of Lakota began, primarily through the work of Christian missionaries and linguists, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The orthography has since evolved to reflect contemporary needs and usage. One significant figure in

5251-435: The orthography, and argues against changing the spelling forms she learned from her father. However, she did consider that, a shared curriculum could "create consistency across the region and encourage the long-term viability of the language. However, Philomine is also cognizant that it will take more than a school curriculum to preserve the language." She added, "In order for a language to survive, it can't simply be taught from

5340-492: The other major Lakota leaders of the Indian Wars. He was buried there in a cemetery that now bears his name. In old age, he is quoted as having said, "They made us many promises, more than I can remember. But they kept but one – They promised to take our land ... and they took it." Announcements of Red Cloud's death and recognition of his achievements were printed in major newspapers across the country. As had been typical of

5429-424: The other. (Pustet 2013) A pointer for when to use él and when to use ektá can be determined by the concepts of location (motionless) or motion; and space vs. time. These features can produce four different combinations, also called semantic domains, which can be arranged as follows (Pustet 2013): Summed up, when a context describes no motion, él is the appropriate postposition; when in motion, ektá

SECTION 60

#1732802403972

5518-441: The place name Ogallala . The voiced uvular fricative /ʁ/ becomes a uvular trill ( [ʀ] ) before /i/ and in fast speech it is often realized as a voiced velar fricative [ɣ] . The voiceless aspirated plosives have two allophonic variants each: those with a delay in voicing ([pʰ tʰ kʰ]) , and those with velar friction ([pˣ tˣ kˣ]) , which occur before /a/ , /ã/ , /o/ , /ĩ/ , and /ũ/ (thus, lakhóta , /laˈkʰota/

5607-949: The plains to the confinement of the reservation system. His trip to Washington, DC, had convinced him of the number and power of European Americans, and he believed the Oglala had to seek peace. Around 1880, he visited (not for the first time) the paleontologist and geologist Othniel Marsh in New Haven, Connecticut . Marsh had first visited the Red Cloud Agency in 1874, alleging, among other things, that "the Indians suffered for want of food and other supplies because they were cheated out of annuities and beef cattle and were issued inedible pork, inferior flour, poor sugar and coffee and rotten tobacco." In 1884, he and his family, along with five other leaders, converted and were baptized as Catholics by Father Joseph Bushman. Red Cloud continued fighting for his people, even after being forced onto

5696-403: The preceding vowel is nasalized, then the resulting vowel is also nasalized): hi=pi=kte , "they will arrive here", [hiukte]; yatkáŋ=pi=na , "they drank it and...", [jatkə̃õna] . Lakota also exhibits some traces of sound symbolism among fricatives, where the point of articulation changes to reflect intensity: zí , "it's yellow", ží , "it's tawny", ǧí , "it's brown". (Compare with

5785-509: The reservation. In 1887, he opposed the Dawes Act , which broke up communal tribal holdings and allocated 160-acre (65 ha) plots of land for subsistence farming to heads of families on tribal rolls. The U.S. declared additional communal tribal lands as excess and sold them to immigrant settlers. In 1889, Red Cloud opposed a treaty to sell more of the Lakota land. Due to his steadfastness, and that of Sitting Bull , government agents obtained

5874-462: The similar examples in Mandan .) Several orthographies as well as ad hoc spelling are used to write the Lakota language, with varying perspectives on whether standardization should be implemented. In 2002, Rosebud Cultural Studies teacher Randy Emery argued that standardization of the language could cause problems "because the language is utilized diversely. If standardization is determined to be

5963-715: The subject and object need to be marked, two affixes occur on the verb. Below is a table illustrating this. Subject affixes are marked in italics and object affixes are marked in underline . Some affixes encompass both subject and object (such as čhi - ...). The symbol ∅ indicates a lack of marking for a particular subject/object (as in the case of 3rd Person Singular forms). Cells with three forms indicate Class I, Class II, and Class III verb forms in this order. Example: uŋk á ni pȟepi "We are waiting for you" from apȟé "to wait for somebody". Ely S. Parker Ely Samuel Parker (1828 – August 31, 1895), born Hasanoanda ( Tonawanda Seneca ), later known as Donehogawa ,

6052-507: The subject of stative verbs. Most of the morphemes in each paradigm are prefixes, but plural subjects are marked with a suffix and third-person plural objects with an infix . First person arguments may be singular, dual , or plural; second or third person arguments may be singular or plural. Examples: máni "He walks." mánipi "They walk." Example: waŋwíčhayaŋke "He looked at them" from waŋyáŋkA "to look at something/somebody". Subject and object pronouns in one verb If both

6141-457: The surname of Parker. One of his elder brothers, Nicholson Parker, also became a prominent Seneca leader, as he was a powerful orator , much like the family's famous relation Red Jacket had been. Ely had a classical education at a missionary school, and was fully bilingual , speaking the Seneca language as well as English. He also studied in college. He spent his life bridging his identities as

6230-449: The surrender documents, which are in his handwriting. At the time of surrender, General Lee "stared at me for a moment", said Parker to more than one of his friends and relatives, "He extended his hand and said, 'I am glad to see one real American here.' I shook his hand and said, 'We are all Americans.'" Parker was brevetted brigadier general of United States Volunteers on April 9, 1865, and of United States Army March 2, 1867. After

6319-519: The top. A language is a living thing and students need to breathe life into it daily; talking with friends, family and elders in Lakota". In 2018, at the Cheyenne River Indian Reservation , Lakota speaker Manny Iron Hawk and his wife Renee Iron Hawk discussed opening an immersion school and the difficulties around choosing an orthography to write Lakota; Mr. Iron Hawk voiced support for the LLC (SLO) Orthography, saying it

6408-425: The vowels and the glide, two new phonetic vowels, [æː] and [ɔː] , result: iyæ̂: , "he left for there", from iyáye ; mitȟa: , "it's mine", from mitȟáwa . The plural enclitic =pi is frequently changed in rapid speech when preceding the enclitics =kte , =kiŋ , =kštó , or =na . If the vowel preceding =pi is high/open, =pi becomes [u]; if the vowel is non-high (mid or closed), =pi becomes [o] (if

6497-728: The war was the 1866 Fetterman Fight , with 81 US soldiers killed; it was the worst military defeat suffered by the US Army on the Great Plains until the Battle of the Little Bighorn 10 years later. After signing the Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868) , Red Cloud led his people in the transition to reservation life. Some of his opponents mistakenly thought of him as the overall leader of the Sioux groups (Dakota, Lakota, and Nakota), but

6586-429: The word čhíŋ precedes čónala in a dictionary. In 1982, Lakota educator Leroy Curley (1935–2012) devised a 41-letter circular alphabet. The basic word order of Lakota is subject–object–verb , although the order can be changed for expressive purposes (placing the object before the subject to bring the object into focus or placing the subject after the verb to emphasize its status as established information). It

6675-585: Was Albert White Hat Sr. , who taught at and later became the chair of the Lakota language program at his alma mater, Sinte Gleska University at Mission, South Dakota, one of the first tribal-based universities in the US. His work focused on the Sicangu dialect using an orthography developed by Lakota in 1982 and which today is slowly supplanting older systems provided by linguists and missionaries. The Lakota people 's creation stories say that language originated from

6764-524: Was a prominent leader, the Lakota were highly decentralized and never had one overall leader, especially in the major divisions, such as Oglala and Brulé. In 1871, the town of Red Cloud was named in his honor. Red Cloud was the most photographed American Indian of the nineteenth century. There are 128 known photographs picturing Red Cloud. He was first photographed in 1872 in Washington D.C. by Mathew Brady , just before meeting with President Grant. He

6853-503: Was accessible to second language learners, but know not all agreed with him. Others in the community voiced a preference for the tribe creating their own orthography. While Mr. Iron Hawk supports this approach, Renee Iron Hawk also expressed a sense of urgency, saying "We should just use what we have, and then fix and replace it, but we need to start speaking it now". The Iron Hawks both agreed that too much time has been spent arguing over which orthography to use or not use, and not enough time

6942-617: Was also among the Indians photographed by Edward S. Curtis . He has been honored by the United States Postal Service with a 10¢ Great Americans series postage stamp . In 2000, he was posthumously inducted into the Nebraska Hall of Fame . A parochial school on the Pine Ridge Reservation was established at the request of Red Cloud. The Red Cloud Indian School remains in use over

7031-471: Was also respected as a Tonawanda Seneca chief who had fought for the United States in the War of 1812 . His mother was the granddaughter of Sos-he-o-wa , the successor of the great Haudenosaunee spiritual leader Handsome Lake . His parents strongly supported education for all their children, whose Christian names were Spencer Houghton Cone, Nicholson Henry, Levi, Caroline (Carrie), Newton, and Solomon, all with

7120-399: Was an Oglala Lakota and his father, Lone Man, was a Brulé Lakota leader. They came from two of the seven major Lakota divisions. As was traditional among the matrilineal Lakota, in which the children belonged to the mother's clan and people, Red Cloud was mentored as a boy by his maternal uncle, Chief Old Smoke (1774–1864). Chief Old Smoke played a major role in the boy's childhood, as

7209-556: Was an engineer, U.S. Army officer, aide to General Ulysses Grant, and Commissioner of Indian Affairs, in charge of the government's relations with Native Americans. He was bilingual, speaking both Seneca and English, and became friends with Lewis Henry Morgan , who became a student of the Iroquois in Upstate New York . Parker earned an engineering degree in college and worked on the Erie Canal , and other projects. He

7298-523: Was cleared of any significant wrongdoing by the House Committee on Appropriations , his position was stripped of much of its power and he resigned in 1871. After leaving government service, Parker invested in the stock market. At first he did well, but in the Panic of 1873 he lost the fortune he had accumulated. Through his social connections, Parker received an appointment for an office job in

7387-467: Was commissioned as a lieutenant colonel during the American Civil War , when he served as adjutant and secretary to General Ulysses S. Grant . He wrote the final draft of the Confederate surrender terms at Appomattox . Later in his career, Parker rose to the rank of brevet brigadier general . When General Grant became president in 1869, he appointed Parker as Commissioner of Indian Affairs ,

7476-415: Was done to children taken from their families by the residential schools . In 2006 some of the Lakota language teachers at Standing Rock chose to collaborate with Sitting Bull College , and the Lakota Language Consortium (LLC), with the aim of expanding their language curriculum. Teachers at Standing Rock use several different orthographies. Language activists at Standing Rock also refer to it as simply

7565-553: Was led by Tȟašúŋke Witkó ( Crazy Horse ) and Tȟatȟáŋka Íyotake ( Sitting Bull ). In the fall of 1877, the Red Cloud Agency was removed to the upper Missouri River . The following year, it was removed to the forks of the White River in present-day South Dakota, where it was renamed the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation . Red Cloud became a leader of the Lakota as they transitioned from the freedom of

7654-483: Was no serious attempt to prevent the wholesale violation of the treaty and the loss of the Black Hills." Red Cloud settled at the agency with his band by the fall of 1873. He soon became embroiled in a controversy with the new Indian agent, Dr. John J. Saville. In 1874, Lieutenant Colonel George Custer led a reconnaissance mission into Sioux territory that reported gold in the Black Hills , an area held sacred by

7743-569: Was not a Communist, owing to the symbolism of the time (early 1960s, during the Cold War era) using the color red to represent Communism . Red Cloud's descendants have continued to be chosen as traditional leaders of the Lakota people: Lakota language Speakers of the Lakota language make up one of the largest Native American language speech communities in the United States , with approximately 2,000 speakers, who live mostly in

7832-618: Was subsequently transferred with Grant as the adjutant of the U.S. Army headquarters and served Grant through the Overland Campaign and the Siege of Petersburg . At Petersburg , Parker was appointed as the military secretary to Grant, with the rank of lieutenant colonel. He wrote much of Grant's correspondence. Parker was present when Confederate general Robert E. Lee surrendered at Appomattox Courthouse in April 1865. He helped draft

7921-531: Was the first Native American to hold the office. Parker became the chief architect of President Grant's Peace Policy in relation to the Native Americans in the West. Under his leadership, the number of military actions against Indians were reduced, and there was an effort to support tribes in their transition to living on reservations. In 1871, however, a disaffected former Commissioner of Indian Affairs named William Welsh accused Parker of corruption. Although Parker

#971028