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95-530: The Circus was Rome's largest venue for ludi , public games connected to Roman religious festivals . Ludi were sponsored by leading Romans or the Roman state for the benefit of the Roman people ( populus Romanus ) and gods . Most were held annually or at annual intervals on the Roman calendar . Others might be given to fulfil a religious vow , such as the games in celebration of a triumph . In Roman tradition,

190-435: A Germanic warrior, Totila did not plunder the countryside for supplies like other barbarians had done; instead, he collected rent and taxes to provide the income he needed without ruining the cities and towns he captured. He also recruited slaves into the ranks of his army. Procopius reported ( Wars , 7.9–12) that during the next two campaigning seasons Totila was able to take several strategically important centers, including

285-535: A Gothic fifth column. Realizing the gravity of the situation in 544, Justinian issued an edict known as the Pragmatic Sanction, designed to rebuild a working government at Ravenna, and that year he also sent Belisarius back to Italy to counter the growing Gothic threat. Unlike in the past, Belisarius was not graciously financed and so the general used some of his own funds to pay for his journey to Italy. By May 544, both Belisarius and General Vitalius—and

380-533: A Gothic stronghold even after Gothic kingship no longer existed. During a period of crisis amid the Eastern Roman military leadership, which placed strains on its civilian population across its domains, historian Victor Davis Hanson asserts that Totila posed as a "national liberator who would throw off the renewed chains of Roman oppression." Hanson further contends that this squabbling among Byzantine generals from "different factions and ethnicities" caused

475-537: A basket-maker's workshop under the stands, on the Aventine side; the emperor Tiberius compensated various small businesses there for their losses. In AD 64 , during Nero 's reign, fire broke out at the semi-circular end of the Circus, swept through the stands and shops, and destroyed much of the city. Games and festivals continued at the Circus, which was rebuilt over several years to the same footprint and design. By

570-585: A battle along the anchorage of Sena Gallica, providing the Roman navy with control of the Adriatic and the Mediterranean. According to historian Archibald Ross Lewis , the Byzantine victory at Sena Gallica was completely decisive, with some 36 of 47 Gothic ships destroyed. Meanwhile, one of Totila's Gothic admirals, Gibal, was captured. These developments proved important for subsequent campaigns, as it

665-468: A contingent of a mere 4,000 troops—had passed through Thrace and were encamped at Salonia along the Adriatic coast. Meanwhile, Totila was preparing to capture Rome. Throughout the occupation of Italy, Totila never really wavered from the aim to recover the kingdom and sovereignty for the Goths (Procopius, Wars , 7.1.26), but not solely under those auspices, as historian Walter Goffart suggests; he avows it

760-491: A dividing barrier. The games' sponsor (Latin editor) usually sat beside the images of attending gods, on a conspicuous, elevated stand ( pulvinar ) but seats at the track's perimeter offered the best, most dramatic close-ups. In 494 BC (very early in the Republican era ) the dictator Manius Valerius Maximus and his descendants were granted rights to a curule chair at the southeastern turn, an excellent viewpoint for

855-446: A drawn-out siege would have been required, razing the walls of cities that capitulated to him, such as Beneventum . Totila's conquest of Italy was marked not only by celerity but also by mercy, and Gibbon says "none were deceived, either friends or enemies, who depended on his faith or his clemency." After a successful siege of a resisting city, such as at Perugia, however, Totila could be merciless, as Procopius recounts. Procopius left

950-604: A festival to honor Venus Genetrix , Caesar's patron deity and divine matriarch of the Julian gens . It was during these ludi , which also served as funeral games, that the comet famously appeared to "announce" Caesar's newly divine status . Octavian recognized the value of the festivals in unifying the people, and as Augustus instituted new ludi within his program of religious reform; public spectacles and entertainments were thus subsumed by Imperial cult . The ludi compitalicii ("crossroads games") were entertainments staged by

1045-674: A few months later under his successor and relative Teia , who died in combat as well during the Battle of Mons Lactarius . This additional defeat at the hands of the Eastern Roman Empire signaled the veritable end of the Ostrogothic Kingdom in Italy and no further king emerged. Another army supposedly 75,000 strong of Franks and Alemanni still existed as did the threat to Italy and despite the entry of these forces into

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1140-701: A force of 35,000 Lombards , Gepids and Heruli to Italy in a march around the Adriatic Sea to approach Ravenna from the north. In the Battle of Taginae , a decisive engagement during the summer of 552, in the Apennines near present-day Fabriano , the Gothic army was defeated, and Totila was mortally wounded. Totila was succeeded by his relative Teia , who later died at the Battle of Mons Lactarius . Pockets of resistance, reinforced by Franks and Alemanni who had invaded Italy in 553, continued until 562, when

1235-498: A further 5,000 seats. Some repairs were unforeseen and extensive, such as those carried out in Diocletian 's reign, after the collapse of a seating section killed some 13,000 people. The southeastern turn of the track ran between two shrines which may have predated the Circus' formal development. One, at the outer southeast perimeter, was dedicated to the valley's eponymous goddess Murcia , an obscure deity associated with Venus ,

1330-420: A god of grain storage and patron of the Circus. After the 6th century, the Circus fell into disuse and decay. The lower levels, ever prone to flooding, were gradually buried under waterlogged alluvial soil and accumulated debris, so that the original track is now buried six meters beneath the modern surface. In the 11th century, the Circus was "replaced by dwellings rented out by the congregation of Saint-Guy." In

1425-488: A new Egyptian Province. The pulvinar was built on monumental scale, a shrine or temple ( aedes ) raised high above the trackside seats. Sometimes, while games were in progress, Augustus watched from there, alongside the gods. Occasionally, his family would join him there. This is the Circus described by Dionysius of Halicarnassus as "one of the most beautiful and admirable structures in Rome", with "entrances and ascents for

1520-532: A new campaign on land was entrusted to the eunuch Narses , who took advantage of the lessening intensity of the Persian War and added contingents of Lombards, Gepid, and Heruls to his allied forces. Leading troops into Ravenna, Narses was able to challenge Totila at the Battle of Taginae (also known as the Battle of Busta Gallorum) near Sentinum. Totila was killed in the fighting. A similar battle followed

1615-597: A specially built stage. With the advent of Christianity as the official religion of the Empire, ludi gradually fell out of favour. The last known beast-hunt at the Circus Maximus took place in 523, and the last known races there were held by Totila in 549. The Circus Maximus was sited on the level ground of the Valley of Murcia ( Vallis Murcia ) , between Rome's Aventine and Palatine Hills . In Rome's early days,

1710-477: A temporary stage, probably erected between the two central seating banks. Others were enlarged at enormous expense to fit the entire space. A venatio held there in 169 BC, one of several in the 2nd century, employed "63 leopards and 40 bears and elephants", with spectators presumably kept safe by a substantial barrier. As Rome's provinces expanded, existing ludi were embellished and new ludi invented by politicians who competed for divine and popular support. By

1805-444: A written portrayal of Totila before his troops were drawn up for battle: The armour in which he was clad was abundantly plated with gold and the ample adornments which hung from his cheek plates as well as his helmet and spear were not only purple, but in other respects befitting a king … And he himself, sitting upon a very large horse, began to dance under arms skillfully between the two armies. And as he rode he hurled his javelin into

1900-401: A year later entered and plundered the city, where he prayed at St. Peter's Basilica, suggesting continuity with Theodoric, but the act was near meaningless since the city was practically empty. Once the siege of the city was complete, Totila planned to raze the city, but Belisarius sent message and convinced him otherwise, claiming that judgments into posterity would follow Totila if he did, so

1995-492: Is attached to the murky events later referred to misleadingly as the First Catilinarian Conspiracy . Along with some forms of occupational guilds ( collegia ) and neighborhood associations, the ludi compitalicii were consequently banned by the senate in 64 BC. An unnamed tribune of the plebs supported efforts to stage the ludi for 61 BC, but the consul-designate Metellus Celer squelched

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2090-484: Is complex; see Gladiator . Originally, all ludi seem to have been votive offerings ( ludi votivi ), staged as the fulfillment of a vow to a deity whose favor had been sought and evidenced. In 366 BC, the Ludi Romani became the first games to be placed on the religious calendar as an annual event sponsored by the state as a whole. Games in the circus were preceded by a parade ( pompa circensis ) featuring

2185-532: Is uncertain, but was probably in the order of 150,000; Pliny the Elder 's estimate of 250,000 seating places is unlikely. The wooden bleachers were damaged in a fire of 31 BC, either during or after construction. The fire damage of 31 was probably repaired by Augustus (Caesar's successor and Rome's first emperor). He modestly claimed credit only for an obelisk and pulvinar at the site but both were major projects. Ever since its quarrying, long before Rome existed,

2280-521: Is used for "games" in a sense analogous to the Greek festivals of games, such as the Panhellenic Games . The late-antique scholar Isidore of Seville , however, classifies the forms of ludus as gymnicus ("athletic"), circensis ("held in the circus," mainly the chariot races ), gladiatorius ("gladiatorial") and scaenicus ("theatrical"). The relation of gladiatorial games to the ludi

2375-621: The Consualia festival, as a way of gathering his Sabine neighbours at a celebration that included horse-races and drinking. During these distractions, Romulus's men then abducted the Sabine daughters as brides. Thus the famous Roman myth of the Rape of the Sabine women had as its setting the Circus and the Consualia. In this quasi-legendary era, horse or chariot races would have been held at

2470-654: The Imperial era more than 135 days might be spent at these entertainments" during the year. Although their entertainment value may have overshadowed religious sentiment at any given moment, even in late antiquity the ludi were understood as part of the worship of the traditional gods, and the Church Fathers thus advised Christians not to participate in the festivities. The singular form ludus , "game, sport" or "play" has several meanings in Latin. The plural

2565-520: The Republic , they were later presented by consuls , but became most associated with the responsibilities of the aediles . Although public money was allocated for the staging of ludi , the presiding official increasingly came to augment the splendor of his games from personal funds as a form of public relations . The sponsor was able to advertise his wealth, while declaring that he intended to share it for public benefit. Although some men with an eye on

2660-638: The altar of Consus , as one of the Circus' patron deities , was incorporated into the fabric of the south-eastern turning post. When Murcia's stream was partly built over, to form a dividing barrier (the spina or euripus ) between the turning posts, her shrine was either retained or rebuilt. In the Late Imperial period, both the southeastern turn and the circus itself were sometimes known as Vallis Murcia . The symbols used to count race-laps also held religious significance; Castor and Pollux , who were born from an egg , were patrons of horses, horsemen, and

2755-545: The circus . The Circus Maximus was primarily a venue for chariot races, but other athletic events, races, and beast hunts might be offered as well. The games were preceded by an opening parade, the pompa circensis . Ludi circenses were regularly featured in celebrating a triumph or dedicating a major building. They were part of the most important holidays and festivals, such as the Floralia , Ludi Romani ("Roman Games") , and Ludi Plebeii ("Plebeian Games") . During

2850-513: The collegia and ludi again in 46 BC. In 7 BC, Augustus reorganized Rome for administrative purposes into 265 districts which replaced but which were still called vici . An image of the Genius of Augustus now stood between the Lares at the crossroads shrines, and the ludi once considered dangerously subversive became expressions of Imperial piety . Ludi circenses were games presented in

2945-532: The equestrian order (equites) . Likewise, the later use of dolphin-shaped lap counters reinforced associations between the races, swiftness, and Neptune , as god of earthquakes and horses; the Romans believed dolphins to be the swiftest of all creatures. When the Romans adopted the Phrygian Great Mother as an ancestral deity, a statue of her on lion-back was erected within the circus, probably on

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3040-463: The late Republic , ludi were held on 57 days of the year; an unknown number of these would have required full use of the Circus. On many other days, charioteers and jockeys would need to practise on its track. Otherwise, it would have made a convenient corral for the animals traded in the nearby Forum Boarium , just outside the starting gate. Beneath the outer stands, next to the Circus' entrances, were workshops and shops. When no games were being held,

3135-482: The myrtle shrub, a sacred spring, the stream that divided the valley, and the lesser peak of the Aventine Hill. The other was at the southeastern turning-post, where there was an underground shrine to Consus , a minor god of grain-stores, connected to the grain-goddess Ceres and to the underworld . According to Roman tradition, Romulus discovered this shrine shortly after the founding of Rome . He invented

3230-400: The 12th century, a watercourse was dug there to drain the soil, and by the 16th century the area was used as a market garden . During the renaissance, the site was one of many used as a convenient quarry for good quality building stone. Many of the Circus's standing structures survived these changes; in 1587, two obelisks were removed from the central barrier by Pope Sixtus V , and one of these

3325-758: The Byzantines were in control of the whole of the country following Justinian's conquests. "Totila" was the nom de guerre of a man whose real name was Baduila, as can be seen from the coinage he issued. "Totila" is the name used by the Byzantine historian Procopius , who accompanied the Byzantine general Belisarius during the Gothic War, and whose chronicles are the main source of information for Totila. According to Henry Bradley , 'Totila' and 'Baduila' are diminutives of Totabadws . Born in Treviso , Totila

3420-475: The Byzantines—since Eraric favored negotiation with Imperial power—that this Gothic successor likely preferred war and so a Byzantine expeditionary force of twelve-thousand men was sent north from Ravenna to Verona to stave off any possible impending attack. At Verona, a local sympathizer allowed a contingent of Roman soldiers into the city and while the Goths panicked at first, they soon realized that

3515-402: The Circus at the time of Catullus (mid-1st century BC) was probably "a dusty open space with shops and booths ... a colourful crowded disreputable area" frequented by "prostitutes, jugglers, fortune tellers and low-class performing artists". Rome's emperors met the growing popular demand for regular ludi and the need for more specialised venues, as obligations of their office and cult . Over

3610-599: The Circus began with a flamboyant parade ( pompa circensis ) , much like the triumphal procession , which marked the purpose of the games and introduced the participants. During the Roman Republic , the aediles organized the games. The most costly and complex of the ludi offered opportunities to assess an aedile's competence, generosity, and fitness for higher office . Some Circus events, however, seem to have been relatively small and intimate affairs. In 167 BC, "flute players, scenic artists and dancers" performed on

3705-490: The Circus entirely in stone, and provide a new pulvinar in the stands where Rome's emperor could be seen and honoured as part of the Roman community, alongside their gods. Under Trajan, the Circus Maximus found its definitive form, which was unchanged thereafter save for some monumental additions by later emperors, an extensive, planned rebuilding of the starting gate area under Caracalla , and repairs and renewals to existing fabric. Of these, Pliny claims that Trajan's works gained

3800-486: The Circus site. The track width may have been determined by the distance between Murcia's and Consus' shrines at the southeastern end, and its length by the distance between these two shrines and Hercules ' Ara Maxima , supposedly older than Rome itself and sited behind the Circus' starting place. The position of Consus' shrine at the turn of the track recalls the placing of shrines to Roman Neptune 's Greek equivalent, Poseidon , in Greek hippodromes . In later developments,

3895-577: The Ides of March in 44 BC, Marcus Brutus realized that a significant segment of the populus regarded him not as a liberator, but as the murderer of a beloved champion, and among other gestures of goodwill toward the people, he arranged to sponsor the Ludi Apollinares , held annually July 6–13. Caesar's heir Octavian at once upstaged him with Ludi Victoriae Caesaris , "games in honor of Caesar's victory," which ran July 20–28 in conjunction with

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3990-589: The Imperial era, circus games were often added to festivals for which they were not traditionally celebrated in the Republic. Circus games were held in various provinces throughout the empire, as indicated by archaeological remains of tracks and supporting structures, although many areas would have lacked costly permanent facilities and instead erected temporary stands around suitable grounds. The following lists of ludi are not exhaustive. Unless otherwise noted,

4085-497: The Po Valley and their ravaging of Italy for a time, Narses eventually brought them to heel. Meanwhile, the land held by the Gothic church was transferred to the Roman church in Italy and land owned by the Gothic kings went to the emperor. For the Byzantines, the war officially ended in 554, which was followed by the broad promulgation of Justinian's Pragmatic Sanction . One of the stipulations Justinian made clear in this document

4180-658: The Romans outside Florence and capturing Naples . By 543, fighting on land and sea, he had reconquered the bulk of the lost territory. Rome held out, and Totila appealed unsuccessfully to the Senate in a letter reminding them of the loyalty of the Romans to his predecessor Theodoric the Great . In the spring of 544 the Eastern Roman emperor Justinian I sent his general Belisarius to Italy to counterattack, but Totila captured Rome in 546 from Belisarius and depopulated

4275-424: The air and caught it again as it quivered above him, then passed it rapidly from hand to hand, shifting it with consummate skill. Where Totila learned this "dance" is never made clear by Procopius, but these actions likely meant something to the Goths and despite his firm conviction of coexistence with the Romans and their culture, Burns relates, much like Theodoric, he "remained a Goth." Despite his ethnic status as

4370-431: The attempt. In 58 BC, Clodius Pulcher , who had given up his patrician status to become one of the people's tribunes, restored the right of association , but even before his law was enacted, his aide Sextus Cloelius had prepared the way by organizing new-year ludi . The consul Calpurnius Piso , father-in-law of Caesar, permitted the games, even though the organizations that ran them were still outlawed. Caesar banned

4465-434: The autumn of 541 after King Witigis had been carried off prisoner to Constantinople . Totila proved himself both as a military and political leader, winning the support of the lower classes by liberating slaves and distributing land to the peasants. After a successful defence at Verona , Totila pursued and defeated a numerically superior army at the Battle of Faventia in 542 AD. Totila followed these victories by defeating

4560-435: The central barrier, close to his temple and the finishing line. The Sun-god was the ultimate, victorious charioteer, driving his four-horse chariot ( quadriga ) through the heavenly circuit from sunrise to sunset. His partner Luna drove her two-horse chariot ( biga ); together, they represented the predictable, orderly movement of the cosmos and the circuit of time, which found analogy in the Circus track. Luna's temple, which

4655-460: The centuries of its development, the Circus Maximus became Rome's paramount specialist venue for chariot races. By the late 1st century AD, the Colosseum had been built for most of the city's gladiator shows and smaller beast-hunts, and most track-athletes competed at the purpose-designed Stadium of Domitian , though long-distance foot races were still held at the Circus. Eventually, 135 days of

4750-500: The city after a yearlong siege. When Totila left to fight the Byzantines in Lucania , south of Naples , Belisarius retook Rome and rebuilt its fortifications. After Belisarius retreated to Constantinople in 549, Totila recaptured Rome , going on to complete the reconquest of Italy and Sicily . By the end of 550, Totila had recaptured all but Ravenna and four coastal towns. The following year Justinian sent his general Narses with

4845-429: The city. Then he dealt out small rations, gradually increasing the quantity every day until the people had recovered their strength. The terms of the capitulation were more than faithfully observed. Conon and his followers were embarked in ships with which the Goths provided them, and when, deciding to sail for Rome, they were hindered by contrary winds, Totila furnished horses, provisions, and guides so that they could make

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4940-733: The civilian Maximin to meet the crisis. When Maximin attempted a ploy and sent ample food supplies via ships to give the appearance of a much larger army, it failed as Totila was fully informed of all the facts. The crews were slain and a second effort was made to resupply Conon in Naples. Despite the ships arriving safely, the vessels were blown ashore by a gale and these crews were slain and General Demetrius—sent at Maximin's behest—was taken captive by Totila. The Gothic king had Demetrius's hands cut off and his tongue removed before turning him loose. Nonetheless, Totila offered generous terms to Conon's starving garrison at Naples and they opened their gates in

5035-473: The coast of Campoania" and Rome too fell to Totila in January 550. More determined than ever to regain Italy, Justinian sent his nephew Germanus, whose marriage to a Gothic princess attracted German recruits, but he died on the eve of the expedition. Justinian replaced him with his son-in-law, John, and his son Justinian. John's forces to relieve a Roman garrison at Ancona were successful as were his warships at

5130-490: The competitors, mounted youths of the Roman nobility , armed dancers, musicians, a satyr chorus, and images of the gods . As the product of military victory, ludi were often connected to triumphs . The first recorded venatio (staged beast hunt) was presented in 186 BC by M. Fulvius Nobilior as part of his ludi votivi , for which he paid with booty displayed at his triumph. As religious ceremonies, ludi were organized at first by various colleges of priests ; during

5225-405: The consulship skipped the office of aedile for the very reason that massive expenditures were expected, those with sufficient resources spent lavishly to cultivate the favor of the people. The religious festivals to which the ludi were attached also occasioned public banquets, and often public works such as the refurbishing or building of temples. Following the assassination of Julius Caesar at

5320-529: The dividing barrier. Sun and Moon cults were probably represented at the Circus from its earliest phases. Their importance grew with the introduction of Roman cult to Apollo, and the development of Stoic and solar monism as a theological basis for the Roman Imperial cult . In the Imperial era, the Sun-god was divine patron of the Circus and its games. His sacred obelisk towered over the arena, set in

5415-428: The earliest historically attested "Roman Games" ( Ludi Romani ) held at the Circus in honour of Jupiter in 366 BC. In the early Imperial era, Ovid describes the opening of Cerealia (mid to late April) with a horse race at the Circus, followed by the nighttime release of foxes into the stadium, their tails ablaze with lighted torches. Some early connection is likely between Ceres as goddess of grain crops and Consus as

5510-619: The earliest triumphal ludi at the Circus were vowed by Tarquin the Proud to Jupiter in the late Regal era for his victory over Pometia . Ludi ranged in duration and scope from one-day or even half-day events to spectacular multi-venue celebrations held over several days, with religious ceremonies and public feasts, horse and chariot racing, athletics, plays and recitals, beast-hunts and gladiator fights. Some included public executions. The greater ludi (meaning sport or game in Latin) at

5605-413: The enemy." Since this region was relatively spared of any previous conflicts, Totila's Goths were able to secure significant provisions and booty. In the meantime, instead of pursuing the conquest of central Italy, where the Imperial forces were too formidable for his small army, he decided to transfer his operations to the south of the peninsula. He captured Beneventum as well as Cumae , which remained

5700-483: The first Etruscan king of Rome , Lucius Tarquinius Priscus , built raised, wooden perimeter seating at the Circus for Rome's highest echelons (the equites and patricians ), probably midway along the Palatine straight, with an awning against the sun and rain. His grandson, Tarquinius Superbus , added the first seating for citizen-commoners ( plebs , or plebeians), either adjacent or on the opposite, Aventine side of

5795-557: The forfeiture of what Belisarius had previously won in 540. Totila's strategy was to move fast and take control of the countryside, leaving the Byzantine forces in control of well-defended cities, and especially the ports. When Belisarius eventually returned to Italy, Procopius relates that "during a space of five years he did not succeed once in setting foot on any part of the land   ... except where some fortress was, but during this whole period he kept sailing about visiting one port after another." Totila circumvented those cities where

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5890-463: The fortress at Auximum, which allowed him to cut off land communications between Rome and Ravenna. Additional strongholds at Caesena, Urbinus, Mons Feretris, Petra Pertusa, Campania, Lucania, Apulia, Bruttium, and Calabria also fell to Totila's forces, placing the Goths in command of nearly all of southern Italy. Following these successes, Totila now led his army to Naples, laying siege to the city, which alarmed Justinian. The emperor responded by sending

5985-433: The journey by land. The fortifications at Naples were partly razed. Totila spent the following season establishing himself in the south and reducing pockets of resistance, besieging the Roman garrisons that remained at Hydruntum, all the while building pressure on Rome itself. Unpaid Imperial troops in central Italy made such poor reputations pillaging the countryside that when Totila turned his attention to taking Rome, he

6080-413: The late 1st century AD, the central dividing barrier comprised a series of water basins, or else a single watercourse open in some places and bridged over in others. It offered opportunities for artistic embellishment and decorative swagger, and included the temples and statues of various deities, fountains, and refuges for those assistants involved in more dangerous circus activities, such as beast-hunts and

6175-465: The latter refrained. Instead, Totila abandoned the city and took some of the Senate members hostage with him; meanwhile the great metropolis sat abandoned for some forty days. By April 546, Belisarius had retaken the city and Totila's initial effort to wrest it from the Roman general failed. However, as masters of Italy, the Goths controlled much of the peninsula and in 549, an Ostrogothic fleet "ravaged

6270-512: The main army was stopped some distance from the city. They promptly shut the gates and the Roman soldiers who had made it into the city escaped by leaping from the walls. Meanwhile the Roman forces retreated back to Faenza ( Battle of Faventia ), where Totila met them with 5,000 men to give battle, while another 300 Gothic archers surprised them from the rear, resulting in a rout, whereby the Goths acquired both prisoners and battle standards. Correspondingly, historian Thomas Burns claims that Totila

6365-591: The major feature of, Roman religious festivals , and were also presented as part of the cult of state . The earliest ludi were horse races in the circus ( ludi circenses ). Animal exhibitions with mock hunts ( venationes ) and theatrical performances ( ludi scaenici ) also became part of the festivals. Because some of these entertainments are not competitive "games", ludi may also be translated more generally as "shows". Days on which ludi were held were public holidays, and no business could be conducted—"remarkably," it has been noted, "considering that in

6460-465: The neighborhood organizations. Freedmen played a leading role, and even slaves participated in the festivities. In 67 BC, the Compitalia had been disrupted by a riot at the ludi , which were also the scene of disturbances in 66–65 BC. This unrest on the first occasion was a response to the trial of Manilius , who had backed reforms pertaining to the voting rights of freedmen, and on the second

6555-575: The neighborhoods or community associations of Rome ( vici ) in conjunction with the Compitalia , the new year festival held on movable dates between the Saturnalia and January 5 in honor of the crossroads Lares . In the late Republic, performances were held at the main intersections of neighborhoods throughout the city on the same day. During the civil wars of the 80s , these ludi gave rise to often unruly plebeian political expression by

6650-405: The obelisk had been sacred to Egyptian Sun-gods. Augustus had it brought from Heliopolis at enormous expense, and erected midway along the dividing barrier of the Circus. It was Rome's first obelisk, an exotically sacred object and a permanent reminder of Augustus' victory over his Roman foes and their Egyptian allies in the recent civil wars. Thanks to him, Rome had secured both a lasting peace and

6745-611: The recovery of casualties during races. In AD 81 the Senate built a triple arch honoring Titus at the semi-circular end of the Circus, to replace or augment a former processional entrance. The emperor Domitian built a new, multi-storey palace on the Palatine, connected somehow to the Circus; he likely watched the games in autocratic style, from high above and barely visible to those below. Repairs to fire damage during his reign may already have been under way before his assassination. The risk of further fire-damage, coupled with Domitian's fate, may have prompted Trajan 's decision to rebuild

6840-468: The scale, depth and waterlogging of the site. The Circus site now functions as a large park area, open to the public and often used for concerts, meetings, and celebrations. [REDACTED] Media related to Circus Maximus at Wikimedia Commons Ludi Ludi ( Latin :games; plural of "ludus") were public games held for the benefit and entertainment of the Roman people ( populus Romanus ) . Ludi were held in conjunction with, or sometimes as

6935-427: The servant-based economy by liberating slaves and coloni . Over the longer term, this also meant that western senators were seen as inferior to their eastern counterparts, which in some ways further contributed to the Byzantine's ascendancy. Nevertheless, the country was so ravaged by war that any return to normal life proved impossible and Rome, having suffered through seventeen-years' worth of bitter fighting during

7030-415: The sky. Temples to several deities overlooked the Circus; most are now lost. The temples to Ceres and Flora stood close together on the Aventine, more or less opposite the Circus' starting gate, which remained under Hercules' protection. Further southeast along the Aventine was a temple to Luna , the moon goddess. Aventine temples to Venus Obsequens , Mercury and Dis (or perhaps Summanus ) stood on

7125-489: The slopes above the southeast turn. On the Palatine hill, opposite to Ceres's temple, stood the temple to Magna Mater and, more or less opposite Luna's temple, one to the sun-god Apollo . Several festivals, some of uncertain foundation and date, were held at the Circus in historical times. The Consualia, with its semi-mythical establishment by Romulus, and the Cerealia , the major festival of Ceres, were probably older than

7220-484: The sources are Matthew Bunson, A Dictionary of the Roman Empire (Oxford University Press, 1995), pp. 246–247, and Roland Auguet, Cruelty and Civilization: The Roman Games (Routledge, 1972, 1994) pp. 212–213. Listed in order by month as they appear on the Roman calendar . The following ludi were held only once. Totila Lazic War Totila , original name Baduila (died 1 July 552),

7315-428: The spectators at every shop, so that the countless thousands of people may enter and depart without inconvenience." The site remained prone to flooding, probably through the starting gates, until Claudius made improvements there; they probably included an extramural anti-flooding embankment. Fires in the crowded, wooden perimeter workshops and bleachers were a far greater danger. A fire of 36 AD seems to have started in

7410-414: The spring of 543 to the Goths. Historian J.B. Bury writes: On this occasion Totila exhibited a considerable humanity which was not to be expected, as the historian Procopius remarks, from an enemy or a barbarian. He knew that if an abundance of food were at once supplied, the famished inhabitants would gorge themselves to death. He posted sentinels at the gates and in the harbor and allowed no one to leave

7505-414: The thrills and spills of chariot racing. In the 190s BC, stone track-side seating was built, exclusively for senators. Permanent wooden starting stalls were built in 329 BC. They were gated, brightly painted, and staggered to equalise the distances from each start place to the central barrier. In theory, they might have accommodated up to 25 four-horse chariots ( Quadrigas ) abreast but when team-racing

7600-469: The track perimeter and its seating protected spectators and help drain the track. The inner third of the seating formed a trackside cavea . Its front sections along the central straight were reserved for senators, and those immediately behind for equites . The outer tiers, two thirds of the total, were meant for Roman plebs and non-citizens. They were timber-built, with wooden-framed service buildings, shops and entrance-ways beneath. The total number of seats

7695-416: The track. Otherwise, the Circus was probably still little more than a trackway through surrounding farmland. By this time, it may have been drained but the wooden stands and seats would have frequently rotted and been rebuilt. The turning posts ( metae ), each made of three conical stone pillars, may have been the earliest permanent Circus structures; an open drainage canal between the posts would have served as

7790-466: The valley would have been rich agricultural land, prone to flooding from the river Tiber and the stream which divided the valley lengthwise. The stream was probably bridged at an early date, at the two points where the track had to cross it, and the earliest races would have been held within an agricultural landscape, "with nothing more than turning posts, banks where spectators could sit, and some shrines and sacred spots". In Livy 's History of Rome ,

7885-405: The year were devoted to ludi . Even at the height of its development as a chariot-racing circuit, the circus remained the most suitable space in Rome for religious processions on a grand scale and was the most popular venue for large-scale venationes ; in the late 3rd century, the emperor Probus laid on a spectacular Circus show in which beasts were hunted through a veritable forest of trees, on

7980-532: Was a gifted warrior and governor, and as an Ostrogoth ranks only second to Theodoric the Great himself. After securing victory in 542 at Faenza, Totila's Goths besieged the stoutly-defended Florence in an effort to open the Via Cassia to Rome but when Imperial forces arrived to relieve the city, Totila withdrew to the Mugello valley , where historian Herwig Wolfram states, they "inflicted a crushing defeat on

8075-577: Was a relative of Theudis , king of the Visigoths , and a sword-bearer; a role that made for a good career among his kin. Totila was elected king of the Ostrogoths in 541 after the assassination of his uncle Ildibad and having surreptitiously engineered the assassination of Ildibad's short-lived successor, his cousin Eraric , in 541. Like Alaric I , Totila was quite young when he became king and

8170-483: Was able proudly to contrast Goth and Greek behavior in his initial negotiations with the senate. Hearkening back to the rule of Theodoric and Amalasuintha as a reminder of more peaceful times between the two peoples, Totila tried to convince them to throw in their lot with the Goths. His olive branch was rejected, however, and all the Arian priests were expelled from Constantinople, on suspicion of possible collaboration as

8265-461: Was added, positioned well above the central dividing barrier (euripus) for maximum visibility. Julius Caesar 's development of the Circus, commencing around 50 BC, extended the seating tiers to run almost the entire circuit of the track, barring the starting gates and a processional entrance at the semi-circular end. The track measured approximately 621 m (2,037 ft) in length and 150 m (490 ft) in breadth. A canal between

8360-415: Was also to become "subcontractors in upholding the nomen Romanum in Italy." Towards the end of 545 the Gothic king took up his station at Tivoli and prepared to starve Rome into surrender, making at the same time elaborate preparations for checking the progress of Belisarius who was advancing to its relief, and whose fleet almost managed to relieve the city. In December 545, Totila besieged Rome and

8455-692: Was declared such by the Goths to recover dominion over the Italians. The official Byzantine position, adopted by Procopius and even by the Romanized Goth, Jordanes —writing just before the conclusion of the Gothic Wars—was that Totila was a usurper. According to historian Peter Heather, as Ildebadus's nephew, Totila nonetheless hailed from a prominent Gothic family, one that surrounded and "even occasionally challenged Theodoric's Amal dynasty". Eraric's murder and replacement with Totila suggested to

8550-632: Was introduced, they were widened, and their number reduced. By the late Republican or early Imperial era, there were twelve stalls. Their divisions were fronted by herms that served as stops for spring-loaded gates, so that twelve light-weight, four-horse or two-horse chariots could be simultaneously released onto the track. The stalls were allocated by lottery, and the various racing teams were identified by their colors. Typically, there were seven laps per race. From at least 174 BC, they were counted off using large sculpted eggs. In 33 BC, an additional system of large bronze dolphin-shaped lap counters

8645-471: Was necessary to end Totila's sea dominance before any land invasions could be properly conducted. Totila's next exploit was the conquest and plunder of Sicily , after which he subdued Corsica and Sardinia and sent a Gothic fleet against the coasts of Greece . By this time the emperor Justinian I was taking energetic measures to check the Goths, assembling a large army and sending his navy against Totila's fleet, which it defeated in 551. The conduct of

8740-517: Was probably built long before Apollo's, burned down in the Great Fire of 64 AD and was probably not replaced. Her cult was closely identified with that of Diana , who seems to have been represented in the processions that started Circus games, and with Sol Indiges , usually identified as her brother. After the loss of her temple, her cult may have been transferred to Sol's temple on the dividing barrier, or one beside it; both would have been open to

8835-587: Was re-sited at the Piazza del Popolo . In 1852, a gas works was built on the site by the Anglo-Italian Gas Society. It remained in situ until 1910 when it was relocated to the edge of Rome. Mid-19th century workings at the circus site uncovered the lower parts of a seating tier and outer portico. Since then, a series of excavations has exposed further sections of the seating, curved turn and central barrier but further exploration has been limited by

8930-614: Was the penultimate King of the Ostrogoths , reigning from 541 to 552 AD. A skilled military and political leader, Totila reversed the tide of the Gothic War , recovering by 543 almost all the territories in Italy that the Eastern Roman Empire had captured from his Kingdom in 540. A relative of Theudis , sword-bearer of Theodoric the Great and king of the Visigoths , Totila was elected king by Ostrogothic nobles in

9025-478: Was the validation of all edicts made by "legitimate" kings and those from the Roman people or Senate, while those from Totila—deemed a "most abominable tyrant"—were rendered void. The Justinian Code was also retroactively made applicable throughout Italy. Socially, the country was disrupted by the actions of the Goths Witigis, Totila, and Teia, who had collectively fractured the Senate's social standing and

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