51-470: Lak mueang ( Thai : หลักเมือง , pronounced [làk mɯ̄a̯ŋ] ) are city pillars found in most cities of Thailand. Usually housed in a shrine ( ศาลหลักเมือง , [sǎːn làk mɯ̄a̯ŋ] ) which is also believed to house Chao Pho Lak Mueang ( เจ้าพ่อหลักเมือง , [t͡ɕâw pʰɔ̂ː làk mɯ̄a̯ŋ] ), the city spirit deity . It was constructed because the continuation of ancient traditions and Brahman's customs believed that it has something to do with
102-411: A dialect continuum . Thai language is spoken by over 69 million people (2020). Moreover, most Thais in the northern (Lanna) and the northeastern (Isan) parts of the country today are bilingual speakers of Central Thai and their respective regional dialects because Central Thai is the language of television, education, news reporting, and all forms of media. A recent research found that the speakers of
153-565: A second language among the country's minority ethnic groups from the mid-late Ayutthaya period onward. Ethnic minorities today are predominantly bilingual, speaking Thai alongside their native language or dialect. Standard Thai is classified as one of the Chiang Saen languages—others being Northern Thai , Southern Thai and numerous smaller languages, which together with the Northwestern Tai and Lao-Phutai languages, form
204-454: A base 180 centimetres (71 in) wide. Both old and new pillars were moved to a refurbished pavilion with a spire ( prang ) modelled on the shrine of Ayudhya . The shrine was finished on Sunday, 1 May 1853. In 1980, in preparation for the celebration of the 200th anniversary of Rattanakosin in 1982, the Bangkok city pillar shrine underwent renovation, including the addition of arches to house
255-597: A different type , in order to retain the Australasian group of species in the genus Acacia . Following a controversial decision to choose a new type for Acacia in 2005, the Australian component of Acacia s.l. now retains the name Acacia . At the 2011 International Botanical Congress held in Melbourne , Australia, the decision to use the name Acacia , rather than the proposed Racosperma for this genus,
306-453: A different type species for Acacia ( A. penninervis ) and allowing this largest number of species to remain in Acacia , resulting in the two pan-tropical lineages being renamed Vachellia and Senegalia , and the two endemic American lineages renamed Acaciella and Mariosousa . In 2003, Anthony Orchard and Bruce Maslin filed a proposal to conserve the name Acacia with
357-503: A five-city guardian deity. is popular worshipped in Tai folk religion and hinduism such as Kāla and Chitragupta . According to the In–;Chan–Mun–Kong legend of the shrine, Thai locals believed that the construction of the shrine required the sacrifice of four people after the proclamation of the words "in–chan–mun–kong" all over the city ( "in" from
408-533: A four-way distinction among stops and affricates . The maximal four-way occurred in labials ( /p pʰ b ʔb/ ) and denti-alveolars ( /t tʰ d ʔd/ ); the three-way distinction among velars ( /k kʰ ɡ/ ) and palatals ( /tɕ tɕʰ dʑ/ ), with the glottalized member of each set apparently missing. The major change between old and modern Thai was due to voicing distinction losses and the concomitant tone split . This may have happened between about 1300 and 1600 CE, possibly occurring at different times in different parts of
459-459: A new pillar in Bangkok, no further shrines in the provinces were built until 1944, when then- Prime Minister of Thailand Phibunsongkhram built a city pillar in Phetchabun , as he intended to move the capital to this town. Though this plan failed to get approval by the parliament, the idea of city pillars caught on, and in the following years several provincial towns built new shrines. In 1992,
510-440: A species from Africa, as the lectotype of the name. Genus Acacia was considered to contain some 1 352 species leading to 1986. That year, Leslie Pedley questioned the monophyletic nature of the genus, and proposed a split into three genera: Acacia sensu stricto (161 species), Senegalia (231 species) and Racosperma (960 species), the last name first proposed in 1829 by Carl Friedrich Philipp von Martius as
561-530: A syllable that formerly began with a voiceless consonant (including glottalized stops). An additional complication is that formerly voiceless unaspirated stops/affricates (original /p t k tɕ ʔb ʔd/ ) also caused original tone 1 to lower, but had no such effect on original tones 2 or 3. The above consonant mergers and tone splits account for the complex relationship between spelling and sound in modern Thai. Modern "low"-class consonants were voiced in Old Thai, and
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#1732787802395612-461: A term used in antiquity to describe a preparation extracted from Vachellia nilotica , the original type species . A number of species of Acacia have been introduced to various parts of the world, and two million hectares of commercial plantations have been established. Plants in the genus Acacia are shrubs or trees with bipinnate leaves, the mature leaves sometimes reduced to phyllodes or rarely absent. There are 2 small stipules at
663-527: A thread-like style that is longer than the stamens. The fruit is a variably-shaped pod , sometimes flat or cylindrical, containing seeds with a fleshy aril on the end. The genus was first validly named in 1754 by Philip Miller in The Gardeners Dictionary . In 1913 Nathaniel Lord Britton and Addison Brown selected Mimosa scorpioides L. (≡ Acacia scorpioides ( L. ) W.Wight = Acacia nilotica ( L. ) Delille ),
714-673: Is a common food source and host plant for butterflies of the genus Jalmenus . The imperial hairstreak, Jalmenus evagoras , feeds on at least 25 acacia species. Many reptiles feed on the sap, such as the native house gecko in Australia. The sap is also consumed by bugs (Hemiptera), such as Hackerobrachys viridiventris and Sextius virescens . Some species of acacia contain psychoactive alkaloids , and some contain potassium fluoroacetate . The seed pods, flowers, and young leaves are generally edible either raw or cooked. Aboriginal Australians have traditionally harvested
765-537: Is a genus of about 1,084 species of shrubs and trees in the subfamily Mimosoideae of the pea family Fabaceae . Initially, it comprised a group of plant species native to Africa, South America, and Australasia , but is now reserved for species mainly from Australia, with others from New Guinea , Southeast Asia, and the Indian Ocean. The genus name is Neo-Latin , borrowed from the Greek ἀκακία ( akakia ),
816-525: Is believed that people will achieve prosperity and fulfillment in their work and career, avoid misfortune, and improve their luck, power, and prestige if they bow and pay their respects at this sacred place. The shrine is in the heart of Bangkok, opposite the grand palace in the southeast corner of the Sanam Luang and close to the Ministry of Defence . According to a historian, the shrine was built after
867-523: Is derived from or borrowed from Pali , Sanskrit , Mon and Old Khmer . It is a tonal and analytic language . Thai has a complex orthography and system of relational markers . Spoken Thai, depending on standard sociolinguistic factors such as age, gender, class, spatial proximity, and the urban/rural divide, is partly mutually intelligible with Lao , Isan , and some fellow Thai topolects . These languages are written with slightly different scripts, but are linguistically similar and effectively form
918-532: Is not housed in a shrine at all; but, since 1988, is in an open place inside Wat Phra That Doi Chom Thong ; it is called the sadue mueang ( Thai : สะดือเมือง ), 'navel' or ' omphalos ' of the city. In Roi Et , the city pillar is housed in a sala (open-air pavilion) on an island in the lake in the centre of the city. Bangkok's city pillar shrine (also known as san lak muang ) is one of the most ancient, sacred, and magnificent city pillar shrines in Thailand. It
969-893: The Eocene of the Paris Basin . Acacia -like fossil pods under the name Leguminocarpon are known from late Oligocene deposits at different sites in Hungary . Seed pod fossils of † Acacia parschlugiana and † Acacia cyclosperma are known from Tertiary deposits in Switzerland . † Acacia colchica has been described from the Miocene of West Georgia . Pliocene fossil pollen of an Acacia sp. has been described from West Georgia (including Abkhazia ). The oldest fossil Acacia pollen in Australia are recorded as being from
1020-558: The Ministry of Interior ordered that every province should have such a shrine. As of 2010, however, a few provinces still have no city pillar shrine. In Chonburi the shrine was scheduled to be finished by the end of 2011. The building style of the shrines varies. Especially in provinces with a significant Thai Chinese influence, the city pillar may be housed in a shrine that resembles a Chinese temple as, for example in Songkhla , Samut Prakan , and Yasothon . Chiang Rai 's city pillar
1071-466: The Northern Thai language (also known as Phasa Mueang or Kham Mueang) have become so few, as most people in northern Thailand now invariably speak Standard Thai, so that they are now using mostly Central Thai words and only seasoning their speech with the "Kham Mueang" accent. Standard Thai is based on the register of the educated classes by Central Thai and ethnic minorities in the area along
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#17327878023951122-570: The Southwestern branch of Tai languages . The Tai languages are a branch of the Kra–Dai language family , which encompasses a large number of indigenous languages spoken in an arc from Hainan and Guangxi south through Laos and Northern Vietnam to the Cambodian border. Standard Thai is the principal language of education and government and spoken throughout Thailand. The standard is based on
1173-450: The Held, the single city pillar ceremony (Held “Lak Muang”) which is made of an Acacia wood Chaiyaphreuk ( Thai : ชัยพฤกษ์ ) before the construction of the city for a major goal to build a city and to be the centre of soul for the citizens. It was probably King Rama I who erected the first city pillar on 21 April 1782, when he moved his capital from Thonburi to Bangkok . The shrine was
1224-555: The Khmer system first before the Thai borrowed. Old Thai had a three-way tone distinction on "live syllables" (those not ending in a stop), with no possible distinction on "dead syllables" (those ending in a stop, i.e. either /p/, /t/, /k/ or the glottal stop that automatically closes syllables otherwise ending in a short vowel). There was a two-way voiced vs. voiceless distinction among all fricative and sonorant consonants, and up to
1275-491: The Thai-speaking area. All voiced–voiceless pairs of consonants lost the voicing distinction: However, in the process of these mergers, the former distinction of voice was transferred into a new set of tonal distinctions. In essence, every tone in Old Thai split into two new tones, with a lower-pitched tone corresponding to a syllable that formerly began with a voiced consonant, and a higher-pitched tone corresponding to
1326-414: The base of the leaf, but sometimes fall off as the leaf matures. The flowers are borne in spikes or cylindrical heads, sometimes singly, in pairs or in racemes in the axils of leaves or phyllodes, sometimes in panicles on the ends of branches. Each spike or cylindrical head has many small golden-yellow to pale creamy-white flowers, each with 4 or 5 sepals and petals, more than 10 stamens , and
1377-545: The dialect of the central Thai people, and it is written in the Thai script . Hlai languages Kam-Sui languages Kra languages Be language Northern Tai languages Central Tai languages Khamti language Tai Lue language Shan language others Northern Thai language Thai language Southern Thai language Tai Yo language Phuthai language Lao language (PDR Lao, Isan language ) Thai has undergone various historical sound changes. Some of
1428-430: The effort of constructing the city began. It was intended to be the spiritual centre for Thai citizens. "Chaiyapreuk" (acacia) means "tree of victory". This wood was used by Thai locals to build a pillar 270 centimetres (110 in) high, buried 200 centimetres (79 in) deep, making a total height of 470 centimetres (190 in), and 74 centimetres (29 in) in diameter. Inside was a horoscope for Bangkok. However,
1479-663: The establishment of the Rattanakosin Kingdom (Bangkok) to replace the old capital of the Thonburi Kingdom during the reign of King Rama I of the Chakri dynasty at 06:45, Sunday, 21 April 1782. It was constructed according to ancient traditions such as the Brahmans' belief in the held , the single city pillar ceremony ( held "lak muang" ), in which a pillar of acacia wood ( chaiyapreuk ) was erected before
1530-699: The first building in his new capital, the palace and other buildings being constructed later. Shortly after the shrine in Bangkok, similar shrines were built in strategic provinces to symbolise central power, such as in Songkhla . More shrines were created during the reign of King Buddha Loetla Nabhalai (Rama II) in Nakhon Khuen Khan and Samut Prakan , and by King Nangklao (Rama III) in Chachoengsao , Chanthaburi , and Phra Tabong Province (now in Cambodia). However, after King Mongkut raised
1581-603: The late Oligocene epoch , 25 million years ago. Species of Acacia occurs in all Australian states and territories, and on its nearby islands. About 20 species occur naturally outside Australia and 7 of these also occur in Australia. One species ( Acacia koa ) is native to Hawaii and one ( Acacia heterophylla ) is native to Mauritius and Réunion in the Indian Ocean. They are present in all terrestrial habitats, including alpine settings, rainforests, woodlands, grasslands, coastal dunes and deserts. In drier woodlands or forests they are an important component of
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1632-528: The local patois as pronounced in Guangdong Ayutthaya , the old capital of Thailand from 1351 - 1767 A.D., was from the beginning a bilingual society, speaking Thai and Khmer . Bilingualism must have been strengthened and maintained for some time by the great number of Khmer-speaking captives the Thais took from Angkor Thom after their victories in 1369, 1388 and 1431. Gradually toward the end of
1683-403: The most attractive timbers in the genus. Black wattle bark supported the tanning industries of several countries, and may supply tannins for production of waterproof adhesives . In Vietnam , Acacia is used in plantations of non-native species that are regularly clear-cut for paper or timber uses. Wattle bark collected in Australia in the 19th century was exported to Europe where it
1734-551: The most significant changes occurred during the evolution from Old Thai to modern Thai. The Thai writing system has an eight-century history and many of these changes, especially in consonants and tones, are evidenced in the modern orthography . According to a Chinese source, during the Ming dynasty , Yingya Shenglan (1405–1433), Ma Huan reported on the language of the Xiānluó (暹羅) or Ayutthaya Kingdom, saying that it somewhat resembled
1785-657: The name of a section in Acacia , but raised to generic rank in 1835. In 2003, Pedley published a paper with 834 new combinations in Racosperma for species, most of which were formerly placed in Acacia . All but 10 of these species are native to Australasia , where it constitutes the largest plant genus. In the early 2000s, it had become evident that the genus as it stood was not monophyletic and that several divergent lineages needed to be placed in separate genera. It turned out that one lineage comprising over 900 species mainly native to Australia, New Guinea, and Indonesia
1836-436: The north, "chan" from the south, "mun" from the east, and "kong" from the west). Anyone who responded was captured, brought to the ceremonial location, and buried in a hole. Their spirits would guard and protect the city. This is only a myth and is not recorded in the chronicles. People usually use three incense sticks, one candle, gold foil, two lotus flowers, two flower garlands, and one three-colour taffeta to worship at
1887-415: The period, a language shift took place. Khmer fell out of use. Both Thai and Khmer descendants whose great-grand parents or earlier ancestors were bilingual came to use only Thai. In the process of language shift, an abundance of Khmer elements were transferred into Thai and permeated all aspects of the language. Consequently, the Thai of the late Ayutthaya Period which later became Ratanakosin or Bangkok Thai,
1938-519: The ring surrounding the Metropolis . In addition to Central Thai, Thailand is home to other related Tai languages . Although most linguists classify these dialects as related but distinct languages, native speakers often identify them as regional variants or dialects of the "same" Thai language, or as "different kinds of Thai". As a dominant language in all aspects of society in Thailand, Thai initially saw gradual and later widespread adoption as
1989-492: The royal vocabulary according to their immediate environment. Thai and Pali, the latter from Theravada Buddhism, were added to the vocabulary. An investigation of the Ayutthaya Rajasap reveals that three languages, Thai, Khmer and Khmero-Indic were at work closely both in formulaic expressions and in normal discourse. In fact, Khmero-Indic may be classified in the same category as Khmer because Indic had been adapted to
2040-693: The seeds of some species, to be ground into flour and eaten as a paste or baked into a cake. Wattleseeds contain as much as 25% more protein than common cereals, and they store well for long periods due to the hard seed coats. In addition to using the edible seed and gum, the people employed the timber for implements, weapons, fuel and musical instruments. A number of species, most notably Acacia mangium (hickory wattle), A. mearnsii (black wattle) and A. saligna (coojong), are economically important and are widely planted globally for wood products, tannin , firewood and fodder. A. melanoxylon (blackwood) and A. aneura (mulga) supply some of
2091-404: The shrine was renovated several times during the reigns of Kings Rama IV and Mongkut, and then became dilapidated. The king therefore ordered the excavation of the old pillar and construction of a replacement, with a new horoscope for the city placed inside. In 1852 the new pillar was installed, measuring 5.115 metres (201.4 in) tall, 47 centimetres (18.8 in) in diameter at the bottom, with
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2142-638: The shrine. Thai language Thai , or Central Thai (historically Siamese ; Thai: ภาษาไทย ), is a Tai language of the Kra–Dai language family spoken by the Central Thai , Mon , Lao Wiang , Phuan people in Central Thailand and the vast majority of Thai Chinese enclaves throughout the country. It is the sole official language of Thailand . Thai is the most spoken of over 60 languages of Thailand by both number of native and overall speakers. Over half of its vocabulary
2193-535: The terminology "low" reflects the lower tone variants that resulted. Modern "mid"-class consonants were voiceless unaspirated stops or affricates in Old Thai—precisely the class that triggered lowering in original tone 1 but not tones 2 or 3. Modern "high"-class consonants were the remaining voiceless consonants in Old Thai (voiceless fricatives, voiceless sonorants, voiceless aspirated stops). The three most common tone "marks" (the lack of any tone mark, as well as
2244-469: The three tones of Old Thai were split have since merged into five in standard Thai, with the lower variant of former tone 2 merging with the higher variant of former tone 3, becoming the modern "falling" tone. หม ม หน น, ณ หญ ญ หง ง ป ผ พ, ภ บ ฏ, ต ฐ, ถ ท, ธ ฎ, ด จ ฉ ช Acacia List of Acacia species Acacia , commonly known as wattles or acacias ,
2295-580: The tribe Ingeae . The genus name is Neo-Latin , borrowed from the Greek akakia , a name used by Dioscorides for some prickly species growing in Egypt, from acacis meaning "a point". In his Pinax (1623), Bauhin mentioned the Greek ἀκακία from Dioscorides as the origin of the Latin name. The origin of " wattle " may be an Old Teutonic word meaning "to weave". From around 700 AD, watul
2346-423: The two marks termed mai ek and mai tho ) represent the three tones of Old Thai, and the complex relationship between tone mark and actual tone is due to the various tonal changes since then. Since the tone split, the tones have changed in actual representation to the point that the former relationship between lower and higher tonal variants has been completely obscured. Furthermore, the six tones that resulted after
2397-488: The understory. Elsewhere they may be dominant, as in the Brigalow Belt , Myall woodlands and the eremaean Mulga woodlands. In Australia, Acacia forest is the second most common forest type after eucalypt forest, covering 980,000 square kilometres (378,380 sq mi) or 8% of total forest area. Acacia is also the nation's largest genus of flowering plants with almost 1 000 species found. Acacia
2448-453: Was a thorough mixture of Thai and Khmer. There were more Khmer words in use than Tai cognates. Khmer grammatical rules were used actively to coin new disyllabic and polysyllabic words and phrases. Khmer expressions, sayings, and proverbs were expressed in Thai through transference. Thais borrowed both the Royal vocabulary and rules to enlarge the vocabulary from Khmer. The Thais later developed
2499-415: Was not closely related to the much smaller group of African lineage that contained A. nilotica – the type species . This meant that the Australasian lineage (by far the most prolific in number of species) would need to be renamed. Pedley's proposed name of Racosperma for this group had received little acclaim in the botanical community. Australian botanists proposed a less disruptive solution, setting
2550-477: Was upheld. Other Acacia s.l. taxa continue to be called Acacia by those who choose to consider the entire group as one genus. The Australian species of the genus Paraserianthes s.l. (namely P. lophantha) are deemed its closest relatives. The nearest relatives of Acacia and Paraserianthes s.l. in turn include the Australian and South East Asian genera Archidendron , Archidendropsis , Pararchidendron and Wallaceodendron , all of
2601-503: Was used in Old English to refer to the flexible woody vines, branches, and sticks which were interwoven to form walls, roofs, and fences. Since about 1810 it has been used as the common name for the Australian legume trees and shrubs that can provide these branches. There are about 1,080 species of Acacia , mostly native to Australia. An Acacia -like 14 cm (5.5 in) long fossil seed pod has been described from
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