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92-649: The Chénier Cell was named after the Lower Canada Rebellion patriote movement leader Jean-Olivier Chénier . A violent Quebec sovereignty movement , the Chénier Cell attempted to usurp the elected Government of Quebec and create a Québécois people 's uprising to establish a new Quebec state independent of Canada . The four known members of the Chénier Cell were: Paul Rose , Jacques Rose , Francis Simard and Bernard Lortie . On October 5, 1970, members of another Montreal-based FLQ cell,

184-570: A farmhouse basement at Saint-Luc, Quebec . The Chénier Cell members were put on trial and three were convicted for kidnapping and murder , while Jacques Rose was convicted of being an accessory after the fact with all members pleading " responsible ". Lower Canada Rebellion The Lower Canada Rebellion ( French : rébellion du Bas-Canada ), commonly referred to as the Patriots' Rebellion ( Rébellion des patriotes ) in French,

276-890: A "Reform Association" in February 1844, to unite the Reform movement in Canada West and to explain their understanding of responsible government. Twenty-two branches were established. A grand meeting of all branches of the Reform Association was held in the Second Meeting House of the Children of Peace in Sharon . Over three thousand people attended this rally for Baldwin. the Association was not, however,

368-492: A bill was passed to replace the process of appointing members by a process of electing members. Members were to be elected from 24 divisions in each of Canada East and Canada West. Twelve members were elected every two years from 1856 to 1862. Members previously appointed were not required to relinquish their seats. Canada West, with its 450,000 inhabitants, was represented by 42 seats in the Legislative Assembly,

460-502: A constitutional crisis that would last a year. Metcalfe refused to recall the legislature to demonstrate its irrelevance; he could rule without it. This year-long crisis, in which the legislature was prorogued, "was the final signpost on Upper Canada's conceptual road to democracy. Lacking the scale of the American Revolution, it nonetheless forced a comparable articulation and rethinking of the basics of political dialogue in

552-456: A historically specific project of rule, rather than either an essence we must defend or an empty homogeneous space we must possess. Canada-as-project can be analyzed as the implantation and expansion over a heterogeneous terrain of a certain politico-economic logic—to wit, liberalism." The liberalism of which McKay writes is not that of a specific political party, but of certain practices of state building which prioritise property, first of all, and

644-666: A right to make Executive Council and other appointments without the input of the legislative assembly. However, in 1848 the Earl of Elgin , then Governor General, appointed a Cabinet nominated by the majority party of the Legislative Assembly, the Baldwin–Lafontaine coalition that had won elections in January. Lord Elgin upheld the principles of responsible government by not repealing the Rebellion Losses Bill, which

736-623: A true political party and individual members voted independently. The Parti rouge (alternatively known as the Parti démocratique) was formed in Canada East around 1848 by radical French Canadians inspired by the ideas of Louis-Joseph Papineau , the Institut canadien de Montréal , and the reformist movement led by the Parti patriote of the 1830s. The reformist rouges did not believe that

828-727: Is the name given to the armed conflict in 1837–38 between rebels and the colonial government of Lower Canada (now southern Quebec ). Together with the simultaneous rebellion in the neighbouring colony of Upper Canada (now southern Ontario ), it formed the Rebellions of 1837–38 ( rébellions de 1837–38 ). As a result of the rebellions, the Province of Canada was created from the former Lower Canada and Upper Canada. The rebellion had been preceded by nearly three decades of efforts at political reform in Lower Canada, led from

920-701: The Doric Club began fighting with them and violence and vandalism broke out everywhere in the city of Montreal. Arrest warrants were issued for those responsible for the leaders of the Assemblée des Six-Comtés. The first armed conflict occurred in 1837 when the 26 members of the Patriotes who had been charged with illegal activities chose to resist their arrest by the authorities under the direction of John Colborne . Arrest warrants against Papineau and other assembly members were issued. They left Montréal and hid in

1012-734: The Liberation Cell , kidnapped the United Kingdom Trade Commissioner James Richard Cross from his Montreal home. On October 8, 1970, the FLQ Manifesto was broadcast by CBC/Radio-Canada as one of the many demands required for the release of James Cross. The manifesto criticised big business , the Catholic Church , René Lévesque , Robert Bourassa and declared Pierre Trudeau "a queer ". On October 10, 1970,

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1104-521: The Orange Order . His efforts to prevent the election of Louis LaFontaine , the leader of the French reformers, were foiled by David Willson , the leader of the Children of Peace , who convinced the electors of the 4th Riding of York to transcend linguistic prejudice and elect LaFontaine in an English-speaking riding in Canada West. Bagot was appointed after the unexpected death of Thomson, with

1196-601: The Rebellion Losses Bill and burned down Montreal's parliament buildings . It then moved to Toronto (1849–1851). It moved to Quebec City from 1851 to 1855, then returned to Toronto from 1855 to 1859 before returning to Quebec City from 1859 to 1865. In 1857, Queen Victoria chose Ottawa as the permanent capital of the Province of Canada, initiating construction of Canada's first parliament buildings, on Parliament Hill . The first stage of this construction

1288-663: The Rebellions of 1837 . Lord Elgin granted royal assent to the bill despite heated Tory opposition and his own personal misgivings, sparking riots in Montreal, during which Elgin himself was assaulted by an English-speaking Orange Order mob and the Parliament buildings were burned down. It was under Head, that true political party government was introduced with the Liberal-Conservative Party of John A. Macdonald and George-Étienne Cartier in 1856. It

1380-686: The Report on the Affairs of British North America following the Rebellions of 1837–1838 . The Act of Union 1840 , passed on 23 July 1840 by the British Parliament and proclaimed by the Crown on 10 February 1841, merged the Colonies of Upper Canada and Lower Canada by abolishing their separate parliaments and replacing them with a single one with two houses, a Legislative Council as

1472-476: The paramilitary Société des Fils de la Liberté during the assemblée des six-comtés . In his last speech before the armed conflict, Papineau said that it was not yet time to fight. He thought that political actions could still avoid fighting. Wolfred Nelson made a speech immediately afterwards, saying that he disagreed with Papineau and thought that it was time to fight. After the Assemblée des Six-Comtés ,

1564-606: The "Ninety-two Resolutions" while he was secretly co-ordinating with Upper Canada. After protestors were shot in Montreal in 1832, Papineau had to submit the list of "resolutions" to the governor himself. The document that was presented to the House of Assembly on January 7, 1834, and had 92 demands to the British government. By 1834, the assembly had passed the Ninety-two Resolutions , outlining its grievances against

1656-508: The 1830s. Their support was concentrated among southwestern Canada West farmers, who were frustrated and disillusioned by the 1849 Reform government of Robert Baldwin and Louis-Hippolyte Lafontaine's lack of democratic enthusiasm. The Clear Grits advocated universal male suffrage , representation by population , democratic institutions, reductions in government expenditure, abolition of the Clergy reserves , voluntarism , and free trade with

1748-563: The 1840 Act of Union had truly granted a responsible government to former Upper and Lower Canada. They advocated important democratic reforms, republicanism, separation of the state and the church . In 1858, the elected rouges allied with the Clear Grits . This resulted in the shortest-lived government in Canadian history, falling in less than a day. The Clear Grits were the inheritors of William Lyon Mackenzie's Reform movement of

1840-522: The Anglophones opposed. The granting of responsible government to the colony is typically attributed to reforms in 1848 (principally the effective transfer of control over patronage from the Governor to the elected ministry). These reforms resulted in the appointment of the second Baldwin–Lafontaine government that quickly removed many of the disabilities on French-Canadian political participation in

1932-528: The British business class. Since the population was mostly French-Canadian, those elected to the House of Assembly tended to be French-speaking and to support the French-Canadian business class. The House of Assembly gave an illusion of power to French-Canadians, but the Executive and Legislative Councils advised the governor, who could veto any legislation. Both councils were made of people chosen by

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2024-699: The Canada–U.S. border in an attempt to invade Lower Canada and Upper Canada, overthrow the colonial government, and establish two independent republics. A second revolt began with the Battle of Beauharnois in November 1838, which was also suppressed by the British. The Frères Chasseurs had camps around Lower Canada, in which they were arming themselves. Their main camp was in Napierville . They had many participants but not enough weapons. They planned to take control of

2116-625: The Canadian Party and editor of the newspaper. That created a leadership crisis in the party. During the War of 1812 many rumours circulated in the colony of a possible invasion. The French-Canadians depended on the protection of Britain, which created a certain unity in the colony during wartime. At the same time, some among the English-speaking business elite advocated a union of Upper and Lower Canada to ensure competitiveness with

2208-459: The Chénier Cell kidnapped the Vice-Premier of Quebec and Labour Minister, Pierre Laporte . The kidnappers approached Laporte, while he was playing football with his nephew on his front yard and forced him into their vehicle at gunpoint. The members of the Chénier Cell believed many other Québécois people would follow them in an uprising to create an independent state. On October 15, 1970,

2300-515: The Crown. It delegated authority to municipal governments so they could raise taxes and enact by-laws . It also established a hierarchy of types of municipal governments, starting at the top with cities and continued down past towns, villages and finally townships. This system was to prevail for the next 150 years. During the year-long constitutional crisis in 1843–44, when Metcalfe prorogued Parliament to demonstrate its irrelevance, Baldwin established

2392-696: The District Council. The aim of both exercises in state-building was to strengthen the power of the Governor General, to minimise the effect of the numerically superior French vote, and to build a "middle party" that answered to him, rather than the Family Compact or the Reformers. Sydenham was a Whig who believed in rational government, not "responsible government". To implement his plan, he used widespread electoral violence through

2484-469: The English merchants and bourgeoisie and had the support of bureaucrats and the old seigneurial families . The Canadian Party was formed by aristocrats, French or English. The Catholic Church did not openly advocate for any political party but tended to support the English party. With the power in the hand of the population, the French-Canadian business class needed support from the population more than from

2576-618: The English party. The appointed legislative council was dominated by a small group of businessmen known as the Château Clique , the equivalent of the Family Compact in Upper Canada . In the early 19th century the economy of Lower Canada changed drastically. Logging became more important than agriculture and the fur trade, which worried those who worked in the fields. Activists in Lower Canada began to work for reform of

2668-506: The French vote by giving each of the former provinces the same number of parliamentary seats, despite the larger population of Lower Canada. Although Durham's report had called for the Union of the Canadas and for responsible government (a government accountable to an independent local legislature), only the first of the two recommendations was implemented in 1841. For the first seven years,

2760-853: The Government of Quebec put forward a request for the Canadian Armed Forces to support the Service de police de la Ville de Montréal . On October 16, 1970, the Government of Canada proclaimed the existence of a state of "apprehended insurrection" under the War Measures Act . These emergency regulations outlawed the FLQ and made membership a criminal act. In addition, normal liberties were suspended and arrests and detentions were authorized without charges. On October 17, 1970,

2852-400: The Legislative Assembly would now become responsible for local administration and legislation. It also deprived the Governor of patronage appointments to the civil service, which had been the basis of Metcalfe's policy. The test of responsible government came in 1849, when the Baldwin–Lafontaine government passed the Rebellion Losses Bill, compensating French Canadians for losses suffered during

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2944-541: The Legislative Council reviewed legislation produced by the elected Legislative Assembly. Sydenham came from a wealthy family of timber merchants, and was an expert in finance, having served on the English Board of Trade which regulated banking (including the colony). He was promised a barony if he could successfully implement the union of the Canadas, and introduce a new form of municipal government,

3036-530: The Lower Canada Rebellion was more or less swept under the rug — as an unfortunate incident, perhaps, in the struggle for responsible government. It was a lot more than that. I don't think one can even begin to understand French Canada until the size and scope of its wounds in those troubles is realized...Some of the effects of that rebellion are still stamped on our national character and still eating at us." The Lower Canada Rebellion, along with

3128-473: The Patriote newspapers published controversial articles about the Legislative Council, and both heads of the newspapers got arrested. That created a huge tension in the population against the British government, especially when the army shot three people in a crowd during a Montreal by-election in 1832 and nobody was arrested. After hearing about the 99 grievances submitted by Robert Gourlay, Papineau wrote

3220-479: The Patriotes were divided between supporters of Papineau and supporters of Nelson. On the other side, the supporters of the Russell Resolutions called a Constitutional Association led by Peter McGill and John Molson, and held gatherings around the province calling for government troops to return order to the colony. On November 6, 1837, Les Fils de la Liberté were holding a meeting in Montreal, when

3312-467: The Patriotes were not quite ready to fight regular soldiers. Led by Wolfred Nelson, they defeated a government force at the Battle of Saint-Denis on November 23, 1837. He had 800 people ready to fight, half of them equipped with firearms. With confidence among the Patriote supporters wavering, Nelson threatened them to make sure that they would not leave. Papineau was not there during the fight, which surprised many people. Government troops soon beat back

3404-613: The Patriotes' trust by appointing seven French-Canadian members to the Legislative Assembly. In September and October 1837, a group of more radical Patriotes tried to intimidate the colonial government by going out into the street and rioting near the homes of certain loyalists. At the end of October, the largest of the Patriotes' gatherings took place in Saint-Charles, led by Wolfred Nelson . It lasted for two days and formed La Confédération des Six-Comtés . Papineau organized protests and assemblies and eventually approved formation of

3496-539: The Province of Canada. The instability of this new regime (see Joint Premiers of the Province of Canada ) eventually led to the formation of the Great Coalition . 1867 brought another major constitutional change and the formation of the Canadian Confederation . Joseph Schull , author of a book on the rebellion, once said: "For the most part, in the writing of Canadian history in English,

3588-729: The Rebellion. The Canadian–American Reciprocity Treaty of 1854, also known as the Elgin– Marcy Treaty, was a trade treaty between the United Province of Canada and the United States. It covered raw materials and was in effect from 1854 to 1865. It represented a move toward free trade. Education in Canada West was regulated by the province through the General Board of Education from 1846 until 1850, when it

3680-468: The Reform Party won a decisive victory at the polls. Elgin invited LaFontaine to form the new government, the first time a Governor General requested cabinet formation on the basis of party. The party character of the ministry meant that the elected premier – and no longer the governor – would be the head of the government. The Governor General would become a more symbolic figure. The elected Premier in

3772-572: The Russell resolutions rejected all of the Patriotes' resolutions and gave the right to the governor to take subsidies without voting in the assembly. It also said that the legislative council would continue to be chosen by the Crown. The Russell Resolutions were adopted in Westminster by a huge majority. Papineau continued to push for reform. He petitioned the British government, but in March 1837

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3864-647: The United States. Their platform was similar to that of the British Chartists . The Clear Grits and the Parti rouge evolved into the Liberal Party of Canada . The Parti bleu was a moderate political group in Canada East that emerged in 1854. It was based on the moderate reformist views of Louis-Hippolyte Lafontaine. The Liberal-Conservative Party emerged from a coalition government in 1854 in which moderate Reformers and Conservatives from Canada West joined with bleus from Canada East under

3956-768: The University of Toronto and the school's ties with the Church of England were severed. The Grand Trunk Railway was incorporated by the Legislature in the 1850s. Exploration of Western Canada and Rupert's Land with a view to annexation and settlement was a priority of Canada West politicians in the 1850s leading to the Palliser Expedition and the Red River Expedition of Henry Youle Hind , George Gladman and Simon James Dawson . In 1857,

4048-400: The Upper Canadian Rebellion, is often seen as an example of what might have occurred in the United States if the American Revolutionary War had failed. In Quebec, the rebellion, as well as the parliamentary and popular struggle, is now commemorated as the Journée nationale des Patriotes (National Patriots' Day) on the Canadian statutory holiday , Victoria Day . Since the late 20th century,

4140-443: The administration of Lord Melbourne rejected all of Papineau's requests. After the Russell Resolutions were announced, the Patriotes used their newspapers to organize popular gatherings to inform people about their positions. They encouraged people to boycott British produce and illegally import goods from the United States. The gatherings took place all over Lower Canada, and thousands participated. Papineau attended most gatherings in

4232-409: The battle. The Battle of Saint-Eustache was a significant defeat. The defeat of the rebellions can be explained by the fact that the Patriotes were not quite ready to fight. When news of the arrest of the Patriote leaders reached Upper Canada, William Lyon Mackenzie launched an armed rebellion in December 1837. After the insurrection, the government prepared for another armed conflict. It reorganized

4324-469: The border into the United States raided Lower Canada. During the summer of 1838, the Patriotes in the United States formed a secret society, called Frères chasseurs, to invade Lower Canada from the United States. The secret group also had members in Lower Canada itself, who would assist in the invasion. The goal was an independent state of Lower Canada. Two major armed conflicts occurred when groups of Lower Canadian Patriotes, led by Robert Nelson , crossed

4416-445: The camps when they heard government forces approaching, and the latter were ultimately barely involved in the second uprising of the Patriotes. The British government subsequently dispatched Lord Durham to investigate the cause of the rebellion. His report in 1839 recommended that the Canadas be united into one colony (the Province of Canada ) to assimilate the French-speaking Canadiens into English Canadian culture. For Durham,

4508-471: The colony. Once the English population, rapidly growing through immigration, exceeded the French, the English demanded representation-by-population. In the end, the legislative deadlock between English and French led to a movement for a federal union which resulted in the broader Canadian Confederation in 1867. In "The Liberal Order Framework: A Prospectus for a Reconnaissance of Canadian History" McKay argues that "the category 'Canada' should henceforth denote

4600-462: The council and chair of the various committees. The first was Robert Baldwin Sullivan . Thomson also systematically organised the civil service into departments, the heads of which sat on the Executive Council. A further innovation was to demand that every Head of department seek election in the Legislative Assembly. The Legislative Council of the Province of Canada was the upper house . The 24 legislative councillors were originally appointed. In 1856,

4692-470: The countryside. Papineau escaped to the United States, and other rebels organized in the countryside. On November 16, Constable Malo was sent to arrest three Patriotes. He transported them from Saint-Jean, accompanied by 15 people. The prisoners were liberated in Longueuil, where 150 Patriotes were waiting for them. The victory significantly improved the morale of the Patriotes, who knew that this event meant that government troops would soon intervene. However,

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4784-404: The day after the Government of Canada invoked the War Measures Act , the Chénier Cell announced that they had executed Laporte. Laporte was found strangled in the back of a stolen motor vehicle abandoned near the Montreal Saint-Hubert Longueuil Airport . In late December 1970, four weeks after the members of the Liberation Cell were found by authorities, the Chénier Cell members were located in

4876-416: The day has become a symbol for the Quebec independence movement and, to a lesser extent, a symbol of Canada's small republican movement . Province of Canada The Province of Canada (or the United Province of Canada or the United Canadas ) was a British colony in British North America from 1841 to 1867. Its formation reflected recommendations made by John Lambton, 1st Earl of Durham , in

4968-475: The day-to-day government of the conservative ministry of William Draper, thereby indirectly emphasising the need for responsible government. His primary focus was on redrafting the Militia Act of 1846. The signing of the Oregon Boundary Treaty in 1846 made him dispensable. Elgin's second wife, Lady Mary Louisa Lambton, was the daughter of Lord Durham and niece of Lord Grey , making him an ideal compromise figure to introduce responsible government. On his arrival,

5060-408: The document was popular. In 1834, the Parti patriote swept the election by gaining more than three quarters of the popular vote. When London received the resolutions, they asked Governor Lord Gosford to analyze it. At first, he was trying to attract the Patriotes away from Papineau and his influence. However, the same governor created a loyal militia made of volunteers to fight the Patriotes. In 1836,

5152-442: The dual prime-ministership of Allan MacNab and A.-N. Morin . The new ministry were committed to secularise the Clergy reserves in Canada West and to abolish seigneurial tenure in Canada East. Over time, the Liberal-Conservatives evolved into the Conservative party. No provision for responsible government was included in the Act of Union 1840. Early Governors of the province were closely involved in political affairs, maintaining

5244-400: The early 1800s by James Stuart and Louis-Joseph Papineau , who formed the Parti patriote and sought accountability from the elected general assembly and the appointed governor of the colony. After the Constitutional Act 1791 , Lower Canada could elect a House of Assembly, which led to the rise of two parties: the English Party and the Canadian Party. The English Party was mostly composed of

5336-526: The economic disfranchisement of the French-speaking majority and working-class English-speaking citizens. The rebellion opposed the colonial government's appointed upper house of the legislature. Many of those appointed were English-speaking. French speakers felt that English-speakers were disproportionately represented in the lucrative fields of banking, timber, and transportation. Sir James Henry Craig , governor from 1807 to 1812, encountered multiple crises. He called elections three times in 16 months because he

5428-430: The elected members would change and then decided to prorogue the parliament. The population reacted by sending a petition signed by 87,000 people to London against Dalhousie. Reformers in England had Dalhousie reassigned to India, but the legislative council and the assembly were still unable to reach a compromise. From 1828 to 1832, there was a brief calm, and the assembly was able to pass several important laws. In 1832,

5520-467: The explicit instructions to resist calls for responsible government. He arrived in the capital, Kingston, to find that Thomson's "middle party" had become polarised and he therefore could not form an executive. Even the Tories informed Bagot he could not form a cabinet without including LaFontaine and the French Party. LaFontaine demanded four cabinet seats, including one for Robert Baldwin. Bagot became severely ill thereafter, and Baldwin and Lafontaine became

5612-447: The fact that there were two groups (English and French) created a hostile environment. He thought that the way to solve to problems in Lower Canada was to assimilate the French-Canadians. He also recommended accepting the rebels' grievances by granting responsible government to the new colony. After the first insurrection, the Pied-du-Courant Prison in Montreal was overfull. In July, Durham emptied it. When hostilities resumed in 1838,

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5704-400: The first real premiers of the Province of Canada. However, to take office as ministers, the two had to run for re-election. While LaFontaine was easily re-elected in 4th York, Baldwin lost his seat in Hastings as a result of Orange Order violence. It was now that the pact between the two men was completely solidified, as LaFontaine arranged for Baldwin to run in Rimouski , Canada East. This was

5796-473: The government was able to vote some subsidies to the administration during the assembly because the assembly members from the City of Quebec decided to go against Papineau. The period of calm did not last long because a month later, Papineau found Gosford's secret instructions, which said that the British never planned on accepting the resolutions. However, the reformers in Lower Canada were divided over several issues. A moderate reformer, John Neilson , had quit

5888-400: The government was led by an appointed governor general accountable only to the British government . Responsible government was not achieved until the second LaFontaine–Baldwin ministry in 1849, when Governor General James Bruce, 8th Earl of Elgin , agreed that the cabinet would be formed by the largest party in the Legislative Assembly, making the premier the head of the government and reducing

5980-434: The governor general to a more symbolic role. The Province of Canada ceased to exist at Canadian Confederation on 1 July 1867, when it was divided into the Canadian provinces of Ontario and Quebec . Ontario included the area occupied by the pre-1841 British colony of Upper Canada, while Quebec included the area occupied by the pre-1841 British colony of Lower Canada (which had included Labrador until 1809, when Labrador

6072-406: The increasingly-large and powerful economy of the United States, while some rebels were inspired by the success of the American War of Independence. The British-appointed governor, George Ramsey, Earl of Dalhousie , favoured unification. In Lower Canada, the growing sense of nationalism among English- and the French-speaking citizens was organized into the Parti canadien, which, after 1826, was called

6164-400: The individual. The Baldwin Act 1849 , also known as the Municipal Corporations Act, replaced the local government system based on district councils in Canada West by government at the county level. It also granted more autonomy to townships, villages, towns and cities. Despite the controversy, the government compensated landowners in the Rebellion Losses Bill of 1849 for the actions during

6256-400: The legislative council. The goal was to group all together, in a single document, the people's grievances. It was addressed to the British government to tell it the problems of the colony. The Patriotes were supported by an overwhelming majority of Lower Canada's population of all origins. There were popular gatherings all around the colony to sign a petition that was sent to London to show that

6348-441: The military defeat of the Patriotes, Lower Canada was merged with Upper Canada under the Act of Union , passed by the British Parliament . The Canadiens had a narrow majority in the new province, but with continued emigration of English-speakers to Canada West, that dominance was short lived. Eight years after the Union, the coalition between Louis-Hippolyte LaFontaine and Robert Baldwin achieved elected responsible government in

6440-557: The offers. Once the battle started, Brown escaped the fight. After the Battle of Saint-Charles, Nelson tried to keep Saint-Denis safe, but knew there was no hope. The main leaders, including Papineau, O'Callaghan, and Nelson, left for the United States. The last battle of the rebellions was the Battle of Saint-Eustache. When the battle came, on December 14, 1837, there were between 500 and 600 people ready to fight. The government forces were expecting strong resistance and so had brought 2,000 men. Most Patriote leaders were killed or fled during

6532-525: The parti patriote. In 1811, James Stuart became leader of the Parti canadien in the assembly and in 1815, reformer Louis-Joseph Papineau was elected as speaker. The elected assembly had little power since its decisions could be vetoed by either the legislative council and the governor, appointed by the British government. Dalhousie and Papineau were soon at odds over the issue of uniting the Canadas. Dalhousie forced an election in 1827, rather than accept Papineau as assembly speaker. Dalhousie mistakenly hoped that

6624-611: The party in 1830 and joined the Constitutional Association four years later. Papineau's anticlerical position alienated reformers in the Catholic Church, and his support for secular, rather than religious, schools resulted in opposition by the powerful Bishop, Jean-Jacques Lartigue , who called on all Catholics to reject the reform movement and to support the authorities, forcing many to choose between their religion and their political convictions. In 1837,

6716-644: The prison filled with even more prisoners. Martial law was declared. This allowed the government to imprison people without reason. Ninety-nine prisoners from the second rebellion were sentenced to death. Twelve were hanged; the last hanging is dramatized in the 2001 film February 15, 1839 . The government feared that the populace would sympathize with the prisoners. So, 141 prisoners from Lower and Upper Canada were instead sent to work camps in Australia . In 1844, they were allowed to return. Although they had to pay for their fare home, most had returned by 1845. After

6808-565: The province." In the ensuing election, however, the Reformers did not win a majority and thus were not called to form another ministry. Responsible government would be delayed until after 1848. Cathcart had been a staff officer with Wellington in the Napoleonic Wars, and rose in rank to become commander of British forces in North America from June 1845 to May 1847. He was also appointed as Administrator then Governor General for

6900-487: The rebels, defeating them at Saint-Charles on November 25 and at Saint-Eustache on December 14, burning a rebel outpost after their second victory. On December 5, the government declared martial law in Montreal. At the Battle of Saint-Charles, the Patriotes were defeated. General Brown was confident but was not a capable commander. There was no discipline in the camp. Different people offered him men, but he turned down all

6992-544: The requirement of a "double majority" to pass laws in the Legislative Assembly (i.e., a majority in both the Canada East and Canada West sections of the assembly). The removal of the deadlock resulted in three conferences that led to confederation. Thomson reformed the Executive Councils of Upper and Lower Canada by introducing a "President of the Committees of Council" to act as a chief executive officer for

7084-661: The road between the United States and Napierville, but were intercepted by volunteers. The Frères Chasseurs were defeated in 30 minutes. Shortly afterward, Robert Nelson and other members came from Napierville to take control of the same area. However, volunteers were already waiting and had help from the Loyal Rangers of Clarenceville . This time, the battle lasted longer, but the Frères Chasseurs were ultimately defeated. Then, three secondary camps were scattered very easily by armed volunteers. Most Patriotes left

7176-417: The same number as the more populated Canada East, with 650,000 inhabitants. The Legislature's effectiveness was further hampered by the requirement of a "double majority" where a majority of votes for the passage of a bill had to be obtained from the members of both Canada East and West. Each administration was led by two men, one from each half of the province. Officially, one of them at any given time had

7268-466: The same period, uniting for the first time the highest Civil and military offices. The appointment of this military officer as Governor General was due to heightened tensions with the United States over the Oregon boundary dispute . Cathcart was deeply interested in the natural sciences, but ignorant of constitutional practice, and hence an unusual choice for Governor General. He refused to become involved in

7360-399: The summer of 1837, to ensure that people would pressure the government only by political measures, such as the boycott of British produce. Governor Gosford tried to forbid those gatherings but they were attended even by those loyal to him. At the end of the summer, many of Gosford's local representatives quit, in a show of support for the Patriotes. Gosford hired loyal people and tried to gain

7452-727: The title of Premier , while the other had the title of Deputy . Municipal government in Upper Canada was under the control of appointed magistrates who sat in Courts of Quarter Sessions to administer the law within a District. A few cities, such as Toronto, were incorporated by special acts of the legislature. Governor Thomson , 1st Baron Sydenham, spearheaded the passage of the District Councils Act which transferred municipal government to District Councils. His bill allowed for two elected councillors from each township, but

7544-806: The union of the Canadas they sought, where LaFontaine overcame linguistic prejudice to gain a seat in English Canada, and Baldwin obtained his seat in French Canada. The Baldwin–LaFontaine ministry barely lasted six months before Governor Bagot also died in March 1843. He was replaced by Charles Metcalfe, whose instructions were to check the "radical" reform government. Metcalfe reverted to the Thomson system of strong central autocratic rule. Metcalfe began appointing his own supporters to patronage positions without Baldwin and LaFontaine's approval, as joint premiers. They resigned in November 1843, beginning

7636-543: The upper chamber and the Legislative Assembly as the lower chamber. In the aftermath of the Rebellions of 1837–1838, unification of the two Canadas was driven by two factors. Firstly, Upper Canada was near bankruptcy because it lacked stable tax revenues, and needed the resources of the more populous Lower Canada to fund its internal transportation improvements. Secondly, unification was an attempt to swamp

7728-502: The warden, clerk and treasurer were to be appointed by the government. This thus allowed for strong administrative control and continued government patronage appointments. Sydenham's bill reflected his larger concerns to limit popular participation under the tutelage of a strong executive. The Councils were reformed by the Baldwin Act in 1849 which made municipal government truly democratic rather than an extension of central control of

7820-492: The whole organization, mostly in the urban areas like Montréal and Quebec. The government had 5,000 regular troops stationed in Lower Canada, and knew that the leaders of the Patriote movement were in the United States, so the government maintained contact with spies in the United States, and the American government kept their British counterparts informed of rebel activity. In February 1838, rebel leaders who had escaped across

7912-505: Was completed in 1865, just in time to host the final session of the last parliament of the Province of Canada before Confederation in 1867. The Governor General remained the head of the civil administration of the colony, appointed by the British government, and responsible to it, not to the local legislature. He was aided by the Executive Council and the Legislative Council. The Executive Council aided in administration, and

8004-417: Was during their ministry that the first organised moves toward Canadian Confederation took place. It was under Monck's governorship that the Great Coalition of all of the political parties of the two Canadas occurred in 1864. The Great Coalition was formed to end the political deadlock between predominantly French-speaking Canada East and predominantly English-speaking Canada West. The deadlock resulted from

8096-404: Was highly unpopular with some English-speaking Loyalists who favoured imperial over majority rule. As Canada East and Canada West each held 42 seats in the Legislative Assembly , there was a legislative deadlock between English (mainly from Canada West) and French (mainly from Canada East). The majority of the province was French, which demanded "rep-by-pop" (representation by population), which

8188-464: Was not satisfied with the people elected even though they kept being re-elected. Craig thought that the Canadian Party and its supporters wanted a French-Canadian republic, and feared that if the United States invaded Lower Canada, the Canadian Party would collaborate. In 1810, Craig imprisoned journalists working for the Le Canadien newspaper, in particular Pierre-Stanislas Bédard , the leader of

8280-527: Was replaced by the Department of Public Instruction, which lasted until 1876. The province improved the educational system in Canada West under Egerton Ryerson . French was reinstated as an official language of the legislature and the courts. The Legislature also codified the Civil Code of Lower Canada in 1866, and abolished the seigneurial system in Canada East. In 1849, King's College was renamed

8372-434: Was transferred to the British colony of Newfoundland ). Upper Canada was primarily English-speaking, whereas Lower Canada was primarily French-speaking. The Province of Canada was divided into two parts: Canada East and Canada West . Canada East was what became of the former colony of Lower Canada after being united into the Province of Canada. It would become the province of Quebec after Confederation. Canada West

8464-580: Was what became of the former colony of Upper Canada after being united into the Province of Canada. It would become the province of Ontario after Confederation. The location of the capital city of the Province of Canada changed six times in its 26-year history. The first capital was in Kingston (1841–1844). The capital moved to Montreal (1844–1849) until rioters, spurred by a series of incendiary articles published in The Gazette , protested against

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