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53-782: The Gatesville Unit, formed on portions of the former Gatesville State School , opened in August 1980. The portions of Gatesville State School that became the Crain Unit include the Live Oak, Riverside, Sycamore, Terrace, and Valley schools, while the Hackberry and Hilltop units of the former state school became the Hilltop Unit . The Gatesville Unit was named after the City of Gatesville. From its opening until several years before 2010,

106-485: A Childhood?: Race and Juvenile Justice in Twentieth-Century Texas , said that the school newspaper's main purpose was to serve as a pro-prison administration propaganda organ. The Hilltop Unit still uses many buildings that were a part of the original House of Correction and Reformatory. A graveyard with sixteen graves containing the remains of children in the state school who died during their stay

159-587: A boot camp. Anderson died as drill instructors beat him and encouraged him to continue physical exercise after he had collapsed. While Anderson was unconscious, guards placed ammonia tablets near his nose in an attempt to revive him, and he suffocated. Anderson attended Bay County Boot Camp in Panama City, Florida . The Victory Forge Military Academy in Florida has come under intense scrutiny of its methods, which border on physical abuse. The camp's defense

212-540: A constant underlying internal tension existed at Crain. As of 2008 the prison had about 2,000 inmates, about 540 correctional officers, and about 210 other employees. Robert Perkinson, author of Texas Tough: The Rise of America's Prison Empire , said that the Crain Unit has a "rich assortment of programming" compared to most Texas prisons. The unit includes a female boot camp and a Substance Abuse Felony Punishment (SAFP) facility. Current: Former: Gatesville State School The Gatesville State School for Boys

265-780: A failure with a 71% rate of re-offending among corrective trainees. By 1997, the recidivism rate for correctional training graduates after five years had reached 92%, three times the rate of the general population. In June 1997, Corrections Minister Paul East concluded that correctional training had failed to reduce youth offending. Correctional training was abolished by the Sentencing Act 2002. The Te Whakapakari Youth Programme, an outdoor and Māori culture-focused rehabilitative boot camp in Great Barrier Island for youth offenders and "difficult to manage" state wards, ran between 1977 and 2004. The programme has come under

318-546: A first cohort of 10 teenagers. The boot camp would consist of three months of "military-style activities" and a special curriculum in a residential setting followed by nine months of intensive mentoring in the community with whanau (family) support. Research conducted by the Billy Graham Youth Foundation and Impact Lab found that boot camps reduced reoffending in the first 18 months but that reoffending rates increased after two years. They also advocated

371-423: A rehabilitative and trauma-informed care approach. The pilot camp would also have a military-style component. The pilot boot camp is expected to open in 2024 and will host ten young people for a period of four months. The Government's boot camp programme was criticised by Green Party co-leader Marama Davidson and Te Pāti Māori co-leader Rawiri Waititi , who said that military-style academies did not "resolve

424-634: A therapeutic approach rather than a punitive approach to boot camps. In early July 2024, RNZ reported that the pilot boot camp would be based in Palmerston North . While the New Zealand Defence Force would not be staffing the boot camps, it would be involved at a governance level. Oranga Tamariki would be responsible for staffing the camps. According to Stuff , the Defence Force had expressed concerns about running

477-520: A variety of circumstances. Boot camps are also criticized around the world for their lack of behavioral change and for the way extreme force can traumatize children and teenagers. The term "boot" originates from US Navy and Marine recruits in the Spanish–American War (1898) who wore leggings called boots. These recruits were trained in "boot" camps. Military-style training was used in the eighteenth century to rehabilitate civilian prisoners in

530-402: A youth to a boot camp. They may impose a sentence of secure or open custody. The latter is defined as, "a community residential center, group home, child care institution or forest or wilderness camp..." Once an open custody sentence is granted, a correctional official decides whether a sentence is served in a boot camp program. But the ultimate decision rests with the young person and the decision

583-512: Is located on the Riverside Unit. 31°28′07″N 97°44′19″W  /  31.46861°N 97.73861°W  / 31.46861; -97.73861 Boot camp (correctional) Boot camps are part of the correctional and penal system of some countries. Modeled after military recruit training camps, these programs are based on shock incarceration grounded on military techniques. The aggressive training used has resulted in deaths in

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636-586: Is made purely on the merits of the program because the time served remains the same. The Canadian system is too new to show any comparable results but research has been done among US boot camps with different emphases, e.g. more on drug treatment or education than solely on military drill. According to the findings, treatment has a slightly positive impact on the reduction of recidivism over strict discipline. New Zealand set up its first boot camps in 1971 but they were abandoned in 1981 and replaced with correctional training until 2002. The boot camps were regarded as

689-417: Is offered to young first-time offenders in place of a prison term or probation ; in some states a youth can also be sentenced to participate in such a program. The time served can range from 90 to 180 days, which can make up for prison sentences of up to 10 years. Federal shock incarceration programs are authorized under 18 U.S.C. § 4046 , although the placement requires consent of the prisoner. In 1995,

742-704: Is that the emphasis on authority can only result in frustration, resentment, anger, short temper, a low self-esteem and aggression rather than respect . Some boot camps have been the subject of abuse scandals. According to The New York Times there were 31 known deaths of youths in U.S. boot camps since between 1980 and 2009, a rate of approximately one death each year. Boot camps claim to remove children "from environments filled with negative influences and triggering events that produce self-defeating, reckless or self-destructive behavior". Other types of programs (see outdoor education , adventure therapy , and wilderness therapy ) use this method while avoiding all or some of

795-478: Is that the parents had signed a contract authorizing the use of physical force against their children. Studies in the United States suggest that boot camps with a strong therapeutic component (such as education, drug treatment and counselling) have a positive effect on participants, while those that have no counselling and consist only of physical activity have a significant negative effect. A key criticism

848-504: Is the place where new female arrivals to the TDCJ are processed. In addition the center houses a boot camp program. The 174 bed Valley Unit houses pregnant, elderly, and developmentally delayed prisoners. As of 1993 72 beds are reserved for the mentally retarded. In addition Valley houses the prison library. Female prisoners throughout Texas who are not state jail prisoners or substance abuse felony punishment facility residents are released from

901-490: Is voluntary, so as to avoid any challenges under the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms under which treatment at boot camps could be seen as an infringement on a youth's right to not be subject to cruel and unusual punishment and to ensure security of person. The provincial government of Ontario funded a private boot camp project for non-violent juveniles, Project Turnaround , from 1997 to 2004. The camp

954-1051: The Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution . Justice ordered TYC to close the Gatesville State School and the Mountain View State School and to redesign the agency's juvenile corrections system. Gatesville State School closed in 1979. The boys moved to smaller state schools, foster and group homes, halfway houses, and residential treatment centers. The state schools taking juvenile offenders included Brownwood State School (now Ron Jackson), Crockett State School in Crockett , Gainesville State School near Gainesville , Giddings State School near Giddings , and West Texas Children's Home of Pyote near Pyote . The Texas Department of Corrections purchased

1007-603: The Hospital Galveston unit in Galveston , which is located five hours away from Gatesville by automobile. In 1993 Leah Karotkin of the Houston Press said "Anticipating my visit to Gatesville, I had expected more drama. Instead, I was struck by the simple endless monotony of the prison, disappointingly mundane rather than what I expected. More than hard-time punishment, alienation and loneliness seem to be

1060-546: The Huntsville Unit , a prison which also housed adults, in Huntsville . Robert Perkinson, author of Texas Tough: The Rise of America's Prison Empire , said that the institution gained "a reputation for ruthlessness" as decades passed. Gatesville, which served as the main juvenile detention facility for Texas since its opening, had a focus on labor instead of rehabilitation. Throughout the state school's history

1113-798: The Ministry of Justice and New Zealand Defence Force and would provided education, counselling, drug and alcohol treatment, and cultural support to offenders. Luxon's proposal was criticised by Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern , the NZ Psychological Society, and youth workers Aaron Hendry and Apiphany Forward Taua, who argued that boot camps failed to address the causes of youth crime. In addition, Gluckman criticised boot camps and other "scared straight" programmes for increasing crime. He advocated addressing juvenile delinquency and abuse through early intervention programmes, targeted mental health services, and complimentary services focusing on

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1166-577: The Texas Prison System , opened in January 1889 with 68 boys who had previously been located in correctional facilities with adult felons. The Victorian reformers who opened the facility intended for the farmwork in the dry climate and the schooling to reform juvenile delinquents. At the beginning the institution also housed boys who did not commit any crimes but had no family and no other place to live in. Children were previously housed in

1219-584: The Academy targeted serious youth offenders who had been sentenced through the Youth Court , Oranga Tamariki excluded co-offenders, those with gang connections, physical and mental disabilities. Females were also excluded from the pilot programme due to the staffing requirements needed for mixed gender cohorts. In early November 2024, RNZ reported that the New Zealand Cabinet had authorised

1272-842: The Crain Unit. Most women in Crain live in dormitories described by Leah Karotkin of the Houston Press as "drab" and "low-slung." Most inmates work seven hours per day. Jobs include painting and repairing buildings, maintaining and repairing large equipment such as boiler units, hoeing fields, and fixing potholes. Crain includes a trustee camp, which was one of the first to be built by the TDCJ . The camp, which has no perimeter fence, houses non-violent minimum custody inmates who need less supervision than regular inmates and who are less likely to escape than regular inmates. The trustees live in an open dormitory and work in prisoner and prison guard beauty shops, food service, landscaping, and transportation. Women in

1325-506: The Gatesville State School for Boys. In 1940 the Gatesville State School housed 767 boys who were under 17 at the time the state ordered them to attend the state school. At the time the boys conducted activities on a 900-acre (360 ha) tract of state-owned land and a 2,700-acre (1,100 ha) tract of leased land. In 1949 the State Youth Development Council began to operate the Gatesville State School. In 1950

1378-551: The Gatesville Unit was primarily a work farm, and staff members placed new prisoners in the fields to work. Due to reductions in staffing levels and new security mandates, the prison's agricultural operations were reduced. In 2008 the Texas Board of Criminal Justice unanimously voted to rename the Gatesville Unit after Christina Melton Crain, the first female chairperson of the Texas Board of Criminal Justice. On that day

1431-653: The Māori and Pasifika communities. By contrast, former Hamilton City councillor Mark Bunting opined that boot camps could help deal with high youth crime rates in the Waikato region and was preferable to sending youth offenders to prison. In March 2024, Children's Minister Karen Chhour confirmed that the National-led coalition government would be launching a pilot programme for its Youth Offender Military Academies. The programme would be run by Oranga Tamariki and have

1484-566: The Terrace Unit campus "resembles a 1950s-era elementary school that has survived decades of budget cuts." It has three regular dorms and a cellblock building with small 2 person cells. Terrace Unit houses about 340 total inmates. It is a medical unit which holds many of Crain's elderly inmates. Air conditioning was installed in Spring 2018 in the regular dorms but not in cellblock. As of 1993 women who are about to give birth are transported to

1537-654: The U.S. federal government and about two-thirds of the 50 states were operating boot camp programs. Presently, there are no statistics as to how many boot camps there are in the U.S. In 2000, there were 51 boot camps still open. In 2010, 80% of participants were ethnic minorities. There are many types of boot camps. Some boot camps are more therapeutic. State run boot camps were banned in Florida on June 1, 2006 through legislation signed by Florida Governor Jeb Bush after 14-year-old Martin Lee Anderson died while in

1590-595: The United States and for military prisoners during World War 2. In Australia the Liberal National Premier of the state of Queensland Campbell Newman announced that bootcamps for convicted young people will open in Townsville and Rockhampton by September 2013, along with two other camps. These bootcamps closed in 2015 under the Labor government. In Canada, participation in boot camp programs

1643-697: The Valley Unit work as beauty operators, clerks, cooks, kitchen workers, and landscape gardeners. Crain has 20 beds available for the Sentence Alternative to Incarceration Program, a 90-day program for first time offenders between the ages of 17 and 25. The boot camp is housed in a former infirmary in the Reception Center. 32 isolation cells are reserved for difficult prisoners. Amy Smith of the Austin Chronicle wrote that

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1696-516: The boot camps, saying that it would affect its workforce capabilities, staff morale and retention, and its lack of experience in youth justice management, educational and specialist therapeutics. The Defence Force also warned that it lack the legal mandate to manage youth detention facilities, which prompted the Government to introduce legislation giving boot camp operators the power to use force to detain young prisoners. In mid-August 2024, one of

1749-414: The driver of crimes" and that boot camps, borstals and boy's homes contributed to the persistence of gangs. The IHC director of advocacy Tania Thomas, Professor Joanna Kidman , Auckland youth development worker Aaron Hendry and human rights law firm Cooper Legal also expressed concern about the punitive nature of boot camps and their impact on disadvantaged children and young people, particularly Māori and

1802-712: The facility. Perkinson said that Gatesville, intended to resemble the Elmira Correctional Facility in Elmira, New York , instead had an attitude similar to that of the Texas prison farms for adults. In 1909 the legislature changed the facility's name to the State Institution for the Training of Juveniles and placed it under the control of a five member board of trustees. In 1913 a law that

1855-526: The first boot camp intake reoffended while 15 of the 17 participants in the second intake reoffended. While the-then Deputy Prime Minister Paula Bennett claimed the programmes had succeeded in lowering offending among that group, this was disputed by Prime Minister John Key 's chief science adviser Sir Peter Gluckman in a 2011 report. The New Zealand Families Commission concluded that military camps and other measures such as curfews with electronic monitoring could not reduce re-offending on their own and that

1908-748: The former state school lands. In 1980 the Live Oak, Riverside, Sycamore, Terrace, and Valley schools became the Gatesville Unit (now the Christina Melton Crain Unit ), and the Hilltop and Hackberry schools became the Hilltop Unit , both of which are women's prisons. In 1915 the Texas State Board of Education certified the state school as an independent school district , allowing it to get funding for school supplies and teacher salaries. The school newspaper, State Boys , started in 1914. William S. Bush, author of Who Gets

1961-683: The goals, or at least the most obvious effects, of the institution. Still, it's clear, Gatesville is a pretty rough place to be." In 2010 Robert Perkinson, author of Texas Tough: The Rise of America's Prison Empire , said that Crain was "not the hardest place to do time in Texas." Major Janice Wilson, who was the head prison guard in 1993, said during that year that many women in Crain gain close bonds with women who they sympathize or feel sorry for. Some women had been in romantic relationships where they received battery, and some had experienced several romantic relationships that, to them, were not good. According to Wilson these women become friends, and some of

2014-496: The intellectually disabled. In response to criticism, Chhour argued that boot camps were needed to show young offenders "there were consequences for their actions but they could benefit from a chance to turn their lives around." Similarly, Police Minister Mark Mitchell argued that boot camps were needed because serious youth offenders were a "danger to the community...and themselves." In mid June 2024, RNZ reported that Oranga Tamariki's pilot boot camp would open on 29 July with

2067-475: The most serious recidivist young offenders which involved marching exercises, mentoring, drug and alcohol treatment programs, education, and an assisted move back into the community. The Government also launched a nine-week camp for the most serious, recidivist offenders in Christchurch in 2010 and a court-supervised programme providing up to ten days of adventure camp activities. 35 of the 42 participants in

2120-652: The most successful rehabilitation programmes involved the offenders' families. On 13 August 2017, Prime Minister Bill English promised to establish a boot camp known as the "Junior Training Academy" for youth offenders at the Waiouru Military Camp during the 2017 election campaign . English clarified that the camp would be for a small group of around 150 young offenders who had committed serious offenses including serious assault, sexual assaults, aggravated robbery and murder. In response, youth Justice advocacy group JustSpeak director Katie Bruce criticized

2173-564: The name change became effective immediately. Crain, a resident of the Preston Hollow area of Dallas , worked as a lawyer. She left the Texas Board of Criminal Justice in May 2008. The Christina Crain Unit houses all non-death row custody levels and is equipped to hold 2,014 prisoners. Crain consists of seven separate satellite units, each serving a distinct purpose. Crain's Reception Center

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2226-655: The proposed boot camp policy and argued that it would do little to curb re-offending among young offenders. National's proposed policy was criticized by the radio host Mark Sainsbury , The Opportunities Party leader Gareth Morgan , the New Zealand First leader Winston Peters , and the University of Canterbury psychologist and author Jarrod Gilbert, who contended that the policy was aimed at enticing voters rather than helping youth offenders and that previous boot camp programmes had failed. The boot camp policy

2279-537: The reception center for boys entering TYC. In 1971 a class-action lawsuit was filed against the Texas Youth Council on behalf of the children in TYC facilities. In 1974 the school had 1,500 boys over 250 staff members. During that year, federal judge William Wayne Justice ruled on Morales v. Turman . Justice said that the operations of the state schools consisted of cruel and unusual practices that violated

2332-583: The scrutinity of the Royal Commission of Inquiry into Abuse in Care due to reports of psychological, physical and sexual abuse. Prior to being elected into Government in 2008 the National Party released a policy of using boot camps for those with drug problems. The Fifth National Government introduced military-style activity camps (MACs) run by the New Zealand Defence Force for forty of

2385-514: The state government did not appropriate sufficient funds, and the dormitories became overcrowded. Before the state school first opened, the reformatory officials complained about an influx of non-White children who they believed were not capable of being rehabilitated. Michael Jewell, a former Gatesville state school student who attended the school in 1961, said that long periods in solitary confinement, stoop labor, fights between gangs, beatings perpetrated by staff members, and sexual assault occurred at

2438-647: The state school had 406 boys. In 1957 the Texas Youth Council, now the Texas Youth Commission , was established, replacing its predecessor agency. The Mountain View School for Boys opened on September 5, 1962, and chronic and serious juvenile delinquents were moved to Mountain View. By 1970, the state school, with 1,830 boys, consisted of seven sub-schools: Hackberry, Hilltop, Live Oak, Riverside, Sycmore, Terrace, and Valley. Gatesville also housed

2491-420: The use of physical force by boot camp operators to control unruly participants. In response, Luxon said that physical force would only be used as a "last resort" against youth offenders. The first boot camps appeared in the states of Georgia and Oklahoma in 1983. Boot camps are intended to be less restrictive than prison but harsher than probation . In most U.S. states participation in boot camp programs

2544-676: The women engage in homosexual relationships. As of 1993 the institution forbids sexual conduct between two prisoners, and women can lose class time if they are caught. In several published reports that existed by 1993, prisoners said that the isolation is a factor in the sexual relationships that are formed at the unit. Wilson added that the aspect many women dislike the most about Crain is the lack of accessibility to their families and children. For many, visits occur infrequently and women do not often get to make telephone calls. Many relatives have very little money and do not have much time that they can use to visit their imprisoned relatives. Wilson said that

2597-613: The youth participants withdrew from the pilot boot camp programme. According to Te Ao Māori News , particpants underwent a structured daily routine consisting of washing, military-style drills, cleaning their rooms and ironing their clothes. In addition, participants also received individualised education and clinical sessions. In early September 2024, Stuff reported that the Military Style Academy and subsequent boot camps would provide participants outdoor excusions, martial arts training, yoga and access to therapists. While

2650-411: Was a "tougher" alternative to Ontario's other youth detention facilities as part of a tough on crime response to increasing youth incarceration rates by the government of Premier Mike Harris . Canadian boot camps do not have the time frame of 90 to 180 days and they are restricted to juveniles under 18, and are not yet open to female offenders. The judges do not directly possess the authority to send

2703-679: Was a juvenile corrections facility in Gatesville , Texas . The 900-acre (360 ha) facility was converted into two prisons for adults, the Christina Crain Unit (formerly Gatesville Unit), and the Hilltop Unit . The Texas Legislature established the House of Correction and Reformatory, the first rehabilitative juvenile correctional facility in the Southern United States , in 1887. The facility, operated by

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2756-857: Was also criticized by both National's support partner, the Māori Party , and the opposition Green Party for doing little to address youth offending within the Māori and the Pasifika communities. David Seymour , the leader of National's support partner the ACT Party , criticized the boot camp policy as a sign of the Government's failure to tackle "broken families" and youth crime. In mid November 2022, National Party leader Christopher Luxon announced that if elected National would establish boot camps known as Youth Offender Military Academies for juvenile offenders aged between 15 and 17 years. These camps would be run by

2809-495: Was passed renamed the facility to the State Juvenile Training School. The 1913 Juvenile Act stated that White boys at Gatesville would be separated from boys of other races. In 1913 the school opened the "Negroes' Institute," facilities for Black boys. In 1919 the newly established State Board of Control began managing the state school. In 1939 the legislature named the juvenile correctional facility

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