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127-799: The Standing Rock Reservation ( Lakota : Íŋyaŋ Woslál Háŋ ) lies across the border between North and South Dakota in the United States, and is inhabited by ethnic " Hunkpapa and Sihasapa bands of Lakota Oyate and the Ihunktuwona and Pabaksa bands of the Dakota Oyate," as well as the Hunkpatina Dakota (Lower Yanktonai). The Ihanktonwana Dakota are the Upper Yanktonai, part of the collective of Wiciyena. The sixth-largest Native American reservation in land area in

254-518: A Protestant-backed institution that opened in Cornwall, Connecticut , in 1816, was set up for male students from a variety of non-Christian peoples, mostly abroad. Native Hawaiians, Muslim and Hindu students from India and Southeast Asia were among the nearly 100 total who attended during its decade of operation. Also enrolled were Native American students from the Cherokee and Choctaw tribes (among

381-550: A controversy in Indian education because the missionaries who had been responsible for educating Native youth used a bilingual instructional policy. In 1870, President Grant criticized this, beginning a new policy with eradication of Native languages as a major goal. In 1871, the United States government prohibited further treaties with Indian nations and also passed the Appropriations Act for Indian Education requiring

508-592: A delay in voicing ([pʰ tʰ kʰ]) , and those with velar friction ([pˣ tˣ kˣ]) , which occur before /a/ , /ã/ , /o/ , /ĩ/ , and /ũ/ (thus, lakhóta , /laˈkʰota/ is phonetically [laˈkˣota] ). For some speakers, there is a phonemic distinction between the two, and both occur before /e/ . No such variation occurs for the affricate /tʃʰ/. Some orthographies mark this distinction; others do not. The uvular fricatives /χ/ and /ʁ/ are commonly spelled ⟨ȟ⟩ and ⟨ǧ⟩ . All monomorphemic words have one vowel which carries primary stress and has

635-500: A fluent speaker to use. In 2013 Lakota teachers at Red Cloud Indian School on Pine Ridge Indian Reservation discussed their use of orthography for their K–12 students as well as adult learners. The orthography used at Red Cloud "is meant to be more phonetic than other orthographies... That means there are usually more 'H's than other versions. While many orthographies use tipi ... Red Cloud spells it thípi." He continues, "the orthography also makes heavy use of diacritical marks... that

762-582: A full Environmental Impact Statement of the pipeline. In August 2016, protests were held near Cannon Ball, North Dakota . In the summer of 2016, a group of young activists from Standing Rock ran from North Dakota to Washington, D.C., to present a petition in protest of the construction of the Dakota Access Pipeline, which is part of the Bakken pipeline . They launched an international campaign called ReZpect our Water. The activists argued that

889-516: A grammatical sentence that contains only a verb. (interjection) (conjunction) (adverb(s)) (nominal) (nominal) (nominal) (adverb(s)) verb (enclitic(s)) (conjunction) When interjections are used, they begin the sentence or end it. A small number of interjections are used only by one gender, for instance the interjection expressing disbelief is ečéš for women but hóȟ for men; for calling attention women say máŋ while men use wáŋ . Most interjections, however, are used by both genders. It

1016-732: A higher state of virtue and cultivation." In the mid-1600s, Harvard College established the Harvard Indian College on its campus in Cambridge, Massachusetts Bay Colony, supported by the Anglican Society for Propagation of the Gospel . Its few Native American students came from New England. In this period higher education was very limited for all classes, and most 'colleges' taught at a level more similar to today's high schools. In 1665, Caleb Cheeshahteaumuck , "from

1143-481: A higher tone than all other vowels in the word. This is generally the vowel of the second syllable of the word, but often the first syllable can be stressed, and occasionally other syllables as well. Stress is generally indicated with an acute accent: ⟨á⟩ , etc. Compound words will have stressed vowels in each component; proper spelling will write compounds with a hyphen. Thus máza-ská , literally "metal-white", i.e. "silver; money" has two stressed vowels,

1270-446: A little labor, will procure more provisions than the most successful hunt; and a woman will clothe more by spinning and weaving, than a man by hunting. Compared with you, we are but as of yesterday in this land. Yet see how much more we have multiplied by industry, and the exercise of that reason which you possess in common with us. Follow then our example, brethren, and we will aid you with great pleasure ... In 1634, Fr. Andrew White of

1397-480: A newspaper, had a well-regarded chorus and orchestra, and developed sports programs. In the summer students often lived with local farm families and townspeople, reinforcing their assimilation, and providing labor at low cost to the families. Carlisle and its curriculum became the model for the Bureau of Indian Affairs . By 1902 it authorized 25 federally funded off-reservation schools in 15 states and territories, with

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1524-547: A police raid ordered by the Trump administration, on charges of "inciting a riot" which is considered a felony and carries up to 5 years in prison. At that time more than 9.2 million Americans had signed a petition against DAPL. On February 7, 2017, the Trump administration authorized the Army Corps of Engineers to proceed, ending its environmental impact assessment and the associated public comment period.[12] The pipeline

1651-428: A property. (In English, such descriptions are usually made with adjectives .) Verbs are inflected for first-, second- or third person , and for singular, dual or plural grammatical number . There are two paradigms for verb inflection . One set of morphemes indicates the person and number of the subject of active verbs. The other set of morphemes agrees with the object of transitive action verbs or

1778-493: A total enrollment of over 6,000 students. Federal legislation required Native American children to be educated according to Anglo-American standards. Parents had to authorize their children's attendance at boarding schools and, if they refused, officials could use coercion to gain a quota of students from any given reservation. Boarding schools were also established on reservations, where they were often operated by religious missions or institutes, which were generally independent of

1905-447: A written form of Lakota began, primarily through the work of Christian missionaries and linguists, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The orthography has since evolved to reflect contemporary needs and usage. One significant figure in the development of a written form of Lakota was Ella Cara Deloria , also called Aŋpétu Wašté Wiŋ (Beautiful Day Woman), a Yankton Dakota ethnologist, linguist, and novelist who worked extensively with

2032-492: Is automatically inserted between certain consonants, e.g. into the pairs ⟨gl⟩ , ⟨bl⟩ and ⟨gm⟩ . So the clan name written phonemically as ⟨Oglala⟩ has become the place name Ogallala . The voiced uvular fricative /ʁ/ becomes a uvular trill ( [ʀ] ) before /i/ and in fast speech it is often realized as a voiced velar fricative [ɣ] . The voiceless aspirated plosives have two allophonic variants each: those with

2159-400: Is postpositional , with adpositions occurring after the head nouns: mas'óphiye él , "at the store" (literally 'store at'); thípi=kiŋ ókšaŋ , "around the house" (literally 'house=the around') (Rood and Taylor 1996). Rood and Taylor (1996) suggest the following template for basic word order. Items in parentheses are optional; only the verb is required. It is therefore possible to produce

2286-524: Is common for a sentence to begin with a conjunction. Both čhaŋké and yuŋkȟáŋ can be translated as and ; k’éyaš is similar to English but . Each of these conjunctions joins clauses. In addition, the conjunction na joins nouns or phrases. Lakota uses postpositions , which are similar to English prepositions, but follow their noun complement. Adverbs or postpositional phrases can describe manner, location, or reason. There are also interrogative adverbs, which are used to form questions. To

2413-478: Is marked with an acute accent : ⟨á, é, í, ó, ú, áŋ, íŋ, úŋ⟩ on stressed vowels (which receive a higher tone than non-stressed ones) The following consonants approximate their IPA values: ⟨b, g, h, k, l, m, n, ŋ, p, s, t, w, z⟩ . ⟨Y⟩ has its English value of /j/ . An apostrophe, ⟨'⟩ , is used for the glottal stop . A caron is used for sounds, other than /ŋ/ , which are not written with Latin letters in

2540-451: Is more appropriate. They are both used in matters of time and space. As mentioned above, nominals are optional in Lakota, but when nouns appear the basic word order is subject–object–verb. Pronouns are not common, but may be used contrastively or emphatically. Lakota has four articles : waŋ is indefinite, similar to English a or an , and kiŋ is definite, similar to English

2667-440: Is not popular among some educators and academics". Delphine Red Shirt, an Oglala Lakota tribal member and a lecturer on languages at Stanford University , disagrees and prefers a Lakota orthography without diacritical marks. "I'm very against any orthography that requires a special keyboard to communicate," she said. First language speaker and veteran language teacher at Red Cloud, the late Philomine Lakota, had similar concerns with

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2794-484: Is often written without diacritics . Besides failing to mark stress, this also results in the confusion of numerous consonants: /s/ and /ʃ/ are both written ⟨s⟩ , /h/ and /χ/ are both written ⟨h⟩ , and the aspirate stops are written like the unaspirates, as ⟨p, t, c, k⟩ . All digraphs (i.e. characters created by two letters, such as kh, kȟ, k') are treated as groups of individual letters in alphabetization. Thus for example

2921-811: Is spent teaching and speaking the language. On May 3, 2022, the Tribal Council of the Standing Rock Sioux , in a near-unanimous vote, banished the Lakota Language Consortium (and specifically, LLC linguist Jan Ullrich and co-founder Wilhelm Meya) from ever again setting foot on the reservation. The council's decision was based on the LLC's history with not only the Standing Rock community, but also with at least three other communities that also voiced concerns about Meya and

3048-605: The Anpao Kin ("Daybreak") circulated from 1878 by the Protestant Episcopal Church in Niobrara Mission , Nebraska until its move to Mission, South Dakota in 1908 continuing until its closure in 1937. The print alongside its Dakota counterpart Iapi Oaye ("The Word Carrier") played an important role in documenting the enlistment and affairs including obituaries of Native Sioux soldiers into

3175-648: The Compulsory Indian Education Act . In 1891, a compulsory attendance law enabled federal officers to forcibly take Native American children from their homes and reservations. The American government believed they were rescuing these children from a world of poverty and depression and teaching them "life skills". Tabatha Toney Booth of the University of Central Oklahoma wrote in her paper Cheaper Than Bullets : "Many parents had no choice but to send their kids, when Congress authorized

3302-688: The Five Civilized Tribes of the American Southeast), as well as Lenape (a mid-Atlantic tribe) and Osage students. It was intended to train young people as missionaries, interpreters, translators, etc. who could help guide their peoples. Through the 19th century, the encroachment of European Americans on Indian lands continued. From the 1830s, tribes from both the Southeast and the Great Lakes areas were pushed west of

3429-699: The Fort Laramie Treaty to the east side of the Missouri River and the state line of South Dakota in the west. The Black Hills , considered by the Sioux to be sacred land, are located in the center of territory awarded to the tribe. In 1874, in direct violation of the treaty, General George A. Custer and his 7th Cavalry entered the Black Hills and discovered gold, starting a gold rush . The United States government wanted to buy or rent

3556-462: The Ghost Dance ritual, which frightened the supervising agents of the Bureau of Indian Affairs . Agent James McLaughlin asked for more troops. He claimed that spiritual leader Sitting Bull was the real leader of the movement. A former agent, Valentine McGillycuddy , saw nothing extraordinary in the dances and ridiculed the panic that seemed to have overcome the agencies, saying: "The coming of

3683-678: The Great Sioux Reservation . One particular article in the Fort Laramie Treaty illustrates the attention the federal government paid to the "civilizing" nature of education: "Article 7. In order to insure the civilization of the Indians entering in this treaty the necessity of education is admitted, especially of such of them as are or may be settled on said agricultural reservations, and they therefore pledge themselves to compel their children, male and female, between

3810-479: The Hopi Nation were imprisoned to Alcatraz because they refused to send their children to boarding school. Between 1778 and 1871, the federal government signed 389 treaties with American Indian tribes. Most of these treaties contained provisions that the federal government would provide education and other services in exchange for land. The last of these treaties, the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868 , established

3937-617: The Pine Ridge Reservation to meet with Chief Red Cloud . The 7th Cavalry caught them at a place called Wounded Knee on December 29, 1890. The 7th Cavalry, claiming they were trying to disarm the Lakota people, killed 300 people, including women and children at Wounded Knee. According to its constitution, Standing Rock's governing body is the elected 17-member Tribal Council, including the Tribal Chairman, Vice Chairman, Secretary, and 14 representatives. As of 2022,

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4064-800: The Stillwater Indian Reservation in 1908. Even after the process of closing boarding schools started, day schools remained open. After the Indian Wars, Lieutenant Richard Henry Pratt was assigned to supervise Native prisoners of war at Fort Marion which was located in St. Augustine, Florida. The United States Army sent seventy-two warriors from the Cheyenne , Kiowa , Comanche and Caddo nations, to exile in St. Augustine , Florida. They were used as hostages to encourage their peoples in

4191-752: The Wampanoag ...did graduate from Harvard, the first Indian to do so in the colonial period". In the early colonial years, other Indian schools were created by local New England communities, as with the Indian school in Hanover, New Hampshire , in 1769. This gradually developed as Dartmouth College , which has retained some programs for Native Americans. Other schools were also created in the East, such as in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania by Moravian missionaries. Religious missionaries from various denominations developed

4318-677: The " water protectors ." A variety of Hollywood celebrities also supported the protests. On September 20, 2016, Standing Rock Chairman Dave Archambault II addressed the Human Rights Council of the United Nations in Geneva, testifying about the United States' violation of treaties with regard to this project. Two days later Energy Transfer Partners purchased the property where protests were being staged, from David and Brenda Meyer of Flasher, North Dakota . Analysts believed

4445-550: The "SLO" or even "Suggested Lakota Orthography." Tasha Hauff writes, Choosing a writing system, or orthography, is often a serious point of contention in Indigenous communities engaging in revitalization work (Hinton, 2014). While writing a traditionally oral language can itself be considered a colonial act, standardizing a writing system is fraught with political as well as pedagogical complications. Because teachers at Standing Rock were in need of language-teaching materials, and

4572-426: The . In addition, waŋží is an indefinite article used with hypothetical or irrealis objects, and k’uŋ is a definite article used with nouns that have been mentioned previously. There are also nine demonstratives , which can function either as pronouns or as determiners . Verbs are the only word class that are obligatory in a Lakota sentence. Verbs can be active, naming an action, or stative , describing

4699-619: The Agreement of 1877 the U.S. government took the Black Hills from the Sioux Nation . In February 1890, the United States government broke another Lakota treaty by breaking up the Great Sioux Reservation , an area that formerly encompassed the majority of the state. It reduced it and divided it into five smaller reservations. The government was accommodating white homesteaders from the eastern United States; in addition, it intended to "break up tribal relationships" and "conform Indians to

4826-558: The American Indian into mainstream American society. In 1918, Carlisle boarding school was closed because Pratt's method of assimilating American Indian students through off-reservation boarding schools was perceived as outdated. That same year Congress passed new Indian education legislation, the Act of May 25, 1918. It generally forbade expenditures for separate education of children less than 1/4 Indian whose parents are citizens of

4953-480: The BIA. By 2007, most of the boarding schools had been closed down, and the number of Native American children in boarding schools had declined to 9,500. Although there are hundreds of deceased Indigenous children yet to be found, investigations are increasing across the United States. ... instead of exterminating a part of the human race ... we had persevered ... and at last had imparted our Knowledge of cultivating and

5080-621: The Black Hills from the Lakota people, but led by their spiritual leader Sitting Bull , they refused to sell or rent their lands. The Great Sioux War of 1876 was a series of battles and negotiations that occurred between 1876 and 1877, with the Lakota Sioux and Northern Cheyenne warring against the United States. Among the many battles and skirmishes of the war was the Battle of the Little Bighorn , often known as Custer's Last Stand,

5207-612: The Choctaw did for both girls and boys. After the Civil War and decades of Indian Wars in the West, more tribes were forced onto reservations after ceding vast amounts of land to the US. With the goal of assimilation, believed necessary so that tribal Indians could survive to become part of American society, the government increased its efforts to provide education opportunities. Some of this

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5334-634: The Civil War, when reformers turned their attention to the plight of Indian people and advocated for proper education and treatment so that Indians could become like other citizens. One of the first efforts to accomplish this goal was the establishment of the Carlisle Indian School in Pennsylvania, founded in 1879." The leader of the school, General Pratt also employed the "outing system" which placed Indians in non-Indian homes during

5461-564: The Commissioner of Indian Affairs to withhold rations, clothing, and annuities of those families that refused to send students. Some agents even used reservation police to virtually kidnap youngsters, but experienced difficulties when the Native police officers would resign out of disgust, or when parents taught their kids a special "hide and seek" game. Sometimes resistant fathers found themselves locked up for refusal. In 1895, nineteen men of

5588-581: The Continental Congress authorized the Indian commissioners to engage ministers as teachers to work with Indians. This movement increased after the War of 1812. In 1819, Congress appropriated $ 10,000 to hire teachers and maintain schools. These resources were allocated to the missionary church schools because the government had no other mechanism to educate the Indian population. In 1887, to provide funding for more boarding schools, Congress passed

5715-604: The Corps of Engineers) stepped in, halting construction of the pipeline around Lake Oahe, 20 miles (32 km) either side of the Lake, but not halting the project altogether. On the weekend of December 2, 2016, approximately 2000 United States military veterans arrived in North Dakota in support of the activists. The veterans pledged to form a human shield to protect the protesters from police. In January 2017, an executive order

5842-640: The Czech linguist advocates resembles the Czech orthography – making it easier for Czech people to read. The Europeans predominantly use the internet to give the impression that this "Czech orthography" is a Lakota product and the standard for writing Lakota." "The Rosebud Sioux Tribe was the first of the Lakota tribes to take legal action against the self-authorizing practices the LLC committed by utilizing names of Lakota language experts without their consent to obtain funding for their projects." Rosebud Resolution No. 2008–295 goes further and compares these actions to what

5969-574: The DAPL brought in a private security firm. The company used bulldozers to dig up part of the pipeline route that was subject to a pending injunction motion; it contained possible Native graves and burial artifacts. The bulldozers arrived within a day from when the tribe filed legal action. When unarmed protesters moved near the bulldozers, the guards used pepper spray and guard dogs to attack the protesters. At least six protesters were treated for dog bites, and an estimated 30 protesters were pepper-sprayed before

6096-474: The Dakota and Lakota peoples, documenting their languages and cultures. She collaborated with linguists such as Franz Boas and Edward Sapir to create written materials for Lakota, including dictionaries and grammars. Another key figure was Albert White Hat Sr. , who taught at and later became the chair of the Lakota language program at his alma mater, Sinte Gleska University at Mission, South Dakota, one of

6223-611: The English Province of the Society of Jesus established a mission in what is now Southern Maryland . He said the purpose of the mission, as an interpreter told the chief of a Native American tribe there, was "to extend civilization and instruction to his ignorant race, and show them the way to heaven." The mission's annual records report that by 1640, they had founded a community they named St. Mary's . Native Americans were sending their children there to be educated, including

6350-485: The IPA: ⟨č⟩ /tʃ/ , ⟨ǧ⟩ /ʁ/ , ⟨ȟ⟩ /χ/ , ⟨š⟩ /ʃ/ , ⟨ž⟩ /ʒ/ . Aspirates are written with ⟨h⟩ : ⟨čh, kh, ph, th,⟩ and velar frication with ⟨ȟ⟩ : ⟨kȟ, pȟ, tȟ.⟩ Ejectives are written with an apostrophe: ⟨č', ȟ', k', p', s', š', t'⟩ . The spelling used in modern popular texts

6477-465: The Indians survive increasing contact with European-American settlers who were moving west into their territories. Moses Tom sent his children to an Indian boarding school. I rejoice, brothers, to hear you propose to become cultivators of the earth for the maintenance of your families. Be assured you will support them better and with less labor, by raising stock and bread, and by spinning and weaving clothes, than by hunting. A little land cultivated, and

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6604-572: The LLC materials but do not write in the orthography. These are usually Elders who remain in the habit of writing the way they learned. A few people at Standing Rock, however, have been offended by the notion of a standard way of writing Lakota/Dakota, especially one that seems unlike any of the systems used by Elders. Community members have been particularly wary of the SLO ["Standard Lakota Orthography"], which appears to be developed by outsiders who are not fluent speakers and would require considerable study for

6731-422: The LLC was one of the few organizations developing such resources, Standing Rock adopted the new orthography, but not without resistance from members of the community. ... The new writing system at Standing Rock was often criticized or even rejected within the community. Some fluent speakers at Standing Rock have not accepted the new writing system. There are some who continue to work in language education and who use

6858-469: The LLC's promotion of their New Lakota Dictionary , websites and other Internet projects aimed at revising and standardizing their new spelling of the Lakota language. "Lakota first language speakers and Lakota language teachers criticize the "Czech orthography" for being overloaded with markings and – foremost – for the way it is being brought into Lakota schools"; it has been criticized as " neocolonial domination." Sonja John writes that "The new orthography

6985-510: The LLC, "saying he broke agreements over how to use recordings, language materials and historical records, or used them without permission." The "Standard Lakota Orthography" as the LLC calls it, is in principle phonemic, which means that each character ( grapheme ) represents one distinctive sound ( phoneme ), except for the distinction between glottal and velar aspiration, which is treated phonetically. Lakota vowels are ⟨a, e, i, o, u⟩ nasal vowels are aŋ, iŋ, uŋ. Pitch accent

7112-407: The Lakota Language Consortium and its " Czech orthography " from the reservation and its educational system. This ban was a response to a series of protests by community members and grassroots language preservation workers, at Rosebud and other Lakota communities, against the Lakota Language Consortium (LLC). Despite its name, the LLC is an organization formed by two Europeans. Concerns arose due to

7239-494: The Lakota language make up one of the largest Native American language speech communities in the United States , with approximately 2,000 speakers, who live mostly in the northern plains states of North Dakota and South Dakota . Many communities have immersion programs for both children and adults. Like many indigenous languages, the Lakota language did not have a written form traditionally. However, efforts to develop

7366-514: The Mississippi, forced off their lands to Indian Territory . As part of the treaties signed for land cessions, the United States was supposed to provide education to the tribes on their reservations. Some religious orders and organizations established missions in Kansas and what later became Oklahoma to work on these new reservations. Some of the Southeast tribes established their own schools, as

7493-728: The Standing Rock Sioux tribe, and her grandchildren established the Sacred Stone Camp to protest the DAPL, which they said threatens the upper Missouri River, the only water supply for the Standing Rock Reservation. The camp was on Allard's private land and served as a center for cultural preservation and spiritual resistance to the DAPL. Protests at the pipeline site in North Dakota began in the spring of 2016 and drew indigenous people from throughout North America, as well as many other supporters. It

7620-511: The US, Standing Rock includes all of Sioux County, North Dakota , and all of Corson County, South Dakota , plus slivers of northern Dewey and Ziebach counties in South Dakota, along their northern county lines at Highway 20 . The reservation has a land area of 3,571.9 square miles (9,251.2 km), twice the size of the U.S. State of Delaware , and has a population of 8,217 as of the 2010 census . There are 15,568 enrolled members of

7747-525: The United States from the mid-17th to the early 20th centuries with a primary objective of " civilizing " or assimilating Native American children and youth into Anglo-American culture. In the process, these schools denigrated Native American culture and made children give up their languages and religion. At the same time the schools provided a basic Western education. These boarding schools were first established by Christian missionaries of various denominations . The missionaries were often approved by

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7874-607: The United States when they live in an area where adequate free public schools are provided. In 1926, the Department of the Interior (DOI) commissioned the Brookings Institution to conduct a survey of the overall conditions of American Indians and to assess federal programs and policies. The Meriam Report, officially titled The Problem of Indian Administration , was submitted February 21, 1928, to Secretary of

8001-476: The West to remain peaceful. Pratt began to work with them on education in European-American culture , essentially a kind of immersion. While he required changes: the men had to cut their hair and wear common uniforms rather than their traditional clothes, he also granted them increased autonomy and the ability to govern themselves within the prison. Pleased by his success, he was said to have supported

8128-478: The agency, but here, there is considerably more than a few isolated comments raising insubstantial concerns. The many commenters in this case pointed to serious gaps in crucial parts of the Corps’ analysis — to name a few, that the pipeline's leak-detection system was unlikely to work, that it was not designed to catch slow spills, that the operator's serious history of incidents had not been taken into account, and that

8255-548: The ages of six and sixteen years to attend school" Use of the English language in the education of American Indian children was first mentioned in the report of the Indian Peace Commission , a body appointed by an act of Congress in 1867. The report stated that the difference of languages was a major problem and advocated elimination of Indian languages and replacement of them with English. This report created

8382-469: The approach... then the question is whose version will be adopted? This will cause dissent and politics to become a factor in the process." Also in 2002, Sinte Gleska University rejected a partnership with the European-owned Lakota Language Consortium. Sinte Gleska uses the orthography developed by Albert White Hat , which on December 13, 2012, was formally adopted by the Rosebud Sioux Tribe per Tribal Resolution No. 2012–343. This resolution also banned

8509-573: The army as America became involved in World War I . Lakota has five oral vowels, /i e a o u/ , and three nasal vowels, /ĩ ã ũ/ (phonetically [ɪ̃ ə̃ ʊ̃] ). Lakota /e/ and /o/ are said to be more open than the corresponding cardinal vowels, perhaps closer to [ɛ] and [ɔ] . Orthographically, the nasal vowels are written with a following ⟨ƞ⟩ , ⟨ŋ⟩ , or ⟨n⟩ ; historically, these were written with ogoneks underneath, ⟨į ą ų⟩ . No syllables end with consonantal /n/ . A neutral vowel ( schwa )

8636-464: The arts, to the Aboriginals of the Country ... But it has been conceived to be impracticable to civilize the Indians of North America – This opinion is probably more convenient than just. In the late eighteenth century, reformers starting with President George Washington and Henry Knox , in efforts to " civilize " or otherwise assimilate Native Americans, adopted the practice of assimilating Native American children in current American culture. At

8763-413: The campaign regarding the DAPL. 2016 Green Party presidential candidate Jill Stein protested at the site, including spray painting equipment; charges of criminal trespass and criminal mischief were made against both her and her running mate Ajamu Baraka . US Senator Bernie Sanders from Vermont, a 2016 Democratic presidential primary candidate, publicly spoke out against the pipeline and in favor of

8890-613: The company was trying to deter further protests. The Standing Rock Nation said that the Meyers had permitted activists on their land. In June 2014, President Barack Obama , accompanied by First Lady Michelle Obama , made his first visit to a Native American reservation during the annual Cannon Ball Flag Day Celebration at Standing Rock. This was one of the few visits by a sitting American President to any Native American reservation. Some reservation residents felt that their specific concerns about treaty issues and government appropriations were not addressed. Lakota language Speakers of

9017-486: The current chairwoman is Janet Alkire . They serve terms of four years, with elections providing for staggered replacement of members. Six members are elected at-large and eight from the regional single-member districts : In the 1960s, the Army Corps of Engineers and the Bureau of Reclamation built five large dams on the Missouri River , and implemented the Pick–Sloan Missouri Basin Program , forcing Native Americans to relocate from large areas to be flooded behind

9144-511: The curriculum was rooted in linguistic imperialism , the English only movement , and forced assimilation enforced by corporal punishment . These sometimes drew children from a variety of tribes. In addition, religious orders established off-reservation schools. In October 2024, U.S. President Joe Biden issued an official apology on behalf of the federal government for the abuse suffered in these boarding schools. In his apology, Biden discusses

9271-609: The dams. These dams were for flood control and hydroelectric power generation in the region. More than 200,000 acres (810 km) on the Standing Rock Reservation and the Cheyenne River Reservation in South Dakota were flooded by the Oahe Dam alone. As of 2015, poverty remains a problem for the displaced populations in the Dakotas. They have sought compensation for their towns submerged under Lake Oahe , and

9398-580: The daughter of Tayac, the Pascatoe chief. She was likely an exception because of her father's status, as girls were generally not educated with boys in English Catholic schools of the period. Other students discussed in the records were male. The same records report that in 1677, "a school for humanities was opened by our Society in the centre of Maryland, directed by two of the Fathers; and

9525-401: The difficulty that Lakota farmers would have in trying to cultivate crops in the semi-arid region of South Dakota. By the end of the 1890 growing season, a time of intense heat and low rainfall, it was clear that the land was unable to produce substantial agricultural yields. As the bison had been virtually eradicated a few years earlier, the Lakota were at risk of starvation. The people turned to

9652-554: The drive for political and cultural self-determination in the late 20th century. Since those years, tribal nations have carried out political activism and gained legislation and federal policy that gives them the power to decide how to use federal education funds, how they educate their children, and the authority to establish their own community-based schools. Tribes have also founded numerous tribal colleges and universities on reservations. Tribal control over their schools has been supported by federal legislation and changing practices by

9779-658: The education of freedmen by biracial representatives of the American Missionary Association soon after the Civil War. Following Pratt's sponsored students, Hampton in 1875 developed a program for Native American students. Pratt continued the assimilation model in developing the Carlisle Indian Industrial School. Pratt felt that within one generation Native children could be integrated into Euro-American culture. With this perspective he proposed an expensive experiment to

9906-618: The establishment of day schools on reservations. In 1873, the Board of Indian Commissioners argued in a report to Congress that days schools were ineffective at teaching Indian children English because they spent 20 hours per day at home speaking their native language. The Senate and House Indian Affairs committees joined in the criticism of day schools a year later arguing that they operated too much to perpetuate "the Indian as special-status individual rather than preparing for him independent citizenship" "The boarding school movement began after

10033-569: The federal government to start both missions and schools on reservations , especially in the lightly populated areas of the West . In the late 19th and early 20th centuries especially, the government paid Church denominations to provide basic education to Native American children on reservations, and later established its own schools on reservations. The Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) also founded additional off-reservation boarding schools. Similarly to schools that taught speakers of immigrant languages ,

10160-399: The federal government. Pratt wanted the government to fund a school that would require Native children to move away from their homes to attend a school far away. The Carlisle Indian school, which became the template for over 300 schools across the United States, opened in 1879. Carlisle Barracks, an abandoned Pennsylvanian military base, was used for the school. It became the first school that

10287-399: The first a in each component. If it were written without the hyphen, as mazaska , it would imply a single main stress. A common phonological process which occurs in rapid speech is vowel contraction , which generally results from the loss of an intervocalic glide. Vowel contraction results in phonetic long vowels ( phonemically a sequence of two identical vowels), with falling pitch if

10414-620: The first schools as part of their missions near indigenous settlements, believing they could extend education and Christianity to Native Americans. East of the Appalachian Mountains, most Indians had been forced off their traditional lands before the American Revolutionary War. They had few reservations. In the early nineteenth century, the new republic continued to deal with questions about how Native American peoples would live. The Foreign Mission School ,

10541-485: The first tribal-based universities in the US. His work focused on the Sicangu dialect using an orthography developed by Lakota in 1982 and which today is slowly supplanting older systems provided by linguists and missionaries. The Lakota people 's creation stories say that language originated from the creation of the tribe. Other creation stories say language was invented by Iktomi . A wholly Lakota newspaper named

10668-415: The first underlying vowel is stressed, and rising pitch if the second underlying vowel is stressed: kê: (falling tone), "he said that", from kéye ; hǎ:pi (rising tone), "clothing", from hayápi . If one of the vowels is nasalized, the resulting long vowel is also nasalized: čhaŋ̌:pi , "sugar", from čhaŋháŋpi . When two vowels of unequal height contract, or when feature contrasts exist between

10795-437: The goal of assimilation, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, they were forced to send their children to boarding schools ; the schools taught English and Christianity, as well as American cultural practices. Generally, they forbade inclusion of Native American traditional culture and language. The children were beaten if they tried to do anything related to their native culture. The farming plan failed to take into account

10922-650: The history of boarding schools and blames the government for not apologizing sooner. He recognizes this kind of apology had never been issued before and addresses it to a crowd of Indigenous people. Children were typically immersed in the Anglo-American culture of the upper class . Schools forced removal of indigenous cultural signifiers: cutting the children's hair, having them wear American-style uniforms, forbidding them from speaking their mother tongues , and replacing their tribal names with English language names (saints' names under some religious orders) for use at

11049-421: The incident, which she published in support of opposition to the pipeline. Following the publishing of her video, North Dakota Police issued an arrest warrant for Goodman under accusations of Criminal Trespass . Goodman responded, "This is an unacceptable violation of freedom of the press..." The 2016 Democratic and Republican presidential candidates Hillary Clinton and Donald Trump made no comments during

11176-604: The local diocese, in the case of Catholic orders. Because of the distances, often Native American children were separated from their families and tribes when they attended such schools on other reservations. At the peak of the federal program, the BIA supported 350 boarding schools. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, when students arrived at boarding schools, their lives altered dramatically. They were given short haircuts (a source of shame for boys of many tribes, who considered long hair part of their maturing identity), required to wear uniforms, and to take English names for use at

11303-562: The loss of traditional ways of life. The Dakota Access Pipeline (DAPL) was rerouted near the Standing Rock Sioux Reservation after a proposed route near the state capital Bismarck was denied as being deemed too risky for Bismarck's water supplies. The tribe opposed the pipeline to be constructed under Lake Oahe and the Missouri River. On April 1, 2016, LaDonna Brave Bull Allard , an elder member of

11430-537: The most storied of the many encounters between the U.S. army and mounted Plains Native Americans. It was an overwhelming Native American victory. The U.S. with its superior resources was soon able to force the Native Americans to surrender, primarily by attacking and destroying their encampments and property. The Agreement of 1877 (19 Stat. 254, enacted February 28, 1877) officially annexed Sioux land and permanently established Native American reservations. Under

11557-524: The motto, "Kill the Indian, Save the Man." Pratt said in a speech in 1892: "A great general has said that the only good Indian is a dead one. In a sense, I agree with the sentiment, but only in this: that all the Indian there is in the race should be dead." Pratt provided for some of the younger men to pursue more education at the Hampton Institute , a historically black college founded in 1868 for

11684-603: The name Veterans Stand were camped at Standing Rock along with hundreds of protesters as well as the members of the Sioux Tribe. The veterans vowed to oppose the pipeline and protect the land of the American Indians and the water of the United States. Since August 2016, the total number of protesters arrested had surpassed 700, and on February 3, 2017, 39-year-old American Indian activist Chase Iron Eyes and more than 70 peaceably assembled protesters were arrested in

11811-443: The native youth, applying themselves assiduously to study, made good progress. Maryland and the recently established school sent two boys to St. Omer who yielded in abilities to few Europeans, when competing for the honour of being first in their class. So that not gold, nor silver, nor the other products of the earth alone, but men also are gathered from thence to bring those regions, which foreigners have unjustly called ferocious, to

11938-484: The non-Lakota speaker, the postpositions él and ektá sound like they can be interchangeable, but although they are full synonyms of each other, they are used in different occasions. Semantically (word meaning), they are used as locational and directional tools. In the English language they can be compared to prepositions like "at", "in", and "on" (when used as locatives) on the one hand, and "at", "in", and "on" (when used as directionals), "to", "into", and "onto", on

12065-435: The orthography, and argues against changing the spelling forms she learned from her father. However, she did consider that, a shared curriculum could "create consistency across the region and encourage the long-term viability of the language. However, Philomine is also cognizant that it will take more than a school curriculum to preserve the language." She added, "In order for a language to survive, it can't simply be taught from

12192-424: The other. (Pustet 2013) A pointer for when to use él and when to use ektá can be determined by the concepts of location (motionless) or motion; and space vs. time. These features can produce four different combinations, also called semantic domains, which can be arranged as follows (Pustet 2013): Summed up, when a context describes no motion, él is the appropriate postposition; when in motion, ektá

12319-471: The pipeline, which goes from North Dakota to Illinois, would jeopardize the water source of the reservation, the Missouri River. By late September, it was reported that there were over 300 federally recognized Native American tribes and an estimated 3,000 to 4,000 pipeline resistance supporters residing in the camp, with several thousand more on weekends. A number of planned arrests occurred when people locked themselves to heavy machinery. On September 3, 2016,

12446-403: The preceding vowel is nasalized, then the resulting vowel is also nasalized): hi=pi=kte , "they will arrive here", [hiukte]; yatkáŋ=pi=na , "they drank it and...", [jatkə̃õna] . Lakota also exhibits some traces of sound symbolism among fricatives, where the point of articulation changes to reflect intensity: zí , "it's yellow", ží , "it's tawny", ǧí , "it's brown". (Compare with

12573-466: The risk of developing cardiovascular diseases. As claimed by Dr. Jon Reyhner, he described methods of discipline by mentioning that: "The boys were laid on an empty barrel and whipped with a long leather strap". Methods such as these have left physical injuries and made the institutions dangerous for these children as they lived in fear of violence. Many children did not recover from their wounds caused by abuse as they were often left untreated. In 1776,

12700-536: The school. Sometimes the names were based on their own; other times they were assigned at random. The children were not allowed to speak their own languages, even between each other. They were required to attend church services and were often baptized as Christians. As was typical of the time, discipline was stiff in many schools. It often included assignment of extra chores for punishment, solitary confinement and corporal punishment, including beatings by teachers using sticks, rulers and belts. The treatment of these children

12827-842: The schools, as part of assimilation and to Christianize them. The schools were usually harsh, especially for younger children who had been forcibly separated from their families and forced to abandon their Native American identities and cultures. Children sometimes died in the school system due to infectious disease. Investigations of the later 20th century revealed cases of physical, emotional, and sexual abuse. Summarizing recent scholarship from Native perspectives, Dr. Julie Davis said: Boarding schools embodied both victimization and agency for Native people and they served as sites of both cultural loss and cultural persistence. These institutions, intended to assimilate Native people into mainstream society and eradicate Native cultures, became integral components of American Indian identities and eventually fueled

12954-482: The security guards and their dogs exited the scene in trucks. The pipeline construction company claimed they hired the security company because the protests had not been peaceful. The Morton County Sheriff, Kyle Kirchmeier, described the September 3, 2016, protest, saying protesters crossed onto private property and attacked security guards with "wooden posts and flag poles." He said, "Any suggestion that today's event

13081-462: The similar examples in Mandan .) Several orthographies as well as ad hoc spelling are used to write the Lakota language, with varying perspectives on whether standardization should be implemented. In 2002, Rosebud Cultural Studies teacher Randy Emery argued that standardization of the language could cause problems "because the language is utilized diversely. If standardization is determined to be

13208-737: The subject and object need to be marked, two affixes occur on the verb. Below is a table illustrating this. Subject affixes are marked in italics and object affixes are marked in underline . Some affixes encompass both subject and object (such as čhi - ...). The symbol ∅ indicates a lack of marking for a particular subject/object (as in the case of 3rd Person Singular forms). Cells with three forms indicate Class I, Class II, and Class III verb forms in this order. Example: uŋk á ni pȟepi "We are waiting for you" from apȟé "to wait for somebody". Native American boarding school American Indian boarding schools , also known more recently as American Indian residential schools , were established in

13335-507: The subject of stative verbs. Most of the morphemes in each paradigm are prefixes, but plural subjects are marked with a suffix and third-person plural objects with an infix . First person arguments may be singular, dual , or plural; second or third person arguments may be singular or plural. Examples: máni "He walks." mánipi "They walk." Example: waŋwíčhayaŋke "He looked at them" from waŋyáŋkA "to look at something/somebody". Subject and object pronouns in one verb If both

13462-426: The summers and for three years following high school to learn non-Indian culture (ibid). Government subsidies were made to participating families. Pratt believed that this was both educating American Indians and making them Americans. In 1900, 1,880 Carlisle students participated in this system, each with his or her own bank account. In the late 1800s, the federal government pursued a policy of total assimilation of

13589-435: The time the society was dominated by agriculture, with many yeomen subsistence farmers, and rural society made up of some small towns and few large cities. The Civilization Fund Act of 1819 promoted this policy by providing funding to societies (mostly religious missionaries) who worked on Native American education, often at schools established in or near Native American communities. The reformers believed this policy would help

13716-519: The top. A language is a living thing and students need to breathe life into it daily; talking with friends, family and elders in Lakota". In 2018, at the Cheyenne River Indian Reservation , Lakota speaker Manny Iron Hawk and his wife Renee Iron Hawk discussed opening an immersion school and the difficulties around choosing an orthography to write Lakota; Mr. Iron Hawk voiced support for the LLC (SLO) Orthography, saying it

13843-838: The tribe. The largest communities on the reservation are Fort Yates , Cannon Ball (both located in Northern Standing Rock) and McLaughlin (located in Southern Standing Rock). Together with the Hunkpapa and Sihasapa bands, the Standing Rock Sioux Tribe is part of what was known as the Great Sioux Nation . The peoples were highly decentralized. In 1868 the lands of the Great Sioux Nation were reduced in

13970-667: The troops has frightened the Indians. If the Seventh-Day Adventists prepare the ascension robes for the Second Coming of the Savior, the United States Army is not put in motion to prevent them. Why should not the Indians have the same privilege? If the troops remain, trouble is sure to come." Thousands of additional U.S. Army troops were deployed to the reservation. On December 15, 1890, Sitting Bull

14097-750: The upkeep of the schools. Unclean and overpopulated living conditions led to the spread of disease and many students did not receive enough food. Bounties were offered for students who tried to run away and many students committed suicide. Students who died were sometimes placed in coffins and buried in the school cemetery by their own classmates. Indigenous children were forcibly removed from their families and admitted to these boarding schools. Their cultural traditions were discarded when they were taught about American ideas of refinement and civilization. This forced assimilation increased substance abuse and suicides among these students as they suffered mental illnesses such as depression and PTSD. These illnesses also increased

14224-425: The vowels and the glide, two new phonetic vowels, [æː] and [ɔː] , result: iyæ̂: , "he left for there", from iyáye ; mitȟa: , "it's mine", from mitȟáwa . The plural enclitic =pi is frequently changed in rapid speech when preceding the enclitics =kte , =kiŋ , =kštó , or =na . If the vowel preceding =pi is high/open, =pi becomes [u]; if the vowel is non-high (mid or closed), =pi becomes [o] (if

14351-423: The white man's ways, peaceably if they will, or forcibly if they must". On the reduced reservations, the government allocated family units on 320-acre (1.3 km) plots for individual households. Although the Lakota were historically a nomadic people living in tipis , and their Plains Native American culture was based strongly upon buffalo and horse culture , they were expected to farm and raise livestock. With

14478-429: The word čhíŋ precedes čónala in a dictionary. In 1982, Lakota educator Leroy Curley (1935–2012) devised a 41-letter circular alphabet. The basic word order of Lakota is subject–object–verb , although the order can be changed for expressive purposes (placing the object before the subject to bring the object into focus or placing the subject after the verb to emphasize its status as established information). It

14605-460: The worst-case scenario used by the Corps was potentially only a fraction of what a realistic figure would be." The case will continue, but in the meantime the pipeline is fully operational. A video was aired on June 22, 2017, showing how people were treated as part of the pipeline protest in September 2016, which included evidence of Dakota Access guard dogs with bloody mouths after attacking protesters. Democracy Now! journalist Amy Goodman filmed

14732-677: Was a peaceful protest, is false." Shortly thereafter, on September 7, 2016, after the federal court denied the tribe's request for an injunction, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the United States Department of the Interior (DOI) and the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation gave the order to halt the construction of the pipeline until further environmental assessments had taken place. There

14859-849: Was abusive. They suffered physical, sexual, cultural and spiritual abuse and neglect, and experienced treatment that in many cases constituted torture for speaking their Native languages. Anna Moore said, regarding the Phoenix Indian School : If we were not finished [scrubbing the dining room floors] when the 8 a.m. whistle sounded, the dining room matron would go around strapping us while we were still on our hands and knees. The children who were admitted into boarding schools experienced several forms of abuse. They were given European names, forced to speak English, and were not allowed to practice their culture. They took classes on how to conduct manual labor such as farming and housekeeping. When they were not in class, they were expected to maintain

14986-503: Was accessible to second language learners, but know not all agreed with him. Others in the community voiced a preference for the tribe creating their own orthography. While Mr. Iron Hawk supports this approach, Renee Iron Hawk also expressed a sense of urgency, saying "We should just use what we have, and then fix and replace it, but we need to start speaking it now". The Iron Hawks both agreed that too much time has been spent arguing over which orthography to use or not use, and not enough time

15113-760: Was arrested for failing to stop his people from practicing the Ghost Dance. During his arrest, one of Sitting Bull's men, Catch the Bear, fired at Lieutenant "Bull Head", striking his right side. He instantly wheeled and shot Sitting Bull, hitting him in the left side, and both men subsequently died. The Hunkpapa who lived in Sitting Bull's camp and relatives fled to the south. They joined the Big Foot Band in Cherry Creek, South Dakota, before traveling to

15240-556: Was completed by April and its first oil was delivered on May 14, 2017.[13] The tribe sued and in March 2020 a federal judge sided with them and ordered USACE to do a full environmental impact statement . In a 42-page decision Judge James Boasberg said the environmental analysis by both the companies behind the pipeline and the Corps was severely lacking. “In projects of this scope, it is not difficult for an opponent to find fault with many conclusions made by an operator and relied on by

15367-415: Was done to children taken from their families by the residential schools . In 2006 some of the Lakota language teachers at Standing Rock chose to collaborate with Sitting Bull College , and the Lakota Language Consortium (LLC), with the aim of expanding their language curriculum. Teachers at Standing Rock use several different orthographies. Language activists at Standing Rock also refer to it as simply

15494-399: Was issued by President Donald Trump to streamline the approval to construct the pipeline, on the basis of creating more jobs. The order provoked a new wave of protests and response from leaders of the Sioux tribe. On February 3, 2017, the Army Corps of Engineers announced that it would close lands where protesters were camped near Lake Oahe by February 22, 2017. Over 4,000 U.S. veterans under

15621-511: Was no evidence of what role President Obama himself may or may not have played in this decision. Dakota Access agreed to temporarily halt construction in parts of North Dakota, until September 9, to help "keep the peace." When a federal judge denied the injunction sought by the tribe on the 9th, the Department of the Interior, Department of Justice, and the Department of the Army (which oversees

15748-401: Was not on a reservation. The Carlisle curriculum was heavily based on the culture and society of rural America. The classes included vocational training for boys and domestic science for girls. Students worked to carry out chores that helped sustain the farm and food production for the self-supporting school. They were also able to produce goods to sell at the market. Carlisle students produced

15875-482: Was permitted on any single reservation. The various denominations lobbied the government to be permitted to set up missions, even in competition with each other. Day schools were also created to implement federal mandates. Compared to boarding schools, day schools were a less expensive option that usually received less parental pushback. One example is the Fallon Indian Day School opened on

16002-579: Was related to the progressive movement, which believed the only way for the tribal peoples to make their way was to become assimilated, as American society was rapidly changing and urbanizing. Following the Indian Wars, missionaries founded additional schools in the West with boarding facilities. Given the vast areas and isolated populations, they could support only a limited number of schools. Some children necessarily had to attend schools that were distant from their communities. Initially under President Ulysses S. Grant , only one religious organization or order

16129-472: Was the largest gathering of Native Tribes in the past 100 years. A number of planned arrests occurred when people locked themselves to heavy machinery in civil disobedience . The Standing Rock Sioux Tribe filed an injunction against the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers to stop building the pipeline. In April 2016, three federal agencies -- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency , U.S. Department of Interior , and Advisory Council on Historic Preservation —requested

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