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76-737: [REDACTED] Look up चित्र in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Chitra may refer to: Art [ edit ] Chitra (art) , a historic art that includes paintings, sketching with or without multiple colors People [ edit ] Chithra , Indian playback singer Chitra (actress) , Indian film actress (1965-2021) V. J. Chitra , Indian television actress (1992-2020) Chitra Bahadur K.C. , Nepalese politician Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni (born 1956), Indian-American author, poet, and professor of English Chitra Bharucha (born 1945), former Consultant Haematologist and Vice Chair of

152-441: A chitra that the artist must focus on: (1) posture; (2) proportion; (3) the use of the plumb line; (4) charm; (5) detail (how much and where); (6) verisimilitude; (7) kshaya (loss, foreshortening) and; (8) vrddhi (gain). Among the dosas (demerits, faults) of a painting and related arts, states Chitrasutra , are lines that are weak or thick, absence of variety, errors in scale (oversized eyes, lips, cheeks), inconsistency across

228-528: A chitrasala (museum with paintings). Auspicious paintings with beautiful colors such as those that cheer and enliven a room are better for homes, states Silparatna . According to the art historian Percy Brown , the painting tradition in India is ancient and the persuasive evidence are the oldest known murals at the Jogimara caves. The mention of chitra and related terms in the pre-Buddhist Vedic era texts,

304-548: A 2001 Indian Kannada-language film, a remake of the 2000 Telugu film Chitram Chitra (play) , a 1914 play by Rabindranath Tagore Chitra nakshatra , in Hindu astrology, a nakshatra (lunar mansion) corresponding to the constellation Spica Chitra River , a river in the Narail District of southwestern Bangladesh Chitrakar , painters and mask makers Chitra , a 1960 ballet by Niyazi Chitra, Deoghar ,

380-436: A bird binds itself inside a net. Human suffering is the result of human actions ( Karma ) and complex interplay of human psychology ( Guṇas ). However, the "immortal Self" is, states the text, unaffected by the elemental Self's confusion and drifts. The third Prapathaka explains the two Self and human personalities using the metaphor of "fire, iron and forge" as follows, He who acts, is the elemental Self; he who causes to act,

456-464: A bit better, longer and would be somewhat protected from the destructive effects of wind, dust, water and biological processes. Some notable, major surviving examples of historic paintings include: Maitri Upanishad Divisions Sama vedic Yajur vedic Atharva vedic Vaishnava puranas Shaiva puranas Shakta puranas The Maitrayaniya Upanishad ( Sanskrit : मैत्रायणीय उपनिषद् , Maitrāyaṇīya Upaniṣad )

532-524: A debate on possible answers. The text begins with the following prelude, The performance of all the sacrifices, described in the Maitrayana-Brahmana, is to lead up in the end to a knowledge of Brahman, to prepare a man for meditation. Therefore, let such man, after he has laid those fires, meditate on the Self, to become complete and perfect. But who is to be meditated on? The above prelude

608-478: A knowledge of the subject – either mythology or real life, as well as a keen sense of observation and knowledge of nature, human behavior, dance, music, song and other arts. For example, section 3.2 of Visnudharmottara Purana discusses these requirements and the contextual knowledge needed in chitra and the artist who produces it. The Chitrasutras in the Vishnudharmottara Purana state that

684-428: A larger encyclopedia-like text. These include: These and other texts on chitra not only discuss the theory and practice of painting, some of them include discussions on how to become a painter, the diversity and the impact of a chitra on viewers, of aesthetics, how the art of painting relates to other arts ( kala ), methods of preparing the canvas or wall, methods and recipes to make color pigments. For example,

760-533: A means to express ideas and beauty along with other universal aspects, then proceed to discuss the theory and practice of painting, sketching and other related arts. Manuscripts of many these texts are found in India, while some are known to be lost but are found outside India such as in Tibet and Nepal. Among these are the Citrasutras in the 6th-century Visnudharmottara Purana manuscripts discovered in India, and

836-401: A painting triggers different responses in different audiences. The Silparatna – a Sanskrit text on the arts, states that the painting should reflect its intended place and purpose. A theme suitable for a palace or gateway is different from that in a temple or the walls of a home. Scenes of wars, misery, death and suffering are not suitable paintings within homes, but these can be important in

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912-487: A painting, as well as discuss the other four of the six limbs in other sutras. The Chitrasutra chapters are likely from about the 4th or 5th-century. Numerous other Indian texts touch upon the elements or aspects of a chitra . For example, the Aparajitaprccha states that the essential elements of a painting are: citrabhumi (background), the rekha (lines, sketch), the varna (color), the vartana (shading),

988-676: A pair of technical skills. These limbs parallel the 12th-century Six principles of Chinese painting of Xie He. {{refn|group=note|The Hua Chi of Teng Ch'un, a 12th-century Chinese text, mentions the Buddhist temple of Nalanda with frescoes about the Buddha painted inside. It states that the Indian Buddhas look different from those painted by Chinese, as the Indian paintings have Buddha with larger eyes, their ears are curiously stretched and

1064-669: A period of time. The common kernel of the Upanishad across different recensions, states Max Muller , is a reverence for Self, that can be summarized in a few words as, "(Man) is the Self – the immortal, the fearless, the Brahman ". The Maitri Upanishad is an important ancient text notable, in its expanded version, for its references to theories also found in Buddhism , elements of the Samkhya and Yoga schools of Hinduism, as well as

1140-400: A recipe in these texts have been confirmed through residue analysis and modern chromatographic techniques. The Indian concepts of painting are described in a range of texts called the shilpa shastras . These typically begin by attributing this art to divine sources such as Vishvakarma and ancient rishis (sages) such as Narayana and Nagnajit, weaving some mythology, highlighting chitra as

1216-550: A scholar known for her studies on chitra text and traditions of India. According to the Chitrasutras , a skilled painter needs practice, and is one who is able to paint neck, hands, feet, ears of living beings without ornamentation, as well as paint water waves, flames, smoke, and garments as they get affected by the speed of wind. He paints all types of scenes, ranging from dharma, artha and kama. A painter observes, then remembers, repeating this process till his memory has all

1292-534: A theory of Self that is different from the Vedanta school of Hinduism, rather it resonates with its Samkhya school. It enumerates different types of Atman, the three Gunas and how these "qualities of personality" overwhelm him from his essential nature into egoistic life of cravings, the source of evil and sorrow in a man's life, and other terminology from the Samkhya philosophy. The third Prapathaka opens with

1368-406: A turtle genus from Asia Sandfly , a biting fly found in sandy areas Institutions [ edit ] Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences and Technology , Thiruvananthapuram, India Sree Chitra Thirunal College of Engineering , Thiruvananthapuram, India Other uses [ edit ] Chitra (1946 film) , a 1946 Indian Tamil-language film Chitra (2001 film) ,

1444-601: A view similar to Phillips, placing Maitri's chronological composition in the fifth group of ancient Upanishads and last of the Principal Upanishads. Cowell too considers Maitri Upanishad as late era Upanishad, with its later sections comparatively modern, because of the structural and style differences within texts, inconsistencies in Poona manuscript, Calcutta (Kolkata) manuscript, Eckstein manuscript, Burnell manuscript and other manuscripts, and because some version of

1520-528: A village in Jharkhand, India See also [ edit ] All pages with titles containing Chitra Chithiram Pesuthadi (disambiguation) Chitram , a 2000 Indian Telugu-language film Chithram , a 1988 Indian Malayalam-language film by Priyadarshan Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Chitra . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change

1596-523: A world in which such things occur, how can one experience only joy! The sage then shares with the king the philosophy of the Brahman (Universal Self, Cosmic Principle, Ultimate Reality), described in the next lessons. Paul Deussen states that parts of the above questions, on sorrow and frailty of human life is found in the oldest Upanishads of Hinduism, for example in chapters 3.4, 3.5, 3.7, 3.28 and 4.4 of Brihadaranyaka Upanishad , yet its declamation in

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1672-418: Is Agni Vaisvanara. The Purusha resides within, assumes the nature of Buddhi (intellect, power to reason). However, having divided itself fivefold, its purpose unattained, it impulsively feels, "let me enjoy objects". It is distracted from its purpose, its Self. The Upanishad, thereafter recites the "parable of chariot" found in older Upanishads. Max Muller summarizes it as, "the perceptive organs are his reins,

1748-569: Is a Sanskrit word that appears in the Vedic texts such as hymns 1.71.1 and 6.65.2 of the Rigveda . There, and other texts such as Vajasaneyi Samhita , Taittiriya Samhita , Satapatha Brahmana and Tandya Brahmana , Chitra means "excellent, clear, bright, colored, anything brightly colored that strikes the eye, brilliantly ornamented, extraordinary that evokes wonder". In the Mahabharata and

1824-636: Is also mention in a number of Buddhist Pali suttas , but with the modified spelling of Citta . This term is found in the context of either a painting, or painter, or painted-hall ( citta-gara ) in Majjhima Nikaya 1.127, Samyutta Nikaya 2.101 and 3.152, Vinaya 4.289 and others. Among the Jain texts, it is mentioned in Book 2 of the Acaranga Sutra as it explains that Jaina monk should not indulge in

1900-771: Is an ancient Sanskrit text that is embedded inside the Yajurveda . It is also known as the Maitri Upanishad ( Sanskrit : मैत्री उपनिषद् , Maitrī Upaniṣad ), and is listed as number 24 in the Muktika canon of 108 Upanishads. The Maitrayaniya Upanishad is associated with the Maitrayanas school of the Yajurveda. It is a part of the "black" Yajurveda, with the term "black" implying "the un-arranged, motley collection" of content in Yajurveda, in contrast to

1976-434: Is an art form where a high relief is combined with painting and parts of the body is not seen (it appears to be emerging out of the canvas). The Citra is the form of picture artwork where the whole is represented with or without integrating a relief. Citrabhasha is the form where an image is represented on a canvas or wall with colors (painting). However, states Commaraswamy, the word Abhasa has other meanings depending on

2052-407: Is followed by an answer, offered as a tale of a king named Brihadratha who renounces his kingdom, lives an austere life and therewith seeks the knowledge of the eternal, the Self. Sage Śākāyanya appears before the king. The king admits, "I lack the knowledge of Self, you know the essence of Self", so please teach me. In the resulting reply, the sage Śākāyana first claims that the "seeking

2128-497: Is not far removed in time from, though it is prior to, the Maitri Upanishad". Nakamura states that "although Buddhistic influence can be seen in the Maitri Upanishad (from words used), the particular terms and modes of expression of Mahayana Buddhism do not yet appear (in it)". Phillips, in contrast, lists Maitri Upanishad before and about the time the first Buddhist Pali canonical texts were composed. Ranade posits

2204-437: Is not his body, but his immortal Self. The elemental Self is mere reflection of his Gunas (psychology), a source of his suffering, which manifests itself as quality of Tamas (darkness), such as "confusion, fear, grief, sloth, carelessness, decay, sorrow, hunger, thirst, infidelity, anger, ignorance, cruelty, meanness, envy, shamelessness, pride, folly, dishonesty, arrogance, miserliness". The quality of Rajas () too, states

2280-483: Is that inmost being which "moves about without moving" (exists everywhere), which dispels darkness of ignorance and error, which is serene, immortal, fearless and soaring for the highest light. The Maitri Upanishad states that this is the message of all Upanishads, अथ खल्वियं ब्रह्मविद्या सर्वोपनिषद्विद्या वा राजन्नस्माकं भगवता मैत्रेयेण व्याख्याताहं ते Now then, O king, this is the Brahman-knowledge, and

2356-562: Is that which carries gross food to Apana and then subtler food throughout the body. Udana is that which delivers food up and down the body from what has been eaten or drunk. Now the Upamsu-vessel (or prana) depends on the Antaryama-vessel (apana) and the Antaryama-vessel (apana) on the Upamsu-vessel (prana), and between these two the self-resplendent (Self) produced heat. This heat is the purusha(person), and this purusha

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2432-454: Is the inner man (immortal Self). Now as even a ball of iron, pervaded by fire, hammered by smiths, becomes manifold forms, thus the elemental Self, pervaded by inner man, hammered by guna (qualities, personality), becomes manifold. And as when the ball of iron is hammered, the fire is not overcome (unaffected), so the inner man is not overcome, only elemental Self is overcome. The Maitri Upanishad in paragraph 3.4 states that true essence of man

2508-705: The Ashrama system. The text is also notable for its practice of Anyatrapyuktam (or Ityevam Hyaha ), that is being one of the earliest known Sanskrit texts that embedded quotes with credits and frequent citations to more ancient Sanskrit texts. The etymological root of the Maitrayaniya Upanishad is unclear. This has historically led to a variety of names and spellings for this Upanishad. Maitra (Sanskrit: मैत्र) and Maitri (मैत्री) are related words which literally mean "kindly, benevolent, good will, amity, friend of all creatures". The likely root for

2584-517: The Citralaksana manuscript discovered in Tibet (lost in India). This theory include early Indian ideas on how to prepare a canvas or substrate, measurement, proportion, stance, color, shade, projection, the painting's interaction with light, the viewer, how to captivate the mind, and other ideas. According to the historic Indian tradition, a successful and impactful painting and painter requires

2660-562: The Harivamsa , it means "picture, sketch, dilineation", and is presented as a genre of kala (arts). Many texts generally dated to the post-4th-century BCE period, use the term Chitra in the sense of painting, and Chitrakara as a painter. For example, the Sanskrit grammarian Panini in verse 3.2.21 of his Astadhyayi highlights the word chitrakara in this sense. Halls and public spaces to display paintings are called chitrasalas , and

2736-533: The Mundaka Upanishad and Prashna Upanishad . But its precise chronology is unclear and contested. The chronology is difficult to resolve because all opinions rest on scanty evidence, an analysis of archaism, style and repetitions across texts, driven by assumptions about likely evolution of ideas, and on presumptions about which philosophy might have influenced which other Indian philosophies. van Buitenen identified at least five compositional layers in

2812-497: The Sannyasa Upanishads corpus. Hume includes it among his list of "Thirteen Principal Upanishads". Divisions Sama vedic Yajur vedic Atharva vedic Vaishnava puranas Shaiva puranas Shakta puranas Maitri Upanishad deals with the concept and nature of Atman (Self), the question of "how is joy possible?" and "how one can achieve moksha (liberation)?"; in later sections it offers

2888-415: The bhusana (decoration) and the rasa (aesthetic experience). The painter ( chitrakara , rupakara ) must master the fundamentals of measurement and proportions, state the historic chitra texts of India. According to these historic texts, the expert painter masters the skills in measurement, characteristics of subjects, attributes, form, relative proportion, ornament and beauty, states Isabella Nardi –

2964-608: The chitra tradition is much older. It is very likely, states Brown, the pre-Buddhist structures had paintings in them. However, the primary building material in ancient India was wood, the colors were organic materials and natural pigments, which when combined with the tropical weather in India would naturally cause the painting to fade, damage and degrade over the centuries. It is not surprising, therefore, that sample paintings and historic evidence for chitra practice are unusual. The few notable surviving examples of chitra are found hidden in caves, where they would be naturally preserved

3040-470: The "white" (well arranged) Yajurveda where Brihadaranyaka Upanishad and Isha Upanishad are embedded. The chronology of Maitrayaniya Upanishad is contested, but generally accepted to be a late period Upanishadic composition. The Maitrayaniya Upanishad consists of seven Prapathakas (lessons). The first Prapathaka is introductory, the next three are structured in a question-answer style and discuss metaphysical questions relating to Atman (Self), while

3116-606: The 10th-century Chitra Kaladruma presents recipe for making red color paint from the resin of lac insects . Other colors for the historic frescoes found in India, such as those in the Ajanta Caves, were obtained from nature. Inorganic (earthy) colorants like yellow and red ochre, orpiment , green celadonite, and ultramarine blue are mentioned (lapis lazuli). Inorganic (earthy) colorants like yellow and red ochre, orpigment, green celadonite, and ultramarine blue are mentioned (lapis lazuli). The use of organic colorants prepared per

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3192-745: The BBC Trust Chitra Dewi (1934–2008), Indonesian actress Chitra Ganesh (born 1975), artist based in Brooklyn, New York Chitra Jeremiah (born 1971), Nauruan diplomat Chitra Lekha Yadav , Nepalese politician Chitra Mudgal (born 1944), literary figure in modern Hindi literature Chitra Sarwara (born 1975), Indian politician from Haryana Chitra Singh (born 1945), female ghazal singer Chitra Soman (born 1983), Indian sprinter Chitra Subramaniam (born 1958), Indian journalist Chitra Visweswaran , classical dancer Zoology [ edit ] Chitra (turtle) ,

3268-512: The Buddhas have their right shoulder bare. It then states that the artists first make a drawing of the picture, then paint a vermilion or gold colored base. It also mentions the use of ox-glue and a gum produced from peach trees and willow juice, with the artists preferring the latter. According to Coomaraswamy, the ox-glue in the Indian context mentioned in the Chinese text is probably the same as

3344-408: The Indian tradition of chitra . The experts and critics with much experience with paintings study the lines, shading and aesthetics, the uninitiated visitors and children enjoy the vibrancy of colors, while women tend to be attracted to the ornamentation of form and the emotions. A successful painter tends to captivate a variety of minds. A painter should remember that the visual and aesthetic impact of

3420-821: The Upanishad is probably the name of an ancient Indian scholar, Maitra, sometimes spelled Maitri or Maitreya, giving the text the alternate name of Maitri or Maitra Upanishad. The ancient scholar is also credited with a school of thought, thus giving the text the name Maitrayaniya Upanishad. Other names for this text include Maitrayani Upanishad (मैत्रायणि उपनिषद्), Maitrayana Upanishad, Maitrayaniya-brahmana Upanishad, Sriyagussakhayam Maitrayaniya-brahmana Upanishad, Maitreyopanishad and Maitrayaniyopanishad. The Maitrayaniya Upanishad offers no firm evidence as to its date. But on various internal criteria such as its passages on yoga and its doctrinal heterogeneity, scholarly consensus places its composition in late 1st millennium BCE or even slightly later, likely after Atharva Veda texts such as

3496-420: The Upanishad presents the "theory of gross elements and subtle elements" which combine to form Sarira (शरीर, body). The "elemental Self" resides in this body, and is overcome by prakrti guna (inner nature of an individual's personality). This, states the text, is cause of confusion, conflicting desires, unsteady behaviors and self-conceit. Man, because of this confusion, binds himself with suffering, just like

3572-404: The Upanishad, is a result of this interplay of overpowered elemental Self and guna , and lists the manifold manifestation of this as, "greed, covetousness, craving, possessiveness, unkindness, hatred, deceit, restlessness, mania, fickleness, wooing and impressing others, servitude, flattery, hedonism, gluttony, prodigality and peevishness". While the elemental Self is thus affected, the inner Self,

3648-427: The active organs his horses, the body his chariot, the mind the charioteer, the whip being the temperament (emotions). Driven by that whip, his body goes round and round like a wheel driven by the potter. This body is made intelligent, and he (Atman) is the driver thereof." He experiences the fruits of his Karma , his personality the weaving of the three Guṇas (sattvam, rajas, tamas). In essence, however, man seeks

3724-433: The art of alekhyam and chitra (drawing and painting): These six limbs are arranged stylistically in two ways. First as a set of compound (Rupa-bhedah and Varnika-bhanda), a set of joining (middle two yojnam), and a set of single words (Pramanani and Sadrsyam). Second, states Victor Mair, the six limbs in this Hindu text are paired in a set of differentiation skills (first two), then a pair of aesthetic skills, and finally

3800-534: The canvas, deviations from the rules of proportion, improper posture or sentiment, and non-merging of colors. Two historical sets called "chitra anga", or "limbs of painting" are found in Indian texts. According to the Samarangana Sutradhara – an 11th-century Sanskrit text on Hindu architecture and arts, a painting has eight limbs: According to Yashodhara's Jayamangala , a Sanskrit commentary on Kamasutra , there are sadanga (six limbs) in

3876-402: The context of a chitra . More specifically, alekhya is the space left while writing a manuscript leaf or cloth, where the artist aims to add a picture or painting to illustrate the text. The earliest explicit reference to painting in an Indian text is found in verse 4.2 of the Maitri Upanishad where it uses the phrase citrabhittir or "like a painted wall". The Indian art of painting

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3952-443: The context. For example, in Hindu texts on philosophy, it implies the "field of objective experience" in the sense of the intellectual image internalized by a person during a reading of a subject (such as an epic, tale or fiction), or one during a meditative spiritual experience. In some Buddhist and Hindu texts on methods to prepare a manuscript (palm leaf) or a composition on a cloth, the terms lekhya and alekhya are also used in

4028-419: The details he needs to paint, states Silparatna . According to Sivatattva Ratnakara , he is well versed in sketching, astute with measurements, skilled in outlining ( hastalekha ), competent with colors, and ready to diligently mix and combine colors to create his chitra . The painter is a creative person, with an inner sense of rasa (aesthetics). The painter should consider the diversity of viewers, states

4104-906: The earliest known mention of these are found in the Ramayana and the Mahabharata . A few Indian regional texts such as Kasyapa silpa refer to painting by others words. For example, abhasa – which literally means "semblance, shining forth", is used in Kasyapa-shilpa to mean as a broader category of painting, of which chitra is one of three types. The verses in section 4.4 of the Kasyapa-silpa state that there are three types of images – those which are immovable (walls, floor, terracota, stucco), movable, and those which are both movable-immovable (stone, wood, gems). In each of these three, states Kasyapa-shipa , are three classes of expression – ardhacitra, citra, and citra-abhasa . Ardhacitra

4180-438: The fifth to seventh Prapathaka are supplements. However, several manuscripts discovered in different parts of India contain lesser number of Prapathakas , with a Telugu language version showing just four, and another Burnell version showing just one section. The content and structure of the Upanishad is also different in various manuscript recensions, suggesting that the Upanishad was extensively interpolated and expanded over

4256-443: The immortal Self, the inner spectator is unaffected, asserts the Upanishad. The fourth Prapathaka begins with the question, "how can the elemental Self obtain union with the true Self"? The Maitri Upanishad answers that the elemental Self is distracted, intoxicated and attached to numerous things in life, craving for false delights, which prevents its ability to know the true Self. The remedy for elemental Self, in order to realize

4332-401: The inner perfection and Self-knowledge it helps bring. The fourth prapathaka does not resolve the inherent conflict it acknowledges. In paragraph 4.4, the Upanishad asserts that meditation, austerities, perseverance and knowledge leads to Brahman state, of bliss that is imperishable, infinite and unchangeable. It is this union of Brahman that frees the true Self unto bliss. In paragraph 4.5,

4408-567: The knowledge contained in all the Upanishads, which was taught to us by honorable Maitri. I shall tell it to thee. Sage Sakayanya thereafter narrates an ancient dialogue between Vālakhilya s and Prajāpati Kratu, which is sourced from Rig Veda. The dialogue states that "man was created in the image of its creator, innately has all its powers, and is driven by it". The dialogue raises a series of metaphysical objections and inconsistencies with this premise, and then offers theories to resolve

4484-431: The knowledge of Atman" was a practice of the past, it is difficult and not in vogue, then urges the king to ask something else". The king insists, by asking a series of metaphysical questions to the sage. In this body infected with passions, anger, greed, delusion, fright, despondency, grudge, separation from what is dear and desirable, attachment to what is not desirable, hunger, thirst, old age, death, illness, sorrow and

4560-479: The last three sections as supplements and appendices. Other discovered manuscript versions of the Maitri Upanishad present different number of sections, ranging from 1 to 4, without any appendices. There are also differences in style, structure and content among the discovered manuscripts when the text contains the same number of sections. The text is a prose style Upanishad, with a motley collection of different sized paragraphs. The first section has four paragraphs,

4636-449: The link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chitra&oldid=1255051975 " Categories : Disambiguation pages Disambiguation pages with given-name-holder lists Hidden categories: Short description is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Chitra (art) Chitra (IAST: Citra , चित्र)

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4712-555: The manuscripts insert quotes from Vaishnavism . Deussen states that the Upanishad is chronologically significant because its author(s) takes for granted the concepts and ideas found in Samkhya and Yoga schools of Hinduism, which must have been established by the time Maitri Upanishad was composed. The extant recension of the text consists seven Prapāṭhaka s (lessons), of which several sections are Khilas (appendices, supplements) added later. The last two are called as khila by medieval era Indian scholar Ramatirtha. Others consider

4788-626: The mind and the canvas of the heart". The nature of a chitra (painting), how the viewer's mind projects a two dimensional artwork into a three dimensional representation, is used by Asanga in Mahayana Sutralamkara – a 3rd to 5th-century Sanskrit text of the Mahayana Buddhist tradition, to explain "non-existent imagination" as follows: Just as in a picture painted according to rules, there are neither projections nor depressions and yet we see it in three dimensions, so in

4864-607: The non-existent imagination there is no phenomenal differentiation, and yet we behold it. According to Yoko Taniguchi and Michiyo Mori, the art of painting the caves at the c. 6th-century Buddhas of Bamiyan site in Afghanistan, destroyed by the Taliban Muslims in the late 1990s, were likely introduced to this region from India along with the literature on early Buddhism. There are many important dedicated Indian treatises on chitra . Some of these are chapters within

4940-483: The painter sees or what the painter wants the viewer to observe or feel or experience. A good painting is one that is alive, breathing, draws in and affects the viewer. It captivates the minds of viewers, despite their diversity. Installed in a sala (hall or room), it enlivens the space. The ornaments of a painting are its lines, shading, decoration and colors, states the 6th-century Visnudharmottara Purana . It states that there are eight gunas (merits, features) of

5016-399: The pleasures of watching a painting. The Kamasutra , broadly accepted to have been complete by about the 4th-century CE, recommends that the young man should surprise the girl he courts with gifts of color boxes and painted scrolls. The Viddhasalabhanjika – another Hindu kama - and kavya –text uses chitra-simile in verse 1.16, as "pictures painted by the god of love, with the brush of

5092-455: The question form above in Maitri Upanishad, mirrors those found in Buddhism and Samkhya school of Hinduism. It is likely, states Deussen, that these two philosophies influenced the formulation of these questions in the form presented in Maitri Upanishad. Sakayanya answers the king's question, in verse 2.2 of Maitri Upanishad, by asserting that Atman (Self) exists in every individual, and it

5168-402: The question, "if Self is inherently great, then who is this Self that suffers from the 'bright and dark fruits' of karma , rebirth and is overcome by Dvandva (pairs of opposite such as heat and cold, health and disease, etc)?" As answer, the Maitrayaniya Upanishad states that there is another, different Self, calling it Bhutatman (the elemental Self), which transmigrates. In paragraph 3.2,

5244-488: The recipe found in the Sanskrit text Silparatna , one where the base medium is produced from boiling buffalo skin in milk, followed by drying and blending process. The six limbs in Jayamangala likely reflect the earliest and more established Hindu tradition for chitra . This is supported by the Chitrasutras found in the Vishnudharmottara Purana . They explicitly mention pramanani and lavanya as key elements of

5320-420: The rest - how can one experience only joy? There are other great ones. We see the destruction of Gandharvas, Asuras, Yakshas, Rakshasas, Ganas, snakes and vampires. And what of these? The drying up of great oceans, the crumbling down of the mountains, the instability of the pole-star, the tearing of the wind-chords, the sinking down, the submergence of the earth, the tumbling down of the gods from their place - in

5396-510: The sculpture and painting arts are related, with the phrase "as in Natya, so in Citra". This relationship links them in rasa (aesthetics) and as forms of expression. A chitra is a form of expression and communication. According to Aparajitaprccha – a 12th-century text on arts and architecture, just like the water reflects the moon, a chitra reflects the world. It is a rupa (form) of how

5472-575: The second has seven, the third presents five paragraphs, while the fourth section contains six. As appendices, the fifth lesson has two paragraphs, while the sixth Prapathaka is the longest section with thirty eight paragraphs. The last supplementary section, or the seventh Prapāṭhaka has eleven paragraphs some with many sub-paragraphs. The Maitrayaniya Upanishad is embedded after the Brahmana text of Yajur Veda, and in its opening passages refers to rituals contained therein. It contextually belongs to

5548-554: The true Self, is to acquire the knowledge of the Veda, perform svadharma (one's duty) based on one's age, be part of Rta, devote oneself to Ashrama stage one is in. The Upanishad, in paragraph 4.3 acknowledges the inherent tension between ascetic life of renouncing society for Self-knowledge and the svadharma in each Ashrama stage of life with devotion to society. It calls asceticism qua asceticism wrong, and then immediately calls asceticism right, necessary and praises asceticism for

5624-478: The true bliss, the immortal happiness, the resplendent contentment, the calm freedom that is his Self, states paragraph 2.7 of Maitri Upanishad. This Self of his is pure, unchanging, unmoving, undefilable, serenely calm constant, the spectator within him, the self-abiding. The Self is inherently good, enjoyer of Ṛta (that which is properly/excellently joined, natural perfection, harmonious, holistic, right, truth). The third Prapathaka of Maitri Upanishad presents

5700-513: The what, how and why this is so. The Maitrayaniya Upanishad states that the Prajapati (lord of creatures) divided himself fivefold and entered all creatures of the world. The divided parts are Prana , Apana , Samana , Udana and Vyana . Prana is upward breath, Apana is downward breath (exhale). Vyana holds the Prana and Apana in balance, giving strength to the whole body. Samana

5776-538: The work, composed at different times by different groups or individuals. When discussing the chronology of the Upaniṣads, Olivelle did not specifically mention the Maitri Upanishad but noted that the last group of principal Upanishads "cannot be much older than the beginning of the common era." Mahony suggests an earlier date, placing Prashna along with Maitri and Mandukya Upanishads, as texts that probably emerged about early fourth century BCE. Jayatilleke states, "Buddhism

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