Misplaced Pages

#392607

91-573: Saturnalia is an ancient Roman festival and holiday in honour of the god Saturn , held on 17 December of the Julian calendar and later expanded with festivities through 19 December. By the 1st century B.C., the celebration had been extended through 23 December, for a total of seven days of festivities. The holiday was celebrated with a sacrifice at the Temple of Saturn , in the Roman Forum , and

182-456: A praepositus (or lord chamberlain) named Macrobius in 422. A number of older authorities go so far as to identify Macrobius the author with the first, and date his floruit to 399–410. There are objections to either identification: as Alan Cameron notes, the complete name of the first candidate is attested in an inscription to be "Flavius Macrobius Maximianus", while the second is excluded because "A praepositus must at this period have been

273-420: A suckling pig , a traditional offering to an earth deity . Saturn also had a less benevolent aspect. One of his consorts was Lua , sometimes called Lua Saturni ("Saturn's Lua") and identified with Lua Mater, "Mother Destruction", a goddess in whose honor the weapons of enemies killed in war were burned, perhaps in expiation. Saturn's chthonic nature connected him to the underworld and its ruler Dīs Pater ,

364-468: A Roman holiday." More benignly, the phrase was used as the title of a romantic movie set in Rome, Roman Holiday . Macrobius Macrobius's given name ( praenomen ) is unrecorded as is his family name ( nomen ). His recorded name is a series of three surnames ( cognomina ), properly ordered Macrobius Ambrosius Theodosius. This is what appears in the earliest surviving manuscripts of

455-551: A book of bad poems by "the worst poet of all time" as a joke from a friend. Gift-giving was not confined to the day of the Sigillaria. In some households, guests and family members received gifts after the feast in which slaves had shared. Imperial sources refer to a Saturnalicius princeps ("Ruler of the Saturnalia"), who ruled as master of ceremonies for the proceedings. He was appointed by lot, and has been compared to

546-485: A break from their labours. Agricultural writers recognized that some jobs on a farm might still need to be performed, and specified what these were. Some agricultural tasks not otherwise permitted could be carried out if an expiation were made in advance ( piaculum ) , usually the sacrifice of a puppy. Within the city of Rome, the flamens and the priest known as the Rex sacrorum were not allowed even to see work done. On

637-575: A dedicatory epistle to Avianus 's Fables . This was mistakenly reversed in later manuscripts to "Ambrosius Theodosius Macrobius", which James Willis then used in his edition of the Commentary . Little is known for certain about Macrobius, but there are many theories and speculations about him. He states at the beginning of his Saturnalia that he was "born under a foreign sky" ( sub alio ortus caelo ), and both of his major works are dedicated to his son, Eustachius. Alan Cameron notes that several of

728-406: A deity of agricultural bounty, Saturn embodied prosperity and wealth in general. The name of his consort Ops meant "wealth, resources". Her festival, Opalia , was celebrated on 19 December. The Temple of Saturn housed the state treasury ( aerarium Saturni ) and was the administrative headquarters of the quaestors , the public officials whose duties included oversight of the mint . It was among

819-493: A eunuch." However, since Macrobius is frequently referred to as vir clarissimus et inlustris , a title which was achieved by holding public office, we can reasonably expect his name to appear in the Codex Theodosianus . Further, Cameron points out that during his lifetime Macrobius was referred to as "Theodosius", and looking for that name Cameron found a Theodosius who was praetorian prefect of Italy in 430. "It

910-469: A historical king of the pre-Roman inhabitants of Italy : "The first inhabitants of Italy were the Aborigines, whose king, Saturnus, is said to have been a man of such extraordinary justice, that no one was a slave in his reign, or had any private property, but all things were common to all, and undivided, as one estate for the use of every one; in memory of which way of life, it has been ordered that at

1001-506: A king. As the Augustan poet Virgil described it: "[H]e gathered together the unruly race [of fauns and nymphs ] scattered over mountain heights, and gave them laws .... Under his reign were the golden ages men tell of: in such perfect peace he ruled the nations." The third century Neoplatonic philosopher Porphyry took an allegorical view of the Saturnalia. He saw the festival's theme of liberation and dissolution as representing

SECTION 10

#1732765889393

1092-423: A practical level, those who "inadvertently" worked could pay a fine or offer up a piaculum , usually a pig. Work considered vital either to the gods or preserving human life was excusable, according to some experts on religious law. Although Romans were required not to work, they were not required to take any religious action unless they were priests or had family rites ( sacra gentilicia ) to maintain. Following

1183-417: A public banquet, followed by private gift-giving, continual partying, and a carnival atmosphere that overturned Roman social norms : gambling was permitted, and masters provided table service for their slaves as it was seen as a time of liberty for both slaves and freedmen alike. A common custom was the election of a "King of the Saturnalia", who gave orders to people, which were followed and presided over

1274-408: A restoration of the ancient Golden Age , when the world was ruled by Saturn. The Neoplatonist philosopher Porphyry interpreted the freedom associated with Saturnalia as symbolizing the "freeing of souls into immortality". Saturnalia may have influenced some of the customs associated with later celebrations in western Europe occurring in midwinter, particularly traditions associated with Christmas ,

1365-637: A very important part in Roman religious life during both the Republican and Imperial eras , and one of the primary feat of "holy days"; singular also feriae or dies ferialis ) were either public (publicae) or private ( privatae ) . State holidays were celebrated by the Roman people and received public funding. Games ( ludi ) , such as the Ludi Apollinares , were not technically feriae , but

1456-459: Is a month-by-month list of Roman festivals and games that had a fixed place on the calendar. For some, the date on which they were first established is recorded. A deity's festival often marked the anniversary ( dies natalis , "birthday") of the founding of a temple, or a rededication after a major renovation. Festivals not named for deities are thought to be among the oldest on the calendar. Some religious observances were monthly. The first day of

1547-470: Is around the same time as the Saturnalia celebrations, and that part of the reason why he chose this date may have been because he was trying to create a Christian alternative to Saturnalia. Another reason for the decision may have been because, in 274 AD, the Roman emperor Aurelian had declared 25 December the birthdate of Sol Invictus and Julius I may have thought that he could attract more converts to Christianity by allowing them to continue to celebrate on

1638-506: Is pronounced either with two syllables (a short i and a long o ) or as a single syllable (with the i becoming the Latin consonantal j and pronounced yō ). It was a strongly emotive ritual exclamation or invocation, used for instance in announcing triumph or celebrating Bacchus , but also to punctuate a joke. As an observance of state religion, Saturnalia was supposed to have been held " ... quarto decimo Kalendarum Ianuariarum ", on

1729-466: Is significant that the only surviving law addressed to this Theodosius sanctions a privilege for Africa Proconsularis on the basis of information received concerning Byzacena ," Cameron notes. Macrobius's most influential book and one of the most widely cited books of the Middle Ages was a commentary on the book Dream of Scipio narrated by Cicero at the end of his Republic . The nature of

1820-468: The Saturnalia and how he is addressed in the excerpts from his lost De Differentiis . He is called "Macrobius Theodosius" in both Cassiodorus and Boethius and was apparently known during his lifetime as "Theodosius": The dedication of De Differentiis is "Theodosius to his Symmachus" ( Theodosius Symmacho suo ) and he addressed as "the very greatest Theodosius" ( Theodosi optime ) in

1911-641: The Feast of the Holy Innocents , and Epiphany . In particular, the historical western European Christmas custom of electing a " Lord of Misrule " may have its roots in Saturnalia celebrations. In Roman mythology , Saturn was an agricultural deity who was said to have reigned over the world in the Golden Age , when humans enjoyed the spontaneous bounty of the earth without labour in a state of innocence . The revelries of Saturnalia were supposed to reflect

SECTION 20

#1732765889393

2002-714: The New Year . Saturnalia underwent a major reform in 217 BC, after the Battle of Lake Trasimene , when the Romans suffered one of their most crushing defeats by Carthage during the Second Punic War . Until that time, they had celebrated the holiday according to Roman custom ( more Romano ) . It was after a consultation of the Sibylline Books that they adopted "Greek rite", introducing sacrifices carried out in

2093-461: The Saturnalia may have been a mercatus in this sense. Surviving fasti record Mercatus Apollinares , July 14–19; Mercatus Romani , September 20–23; and Mercatus Plebeii , November 18–20. Others may have existed. The English word "fair" derives from Latin feria . By the outset of the nineteenth century and particularly in response to the carnage of the latter years of

2184-698: The Thessalian festival of Peloria in honor of Zeus Pelorios , and an unnamed festival from Babylon . He also mentions that the custom of masters dining with their slaves was associated with the Athenian festival of Anthesteria and the Spartan festival of Hyacinthia . The Argive festival of Hybristica , though not directly related to the Saturnalia, involved a similar reversal of roles in which women would dress as men and men would dress as women. The ancient Roman historian Justinus credits Saturn with being

2275-498: The "freeing of souls into immortality"—an interpretation that Mithraists may also have followed, since they included many slaves and freedmen. According to Porphyry, the Saturnalia occurred near the winter solstice because the sun enters Capricorn , the astrological house of Saturn, at that time. In the Saturnalia of Macrobius , the proximity of the Saturnalia to the winter solstice leads to an exposition of solar monotheism ,

2366-511: The 5th or 7th of that month. On the Nones, announcements were made regarding events to take place that month; with the exception of the Poplifugia , no major festivals were held before the Nones, though other ceremonies, such as anniversaries of temple dedications, might be carried out. The Ides (usually the 13th, or in a few months the 15th) were sacred to Jupiter . On each Ides, a white lamb

2457-533: The Alban populace to Rome, it was reported to have rained stones on the Mons Albanus . A Roman deputation was sent to investigate the report, and a further shower of stones was witnessed. The Romans took this to be a sign of the displeasure of the Alban gods, the worship of whom had been abandoned with the evacuation of Alba Longa. Livy goes on to say that the Romans instituted a public festival of nine days, at

2548-602: The Earth as a globe of insignificant size in comparison to the remainder of the cosmos. Many early medieval manuscripts of Macrobius include maps of the Earth, including the antipodes , zonal maps showing the Ptolemaic climates derived from the concept of a spherical Earth and a diagram showing the Earth (labeled as globus terrae , the sphere of the Earth) at the center of the hierarchically ordered planetary spheres. Images from

2639-453: The French revolution, the term "Roman holiday" had taken on sinister aspects, implying an event that occasions enjoyment or profit at the expense, or derived from the suffering, of others, as in this passage about a dying gladiator from Lord Byron's Childe Harold's Pilgrimage : There were his young barbarians all at play, There was their Dacian mother—he their sire, Butchered to make

2730-584: The Greek manner, the public banquet, and the continual shouts of io Saturnalia that became characteristic of the celebration. Cato the Elder (234–149 BC) remembered a time before the so-called "Greek" elements had been added to the Roman Saturnalia. It was not unusual for the Romans to offer cult ( cultus ) to the deities of other nations in the hope of redirecting their favour (see evocatio ), and

2821-571: The Roman Forum in 497 BC. When Julius Caesar had the calendar reformed because it had fallen out of synchronization with the solar year , two days were added to the month, and the date of Saturnalia then changed, still falling on the 17 December, but with this now being the sixteenth day before the Kalends, as per the Roman reckoning of dates of this time. It was felt, thus, that the original day had thus been moved by two days, and so Saturnalia

Saturnalia - Misplaced Pages Continue

2912-491: The Roman equivalent of Greek Plouton (Pluto in Latin) who was also a god of hidden wealth. In sources of the third century AD and later, Saturn is recorded as receiving dead gladiators as offerings ( munera ) during or near the Saturnalia. These gladiatorial events, ten days in all throughout December, were presented mainly by the quaestors and sponsored with funds from the treasury of Saturn. The practice of gladiator munera

3003-585: The Romans often adopted and reinterpreted Greek myths , iconography, and even religious practices for their own deities , but the uncovering of the priest's head may also be one of the Saturnalian reversals, the opposite of what was normal. Following the sacrifice the Roman Senate arranged a lectisternium , a ritual of Greek origin that typically involved placing a deity's image on a sumptuous couch, as if he were present and actively participating in

3094-411: The Saturnalia donned the pilleus , the conical felt cap that was the usual mark of a freedman. Slaves, who ordinarily were not entitled to wear the pilleus , wore it as well, so that everyone was "pilleated" without distinction. The participation of freeborn Roman women is implied by sources that name gifts for women, but their presence at banquets may have depended on the custom of their time; from

3185-434: The Saturnalia may have developed as a satiric response to the new era of rule by a princeps , the title assumed by the first emperor Augustus to avoid the hated connotations of the word "king" (rex) . Art and literature under Augustus celebrated his reign as a new Golden Age, but the Saturnalia makes a mockery of a world in which law is determined by one man and the traditional social and political networks are reduced to

3276-417: The Saturnalia slaves should everywhere sit down with their masters at the entertainments, the rank of all being made equal." Although probably the best-known Roman holiday, Saturnalia as a whole is not described from beginning to end in any single ancient source. Modern understanding of the festival is pieced together from several accounts dealing with various aspects. The Saturnalia was the dramatic setting of

3367-459: The Saturnalia, Martial names both expensive and quite cheap gifts, including writing tablets, dice, knucklebones , moneyboxes, combs, toothpicks, a hat, a hunting knife, an axe, various lamps, balls, perfumes , pipes, a pig, a sausage, a parrot , tables, cups, spoons, items of clothing, statues, masks, books, and pets. Gifts might be as costly as a slave or exotic animal, but Martial suggests that token gifts of low intrinsic value inversely measure

3458-509: The Saturnalia, Horace has a slave offer sharp criticism to his master. Everyone knew, however, that the leveling of the social hierarchy was temporary and had limits; no social norms were ultimately threatened, because the holiday would end. The toga , the characteristic garment of the male Roman citizen, was set aside in favor of the Greek synthesis , colourful "dinner clothes" otherwise considered in poor taste for daytime wear. Romans of citizen status normally went about bare-headed, but for

3549-468: The Saturnalia." In Lucian 's Saturnalia it is Chronos himself who proclaims a "festive season, when 'tis lawful to be drunken, and slaves have license to revile their lords". In one of the interpretations in Macrobius's work, Saturnalia is a festival of light leading to the winter solstice , with the abundant presence of candles symbolizing the quest for knowledge and truth. The renewal of light and

3640-472: The Saturnalian spirit. Gambling and dice-playing, normally prohibited or at least frowned upon, were permitted for all, even slaves. Coins and nuts were the stakes . On the Calendar of Philocalus , the Saturnalia is represented by a man wearing a fur-trimmed coat next to a table with dice, and a caption reading: "Now you have license, slave, to game with your master." Rampant overeating and drunkenness became

3731-747: The Second Punic War in particular created pressures on Roman society that led to a number of religious innovations and reforms. Robert E.A. Palmer has argued that the introduction of new rites at this time was in part an effort to appease Ba'al Hammon , the Carthaginian god who was regarded as the counterpart of the Roman Saturn and Greek Cronus . The table service that masters offered their slaves thus would have extended to Carthaginian or African war captives. The statue of Saturn at his main temple normally had its feet bound in wool, which

Saturnalia - Misplaced Pages Continue

3822-692: The Sun as twice the diameter of the Earth. Of a third work On the Differences and Similarities of the Greek and Latin Verb , we possess only an abstract by a certain Johannes, doubtfully identified with Johannes Scotus Eriugena (9th century). See editions by Ludwig von Jan (1848–1852, with a bibliography of previous editions, and commentary), Franz Eyssenhardt (1893, Teubner text), James Willis (1994, new Teubner), and R. A. Kaster ( OCT and Loeb , 2011); on

3913-511: The belief that the Sun (see Sol Invictus ) ultimately encompasses all divinities as one. M. Avodah Zarah lists Saturnalia as a "festival of the gentiles," along with the Kalents of January and Kratesis . B. Avodah Zarah records that Ḥanan b. Rava said, "Kalends begins eight days after the [winter] solstice and Saturnura begins eight days before the [winter] solstice". Ḥananel b. Ḥushiel , followed by Rashi , claims: "Eight days before

4004-492: The circumstances: some suggest that master and slave dined together, while others indicate that the slaves feasted first, or that the masters actually served the food. The practice might have varied over time. Saturnalian license also permitted slaves to disrespect their masters without the threat of a punishment. It was a time for free speech : the Augustan poet Horace calls it "December liberty". In two satires set during

4095-620: The coming of the new year was celebrated in the later Roman Empire at the Dies Natalis Solis Invicti , the "Birthday of the Unconquerable Sun", on 25 December. The popularity of Saturnalia continued into the 3rd and 4th centuries CE, and as the Roman Empire came under Christian rule, many of its customs were recast into or at least influenced the seasonal celebrations surrounding Christmas and

4186-693: The conditions of the lost mythical age. The Greek equivalent was the Kronia , which was celebrated on the twelfth day of the month of Hekatombaion, which occurred from around mid-July to mid-August on the Attic calendar . The Greek writer Athenaeus cites numerous other examples of similar festivals celebrated throughout the Greco-Roman world , including the Cretan festival of Hermaia in honor of Hermes , an unnamed festival from Troezen in honor of Poseidon ,

4277-558: The days on which they were celebrated were dies festi , holidays in the modern sense of days off work. Although feriae were paid for by the state, ludi were often funded by wealthy individuals. Feriae privatae were holidays celebrated in honor of private individuals or by families. This article deals only with public holidays, including rites celebrated by the state priests of Rome at temples, as well as celebrations by neighborhoods, families, and friends held simultaneously throughout Rome. Feriae publicae were of three kinds: One of

4368-405: The dream, in which the elder Scipio appears to his (adopted) grandson and describes the life of the good after death and the constitution of the universe from a Stoic and Neo-Platonic point of view, gave occasion for Macrobius to discourse upon the nature of the cosmos , transmitting much classical philosophy to the later Middle Ages. In astronomy , this work is noted for giving the diameter of

4459-587: The earliest manuscripts of his works spell his son's name Eustathius , then after pointing out that a certain Plotinus Eustathius was Urban prefect in 462 observes "Plotinus would be a peculiarly appropriate name for a neoplatonist philosopher and keen admirer of the great Lycopolitan (cf. Comm . I, 8, 5) to have given his son." There is also a Macrobius Plotinus Eudoxius who collaborated with Memmius Symmachus over an edition of Macrobius' Commentary . His major works have led experts to assume that he

4550-653: The etiology of Kalends attributed by the Jerusalem Avodah Zarah to Abba Arikha . Unlike several Roman religious festivals which were particular to cult sites in the city, the prolonged seasonal celebration of Saturnalia at home could be held anywhere in the Empire. Saturnalia continued as a secular celebration long after it was removed from the official calendar. As William Warde Fowler notes: "[Saturnalia] has left its traces and found its parallels in great numbers of medieval and modern customs, occurring about

4641-490: The evening vespers . This custom was common across western Europe, but varied considerably by region; in some places, the boy bishop's orders could become quite rowdy and unrestrained, but, in others, his power was only ceremonial. In some parts of France, during the boy bishop's tenure, the actual clergy would wear masks or dress in women's clothing, a reversal of roles in line with the traditional character of Saturnalia. Roman festivals Festivals in ancient Rome were

SECTION 50

#1732765889393

4732-510: The festivities. A public banquet followed ( convivium publicum) . The day was supposed to be a holiday from all forms of work. Schools were closed, and exercise regimens were suspended. Courts were not in session, so no justice was administered, and no declaration of war could be made. After the public rituals, observances continued at home . On 18 and 19 December, which were also holidays from public business, families conducted domestic rituals. They bathed early, and those with means sacrificed

4823-635: The few months to be named for a god, Mars , whose festivals dominate the month. A major feriae conceptivae in April was the Latin Festival . The feriae conceptivae of this month was the Ambarvalia . Scullard places the Taurian Games on June 25–26, but other scholars doubt these ludi had a fixed date or recurred on a regular basis. Until renamed for Julius Caesar , this month

4914-529: The fourteenth day before the Kalends of the pre-Julian, twenty-nine day December, on the oldest Roman religious calendar , which the Romans believed to have been established by the legendary founder Romulus and his successor Numa Pompilius . It was a dies festus , a legal holiday when no public business could be conducted. The day marked the dedication anniversary ( dies natalis ) of the Temple to Saturn in

5005-434: The games of my people and they don't hinder my work or studies." The Sigillaria on 19 December was a day of gift-giving. Because gifts of value would mark social status contrary to the spirit of the season, these were often the pottery or wax figurines called sigillaria made specially for the day, candles, or " gag gifts ", of which Augustus was particularly fond. Children received toys as gifts. In his many poems about

5096-436: The high quality of a friendship. Patrons or "bosses" might pass along a gratuity (sigillaricium) to their poorer clients or dependents to help them buy gifts. Some emperors were noted for their devoted observance of the Sigillaria. In a practice that might be compared to modern greeting cards , verses sometimes accompanied the gifts. Martial has a collection of poems written as if to be attached to gifts. Catullus received

5187-509: The house of Vettius Agorius Praetextatus during the holiday of the Saturnalia . It contains a great variety of curious historical, mythological, critical, antiquarian and grammatical discussions. "The work takes the form of a series of dialogues among learned men at a fictional banquet." A prominent lunar crater is named after Macrobius. Macrobius Cove in Antarctica is named after Macrobius. Cicero's Dream of Scipio described

5278-535: The instigation either of a 'heavenly voice' heard on the Mons Albanus, or of the haruspices . Livy also says that it became the longstanding practice in Rome that whenever a shower of stones was reported, a festival of nine days would be ordered in response. Another irregular festival of note is the Secular Games . Over the course of several days there were sacrifices, entertainers, and games hosted by

5369-509: The late Republic onward, women mingled socially with men more freely than they had in earlier times. Female entertainers were certainly present at some otherwise all-male gatherings. Role-playing was implicit in the Saturnalia's status reversals, and there are hints of mask-wearing or " guising ". No theatrical events are mentioned in connection with the festivities, but the classicist Erich Segal saw Roman comedy , with its cast of impudent, free-wheeling slaves and libertine seniors, as imbued with

5460-556: The light of life. The figurines that were exchanged as gifts ( sigillaria ) may also have represented token substitutes. "Meanwhile, the head of the slave household, whose responsibility it was to offer sacrifice to the Penates , to manage the provisions and to direct the activities of the domestic servants, came to tell his master that the household had feasted according to the annual ritual custom. For at this festival, in houses that keep to proper religious usage, they first of all honor

5551-414: The medieval Lord of Misrule at the Feast of Fools . His capricious commands, such as "Sing naked!" or "Throw him into cold water!", had to be obeyed by the other guests at the convivium : he creates and (mis)rules a chaotic and absurd world. The future emperor Nero is recorded as playing the role in his youth. Since this figure does not appear in accounts from the Republican period , the princeps of

SECTION 60

#1732765889393

5642-401: The merrymaking. The gifts exchanged were usually gag gifts or small figurines made of wax or pottery known as sigillaria . The poet Catullus called it "the best of days". Saturnalia was the Roman equivalent to the earlier Greek holiday of Kronia , which was celebrated during the Attic month of Hekatombaion in late midsummer. It held theological importance for some Romans, who saw it as

5733-612: The month was the Kalends (or Calends, from which the English word "calendar" derives). Each Kalends was sacred to Juno , and the Regina sacrorum ("Queen of the Rites," a public priestess) marked the day by presiding over a sacrifice to the goddess. Originally a pontiff and the Rex sacrorum reported the sighting of the new moon , and the pontiff announced whether the Nones occurred on

5824-521: The most important sources for Roman holidays is Ovid 's Fasti , an incomplete poem that describes and provides origins for festivals from January to June at the time of Augustus . Varro defined feriae as "days instituted for the sake of the gods." Religious rites were performed on the feriae , and public business was suspended. Even slaves were supposed to be given some form of rest. Cicero says specifically that people who were free should not engage in lawsuits and quarrels, and slaves should get

5915-416: The multivolume work of that name by Macrobius , a Latin writer from late antiquity who is the major source for information about the holiday. Macrobius describes the reign of Justinus's "king Saturn" as "a time of great happiness, both on account of the universal plenty that prevailed and because as yet there was no division into bond and free – as one may gather from the complete license enjoyed by slaves at

6006-467: The oldest cult sites in Rome, and had been the location of "a very ancient" altar ( ara ) even before the building of the first temple in 497 BC. The Romans regarded Saturn as the original and autochthonous ruler of the Capitolium , and the first king of Latium or even the whole of Italy. At the same time, there was a tradition that Saturn had been an immigrant deity, received by Janus after he

6097-491: The origins of Saturnalia (and Kalends) to Adam , who saw that the days were getting shorter and thought it was punishment for his sin: When the First Man saw that the day was continuously shortening, he said, "Woe is me! Because I have sinned, the world darkens around me, and returns to formlessness and void. This is the death to which Heaven has sentenced me!" He decided to spend eight days in fasting and prayer. When he saw

6188-429: The plan of our conduct; whether we should eve in our usual way, or, to avoid singularity, both take a better supper and throw off the toga." Some Romans found it all a bit much. Pliny describes a secluded suite of rooms in his Laurentine villa , which he used as a retreat: "... especially during the Saturnalia when the rest of the house is noisy with the licence of the holiday and festive cries. This way I don't hamper

6279-597: The planet named for the god. Its proximity to the winter solstice (21 to 23 December on the Julian calendar) was endowed with various meanings by both ancient and modern scholars: for instance, the widespread use of wax candles (cerei, singular cereus) could refer to "the returning power of the sun's light after the solstice". The Saturnalia reflects the contradictory nature of the deity Saturn himself: "There are joyful and utopian aspects of careless well-being side by side with disquieting elements of threat and danger." As

6370-421: The power of the emperor over his subjects. In a poem about a lavish Saturnalia under Domitian , Statius makes it clear that the emperor, like Jupiter , still reigns during the temporary return of Saturn. The phrase io Saturnalia was the characteristic shout or salutation of the festival, originally commencing after the public banquet on the single day of 17 December. The interjection io (Greek ἰώ , ǐō )

6461-497: The rule, and a sober person the exception. Seneca looked forward to the holiday, if somewhat tentatively, in a letter to a friend: "It is now the month of December, when the greatest part of the city is in a bustle. Loose reins are given to public dissipation; everywhere you may hear the sound of great preparations, as if there were some real difference between the days devoted to Saturn and those for transacting business. ... Were you here, I would willingly confer with you as to

6552-524: The same day. He may have also been influenced by the idea that Jesus had died on the anniversary of his conception; because Jesus died during Passover and, in the third century AD, Passover was celebrated on 25 March, he may have assumed that Jesus's birthday must have come nine months later, on 25 December. But in fact the correspondence is spurious. As a result of the close proximity of dates, many Christians in western Europe continued to celebrate traditional Saturnalia customs in association with Christmas and

6643-434: The semi-legendary second king of Rome , established mercatus in conjunction with religious festivals to facilitate trade, since people had already gathered in great numbers. In early times, these mercatus may have played a role in wholesale trade, but as commerce in Rome became more sophisticated, by the late Republic they seem to have become retail fairs specialized for the holiday market. The Sigillaria attached to

6734-456: The slaves with a dinner prepared as if for the master; and only afterwards is the table set again for the head of the household. So, then, the chief slave came in to announce the time of dinner and to summon the masters to the table." Macrobius , Saturnalia 1.24.22–23 Saturnalia was characterized by role reversals and behavioral license. Slaves were treated to a banquet of the kind usually enjoyed by their masters. Ancient sources differ on

6825-573: The solstice -- their festival was for all eight days," which slightly overstates the Saturnalia's historical six-day length, possibly to associate the holiday with Hanukkah . In the Jerusalem Talmud , Avodah Zarah claims the etymology of Saturnalia is שנאה טמונה śinʾâ ṭǝmûnâ "hidden hatred," and refers to the hatred Esau , whom the Rabbis believed had fathered Rome, harbored for Jacob . The Babylonian Talmud 's Avodah Zarah ascribes

6916-451: The sources of the Saturnalia see H. Linke (1880) and Georg Wissowa (1880). The grammatical treatise will be found in Jan's edition and Heinrich Keil 's Grammatici latini ; see also Georg Friedrich Schömann , Commentatio macrobiana (1871). Macrobius's Saturnalia ( Latin : Saturnaliorum Libri Septem , "Seven Books of the Saturnalia ") consists of an account of the discussions held at

7007-630: The state, attempting to be the greatest display anyone living had ever seen. These games were intended to be held every 100 years with the purpose of it occurring only once in any individuals lifetime. At one point two cycles of the Secular Games were being held simultaneously, leading there to be people who would in fact witness it twice in their life. The noun mercatus (plural mercatūs ) means "commerce" or "the market" generally, but it also refers to fairs or markets held immediately after certain ludi . Cicero said that Numa Pompilius ,

7098-564: The surrounding holidays. Like Saturnalia, Christmas during the Middle Ages was a time of ruckus, drinking, gambling, and overeating. The tradition of the Saturnalicius princeps was particularly influential. In medieval France and Switzerland, a boy would be elected " bishop for a day " on 28 December (the Feast of the Holy Innocents ) and would issue decrees much like the Saturnalicius princeps . The boy bishop's tenure ended during

7189-402: The time of the winter solstice." The actual date of Jesus 's birth is unknown. A spurious correspondence between Cyril of Jerusalem and Pope Julius I (337–352), quoted by John of Nikiu in the 9th century, is sometimes given as a source for a claim that, in the fourth century AD, Pope Julius I formalized that the nativity of Christ should be celebrated on 25 December. Some speculate that this

7280-404: The visit of Hercules to Italy , the civilizing demigod insisted that the practice be halted and the ritual reinterpreted. Instead of heads to Dīs Pater, the Romans were to offer effigies or masks ( oscilla ) ; a mask appears in the representation of Saturnalia in the Calendar of Filocalus . Since the Greek word phota meant both 'man' and 'lights', candles were a substitute offering to Saturn for

7371-532: The winter solstice, and he saw that the day was continuously lengthening, he said, "It is the order of the world!" He went and feasted for eight days. The following year, he feasted for both. He established them in Heaven's name, but they established them in the name of idolatry. In the Babylonian Avodah Zarah , this etiology is attributed to the tannaim , but the story is suspiciously similar to

7462-637: Was a pagan. Which "foreign sky" Macrobius was born under has been the subject of much speculation. Terrot Glover considers Macrobius either an ethnic Greek, or born in one of the Greek-speaking parts of the Roman Empire, such as Egypt, due to his intimate knowledge of Greek literature. J. E. Sandys went further and argued that Macrobius was born in one of the Greek provinces. However other experts, beginning with Ludwig van Jan , point out that despite his familiarity with Greek literature Macrobius

7553-517: Was called Quinctilis or Quintilis , originally the fifth month (quint-) when the year began in March. From this point in the calendar forward, the months had numerical designations. Until renamed for Augustus Caesar , this month was called Sextilis, originally the sixth month (sext-) when the year began in March. The following "moveable feasts" are listed roughly in chronological order. The Rosalia or "Festival of Roses" also had no fixed date, but

7644-464: Was celebrated under Augustus as a three-day official holiday encompassing both dates. By the late Republic , the private festivities of Saturnalia had expanded to seven days, but during the Imperial period contracted variously to three to five days. Caligula extended official observances to five. The date 17 December was the first day of the astrological sign Capricorn , the house of Saturn,

7735-459: Was criticized by Christian apologists as a form of human sacrifice . Although there is no evidence of this practice during the Republic, the offering of gladiators led to later theories that the primeval Saturn had demanded human victims. Macrobius says that Dīs Pater was placated with human heads and Saturn with sacrificial victims consisting of men ( virorum victimis ). In mythic lore, during

7826-548: Was far more familiar with Latin than Greek—as evidenced by his enthusiasm for Vergil and Cicero —and favor North Africa, which was part of the Latin-speaking portion of the Roman Empire. Scholars have attempted to identify him with a Macrobius who is mentioned in the Codex Theodosianus as a praetorian prefect of Spain (399–400), and a proconsul of Africa (410). The Codex Theodosianus also records

7917-523: Was led along the Via Sacra to the Capitolium for sacrifice to Jupiter. The list also includes other notable public religious events such as sacrifices and processions that were observed annually but are neither feriae nor dies natales. Unless otherwise noted, the calendar is that of H.H. Scullard , Festivals and Ceremonies of the Roman Republic . In the archaic Roman calendar, February

8008-416: Was removed for the holiday as an act of liberation. The official rituals were carried out according to "Greek rite" ( ritus graecus ) . The sacrifice was officiated by a priest, whose head was uncovered; in Roman rite, priests sacrificed capite velato , with head covered by a special fold of the toga . This procedure is usually explained by Saturn's assimilation with his Greek counterpart Cronus , since

8099-404: Was technically not one of the feriae conceptivae with a date announced by public priests based on archaic practice. Festivals were also held in ancient Rome in response to particular events, or for a particular purpose such as to propitiate or show gratitude toward the gods. For example, Livy reports that following the Roman destruction of Alba Longa in the 7th century BC, and the removal of

8190-399: Was the last month of the year. The name derives from februa , "the means of purification, expiatory offerings." It marked a turn of season, with February 5 the official first day of spring bringing the renewal of agricultural activities after winter. In the old Roman calendar (until perhaps as late as 153 BC), the mensis Martius ("Mars' Month") was the first month of the year. It is one of

8281-565: Was usurped by his son Jupiter ( Zeus ) and expelled from Greece. His contradictions—a foreigner with one of Rome's oldest sanctuaries, and a god of liberation who is kept in fetters most of the year—indicate Saturn's capacity for obliterating social distinctions. Roman mythology of the Golden Age of Saturn's reign differed from the Greek tradition. He arrived in Italy "dethroned and fugitive", but brought agriculture and civilization and became

#392607