123-480: (Redirected from Classical Education ) Classical education may refer to: Classical education in the Western world Classical education movement an education in the classics , the study of classical antiquity See also [ edit ] Ijazah , a license particularly associated with transmission of Islamic religious knowledge Imperial examination ,
246-897: A Christian further popularized humanist ideas. In 1963, the British Humanist Association evolved out of the Ethical Union, and merged with many smaller ethical and rationalist groups. Elsewhere in Europe, humanist organizations also flourished. In the Netherlands, the Dutch Humanist Alliance gained a wide base of support after World War II; in Norway, the Norwegian Humanist Association gained popular support. In
369-405: A Greek myth in which the absurd hero Sisyphus is destined to push a heavy rock up a hill; the rock slips back and he must repeat the task. Sisyphus is negating Gods and preset meanings of life, but argues that life has value and significance, and that each individual is able to create their meanings of life. Camus thus highlights the importance of personal agency and self-determination that lie at
492-649: A broader population. In the 19th century, the classical model of education began to wane as industrialization and scientific advancements demanded a more specialized and utilitarian approach to education. Educational reformers , particularly in Europe and the United States, advocated for curricula that emphasized the natural sciences , mathematics , and modern languages over the traditional focus on Latin, Greek, and classical literature. Despite these changes, classical education retained its influence, especially in elite institutions, where it continued to be seen as
615-549: A civil service examination system in Imperial China Madrasa , usually a specific type of religious school or college Scholar-official , government officials and prestigious scholars in Chinese society Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Classical education . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change
738-509: A cornerstone of Western educational thought. Plato, through his Academy , emphasized the importance of philosophical education as a means to achieve moral and intellectual excellence. Aristotle, in turn, founded the Lyceum , where he advanced the study of logic , ethics , and natural sciences , laying the groundwork for many disciplines that would later become central to Western education . The Athenian model of education, with its emphasis on
861-435: A crucial role. Intellectuals like Voltaire and Rousseau argued for educational reforms that would free learning from ecclesiastical control and make it accessible to a broader segment of society. The growth of literacy, the establishment of libraries, and the creation of educational societies were all part of this broader movement toward secular and public education. These changes reflected a fundamental shift in how education
984-506: A curriculum that aligned with rationalist and secular values. This shift was particularly evident in the reformation of French universities and the establishment of new schools that focused on practical and scientific knowledge. In England, the Enlightenment contributed to the development of a more inclusive educational system. The spread of literacy and the growth of public education were driven by Enlightenment ideals that emphasized
1107-454: A few religious doctrines to also identify as a humanist. Copson adds that religious critics usually frame humanism as an enemy of religion but most humanists are proponents of religious tolerance or exhibit a curiosity about religion's effects in society and politics, commenting: "Only a few are regularly outraged by other people's false beliefs per se ". In the 19th century, along with the decline of religion and its accompanied teleology ,
1230-407: A focus on human well-being and advocates for human freedom , autonomy , and progress . It views humanity as responsible for the promotion and development of individuals, espouses the equal and inherent dignity of all human beings, and emphasizes a concern for humans in relation to the world. Humanists tend to advocate for human rights, free speech, progressive policies, and democracy. Starting in
1353-462: A foundation for developing critical thinking, moral reasoning, and leadership qualities. As the 20th century progressed, the shift toward progressive education , influenced by figures such as John Dewey , further marginalized classical education. Progressive education emphasized experiential learning , critical thinking , and social engagement over the rote memorization and strict discipline associated with traditional classical education. However,
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#17327827755661476-455: A manner that corresponds with the natural stages of a child's cognitive development. In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, classical education experienced a resurgence, particularly within the Christian education movement in the United States. Schools and homeschool programs began to adopt curricula based on the classical model, emphasizing the trivium and quadrivium as foundational to
1599-400: A means of scholarly inquiry but as a way to cultivate moral and civic virtues. This approach to education sought to create citizens who were not only knowledgeable but also ethically grounded and capable of contributing to the public good. The revival of classical languages, particularly Latin and Greek, was central to this humanist education, as these languages were seen as the key to unlocking
1722-617: A philosophy that usually rejects supernaturalism and stresses an individual's dignity and worth and capacity for self-realization through reason". Traces of humanism can be found in ancient Greek philosophy . Pre-Socratic philosophers were the first Western philosophers to attempt to explain the world in terms of human reason and natural law without relying on myth, tradition, or religion. Protagoras , who lived in Athens c. 440 BCE , put forward some fundamental humanist ideas, although only fragments of his work survive. He made one of
1845-399: A prominent center of Renaissance humanism; his circle included other notable humanists—including Leonardo Bruni , who rediscovered, translated, and popularized ancient texts. Humanists heavily influenced education. Vittorino da Feltre and Guarino Veronese created schools based on humanistic principles; their curriculum was widely adopted and by the 16th century, humanistic paideia was
1968-513: A range of combinations exists. Individualistic humanists often have a philosophical perspective of humanism; in politics, these are inclined to libertarianism and in ethics tend to follow a scientistic approach. Collectivists have a more-applied view of humanism, lean toward socialism, and have a humanitarian approach to ethics. The second group has connections with the thought of young Marx , especially his anthropological views rejecting his political practices. A factor that repels many humanists from
2091-488: A return to a holistic education that integrates faith, reason, and the classical liberal arts to form individuals who can think critically and act ethically in the world. Their work reflects the ongoing influence of classical education principles in shaping contemporary educational practices. The resurgence of classical education is also reflected in the growth of institutions dedicated to this educational philosophy, such as Hillsdale College and various charter schools across
2214-435: A satisfying life with virtue and happiness by improving societies worldwide. Humanist Andrew Copson takes a consequentialist and utilitarian approach to morality; according to Copson, all humanist ethical traits aim at human welfare. Philosopher Stephen Law emphasizes some principles of humanist ethics; respect for personal moral autonomy, rejection of god-given moral commands, an aim for human well-being, and "emphasiz[ing]
2337-408: A specific area of study, with students progressing through a structured curriculum that culminated in the awarding of degrees. The studium generale , or general study, was a key feature of these institutions, indicating their status as centers of learning that attracted students from across Europe. The curriculum at medieval universities was heavily influenced by classical education, particularly
2460-593: A strong emphasis on rhetoric and the development of oratory skills, which were considered essential for participation in civic life. As these classical ideas were preserved and transmitted through the Middle Ages , they became the foundation for the educational systems that emerged in Europe , particularly within monastic and cathedral schools . The Renaissance marked a significant revival of classical education, as scholars in Europe rediscovered and embraced
2583-544: A universal law, shaped the humanist moral narrative until the early 20th century. Because the concepts of free will and reason are not based on scientific naturalism, their influence on humanists remained in the early 20th century but was reduced by social progressiveness and egalitarianism. As part of social changes in the late 20th century, humanist ethics evolved to support secularism , civil rights, personal autonomy, religious toleration, multiculturalism , and cosmopolitanism . A naturalistic criticism of humanistic morality
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#17327827755662706-737: A vital part of Western cultural identity. Classical education's impact is also global, having been spread through colonialism and globalization . Western educational models, including those based on classical principles, were introduced to other parts of the world, influencing educational systems far beyond Europe and the Americas. This global influence underscores the enduring power of classical education to shape minds and societies across different cultures and historical periods. Lawson, John; Silver, Harold (2013). A Social History of Education in England . Routledge. Humanism Humanism
2829-444: A well-rounded education. Adler argued that the great books of Western civilization offered timeless insights into the human condition and should be made accessible to all students, not just the elite. His efforts helped to preserve the legacy of classical education and inspired a renewed interest in the liberal arts during the latter half of the century. Another significant figure in the mid-20th century revival of classical education
2952-484: A well-rounded education. This revival was driven by a desire to return to an educational system that prioritizes wisdom, virtue, and the cultivation of the whole person over mere vocational training. Kevin Clark and Ravi Jain's book, The Liberal Arts Tradition: A Philosophy of Christian Classical Education , has been instrumental in articulating the philosophy behind this modern classical education movement . They argue for
3075-487: Is a philosophical stance that emphasizes the individual and social potential, and agency of human beings, whom it considers the starting point for serious moral and philosophical inquiry. The meaning of the term "humanism" has changed according to successive intellectual movements that have identified with it. During the Italian Renaissance , ancient works inspired Catholic Italian scholars, giving rise to
3198-503: Is a lack of shared belief system or doctrine but, in general, humanists aim for happiness and self-fulfillment. In 2015, prominent humanist Andrew Copson defined humanism as follows: According to the International Humanist and Ethical Union : Humanism is a democratic and ethical life stance, which affirms that human beings have the right and responsibility to give meaning and shape to their own lives. It stands for
3321-435: Is a major current of counseling. There are various approaches such as discussion and critical thinking , replying to existential anxiety , and focusing on social and political dimensions of problems. Humanist counseling focuses on respecting the client's worldview and placing it in the correct cultural context. The approach emphasizes an individual's inherent drive towards self-actualization and creativity. It also recognizes
3444-449: Is a private issue and the state should have no power over it. He also argues that secularism helps plurality and diversity, which are fundamental aspects of our modern world. While barbarism and violence can be found in most civilizations, Haworth notes religion usually fuels rhetoric and enables these actions. He also said the values of hard work, honesty, and charity are found in other civilizations. According to Haworth, humanism opposes
3567-403: Is a tool rather than a set of doctrines that was used to develop human culture. Humanist philosopher Brian Ellis advocates a social humanist theory of morality called "social contractual utilitarianism", which is based on Hume's naturalism and empathy, Aristotelian virtue theory, and Kant's idealism. According to Ellis, morality should aim for eudaimonia , an Aristotelian concept that combines
3690-438: Is also evident in the development of modern liberal arts education. The idea that education should cultivate wisdom, virtue, and a broad understanding of human knowledge is deeply rooted in the classical tradition. This legacy is particularly strong in institutions like liberal arts colleges, where the curriculum often reflects the holistic approach of classical education, integrating the study of literature, philosophy, history, and
3813-463: Is an obstacle to morality rather than a prerequisite for it. According to humanists, acting only out of fear, adherence to dogma, and expectation of a reward is a selfish motivation rather than morality. Humanists point to the subjectivity of the supposedly objective divine commands by referring to the Euthyphro dilemma , originally posed by Socrates: "does God command something because it is good or
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3936-412: Is lessened. Humanists also consider human essence to be universal, irrespective of race and social status, diminishing the importance of collective identities and signifying the importance of individuals. Immanuel Kant provided the modern philosophical basis of the humanist narrative. His theory of critical philosophy formed the basis of the world of knowledge, defending rationalism and grounding it in
4059-467: Is now rarely practiced. The American Humanist Association arose from religious humanism. The same term has been used by religious groups such as the Quakers to describe their humanistic theology . The term "Renaissance humanism" was given to a tradition of cultural and educational reform engaged in by civic and ecclesiastical chancellors, book collectors, educators, and writers that developed during
4182-458: Is probable Bavarian theologian Friedrich Immanuel Niethammer coined the term humanismus to describe the new classical curriculum he planned to offer in German secondary schools. Soon, other scholars such as Georg Voigt and Jacob Burckhardt adopted the term. In the 20th century, the word was further refined, acquiring its contemporary meaning of a naturalistic approach to life, and a focus on
4305-534: Is something good because God commands it?" If goodness is independent from God, humans can reach goodness without religion but relativism is elicited if God creates goodness. Another argument against this religious criticism is the human-made nature of morality, even through religious means. The interpretation of holy scriptures almost always includes human reasoning; different interpreters reach contradictory theories. Humanism has widely been seen as antithetical to religion. Philosopher of religion David Kline, traces
4428-406: Is the denial of the existence of morality. For naturalistic skeptics, morality was not hardwired within humans during their evolution; humans are primarily selfish and self-centered. Defending humanist morality, humanist philosopher John R. Shook makes three observations that lead him to the acceptance of morality. According to Shook, homo sapiens has a concept of morality that must have been with
4551-516: The International Humanist and Ethical Union (IHEU), which is now known as Humanists International , and promotes the humanist agenda via the United Nations organizations UNESCO and UNICEF . Early 20th century naturalists, who viewed their humanism as a religion and participated in church-like congregations, used the term "religious humanism". Religious humanism appeared mostly in the US and
4674-510: The Renaissance humanism movement. During the Age of Enlightenment , humanistic values were reinforced by advances in science and technology, giving confidence to humans in their exploration of the world. By the early 20th century, organizations dedicated to humanism flourished in Europe and the United States, and have since expanded worldwide. In the early 21st century, the term generally denotes
4797-537: The mere humanity of Christ ". This theological origin of humanism is considered obsolete. In the early 19th century, the term humanismus was used in Germany with several meanings and from there, it re-entered the English language with two distinct denotations; an academic term linked to the study of classic literature and a more-common use that signified a non-religious approach to life contrary to theism . It
4920-506: The studia humanitatis , became the foundation of humanist education and was widely adopted in universities and schools across Europe. Renaissance humanism also had a significant institutional impact, as it led to the establishment of new educational institutions and the transformation of existing ones. Universities and academies across Europe began to incorporate humanist principles into their curricula, fostering an environment where classical education could thrive. This shift not only affected
5043-630: The 14th and early 15th centuries. By the late 15th century, these academics began to be referred to as umanisti (humanists). While modern humanism's roots can be traced in part to the Renaissance, the term "Renaissance humanism" does not meaningfully relate to humanism in the modern sense. Other terms using "humanism" in their name include: These varieties of humanism are now largely of historical interest only. Some ethical movements continue (e.g. New York Society for Ethical Culture ) but in general humanism no longer needs any qualification "because
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5166-462: The 20th century, some humanist movements are non-religious and aligned with secularism . Most frequently in contemporary usage, humanism refers to a non-theistic view centered on human agency, and a reliance only on science and reason rather than revelation from a divine source to understand the world. Non-theistic humanist worldview maintain religion is not a precondition of morality, and object to excessive religious entanglement with education and
5289-678: The English Language , the word humanist is defined as a philologer or grammarian, derived from the French word humaniste . In a later edition of the dictionary, the meaning "a term used in the schools of Scotland " was added. In the 1780s, Thomas Howes was one of Joseph Priestley 's many opponents during the celebrated Unitarian disputes. Because of the different doctrinal meanings of Unitarian and Unitarianism , Howes used "the more precise appellations of humanists and humanism " when referring to those like Priestley "who maintain
5412-456: The Enlightenment, Baruch Spinoza redefined God as signifying the totality of nature; Spinoza was accused of atheism but remained silent on the matter. Naturalism was also advanced by prominent Encyclopédistes . Baron d'Holbach wrote the polemic System of Nature , claiming that religion was built on fear and had helped tyrants throughout history. Diderot and Helvetius combined their materialism with sharp, political critique. Also during
5535-430: The Enlightenment, the abstract conception of humanity started forming—a critical juncture for the construction of humanist philosophy. Previous appeals to "men" now shifted toward "man"; to illustrate this point, scholar Tony Davies points to political documents like The Social Contract (1762) of Rousseau , in which he says "Man is born free, but is everywhere in chains". Likewise, Thomas Paine 's Rights of Man uses
5658-476: The Humanist ethics the chief end of thought and action is to further this-earthly human interests on behalf of the greater glory of people. The watchword of Humanism is happiness for all humanity in this existence as contrasted with salvation for the individual soul in a future existence and the glorification of a supernatural Supreme Being ... It heartily welcomes all life-enhancing and healthy pleasures, from
5781-787: The US, humanism evolved with the aid of significant figures of the Unitarian Church . Humanist magazines began to appear, including The New Humanist , which published the Humanist Manifesto I in 1933. The American Ethical Union emerged from newly founded, small, ethicist societies. The American Humanist Association (AHA) was established in 1941 and became as popular as some of its European counterparts. The AHA spread to all states, and some prominent public figures such as Isaac Asimov , John Dewey , Erich Fromm , Paul Kurtz , Carl Sagan , and Gene Roddenberry became members. Humanist organizations from all continents formed
5904-452: The United States. These institutions have played a significant role in promoting classical education as a viable and desirable alternative to mainstream educational models. The movement has gained traction among parents and educators who are disillusioned with modern educational trends and seek to provide a more rigorous and morally grounded education for their children. Classical education has left an indelible mark on Western culture, shaping
6027-517: The Western world refers to a long-standing tradition of pedagogy that traces its roots back to ancient Greece and Rome , where the foundations of Western intellectual and cultural life were laid. At its core, classical education is centered on the study of the liberal arts , which historically comprised the trivium (grammar, rhetoric, and logic) and the quadrivium ( arithmetic , geometry , music , and astronomy ). This educational model aimed to cultivate well-rounded individuals equipped with
6150-681: The arts occurred in 13th-century Italy. Italian scholars discovered Ancient Greek thought, particularly that of Aristotle, through Arabic translations from Africa and Spain. Other centers were Verona , Naples , and Avignon . Petrarch , who is often referred to as the father of humanism, is a significant figure. Petrarch was raised in Avignon; he was inclined toward education at a very early age and studied alongside his well-educated father. Petrarch's enthusiasm for ancient texts led him to discover manuscripts such as Cicero's Pro Archia and Pomponius Mela 's De Chorographia that were influential in
6273-591: The aspects of personal belief that added to the hostility between humanism and religion. Humanism was linked with prominent thinkers who advocated against the existence of God using rationalistic arguments. Critique of theism continued through the humanistic revolutions in Europe, challenging religious worldviews, attitudes and superstitions on a rational basis—a tendency that continued to the 20th century. According to Stephen Law, humanist adherence to secularism placed humans at odds with religion, especially nationally dominant religions striving to retain privileges gained in
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#17327827755666396-463: The building of a more humane society through an ethic based on human and other natural values in the spirit of reason and free inquiry through human capabilities. It is not theistic, and it does not accept supernatural views of reality. Dictionaries define humanism as a worldview or philosophical stance. According to Merriam Webster Dictionary , humanism is " ... a doctrine, attitude, or way of life centered on human interests or values; especially:
6519-419: The centre of humanism. Personal humanist interpretations of the meaning of life vary from the pursuit of happiness without recklessness and excesses to participation in human history, and connection with loved ones, living animals, and plants. Some answers are close to those of religious discourse if the appeal to divinity is overlooked. According to humanist professor Peter Derks, elements that contribute to
6642-426: The centuries, classical education has maintained a lasting influence on Western thought and educational practices. Today, its legacy can be seen in the curricula of liberal arts colleges , the resurgence of classical Christian education , and ongoing debates about the relevance of classical studies in a modern, globalized world. Education in ancient Greece laid the foundation for what would later be recognized as
6765-507: The classical education tradition in the Western world. The educational systems in ancient Greece were diverse, reflecting the different needs and values of the various city-states. In Sparta , education was highly militaristic, designed to produce disciplined and physically strong warriors. From a young age, Spartan boys underwent rigorous training, emphasizing endurance, obedience, and martial skills, which were essential to maintaining Sparta's military dominance. In contrast, Athenian education
6888-406: The comprehensive development of a person's intellectual, moral, and physical capacities, which was seen as essential for creating ideal citizens. Philosophers like Socrates , Plato , and Aristotle played crucial roles in shaping the educational ideals of Athens . Socrates introduced the dialectical method, a form of questioning that encouraged critical thinking and self-reflection, which became
7011-554: The contemporary era. During the Age of Enlightenment , humanistic ideas resurfaced, this time further from religion and classical literature. Science and intellectualism advanced, and humanists argued that rationality could replace deism as the means with which to understand the world. Humanistic values, such as tolerance and opposition to slavery, started to take shape. New philosophical, social, and political ideas appeared. Some thinkers rejected theism outright; and atheism, deism, and hostility to organized religion were formed. During
7134-425: The content of education but also its purpose, as education came to be seen as a means of shaping both the mind and character of individuals. The legacy of Renaissance humanism in education is profound, as it laid the groundwork for modern liberal arts education. The humanist emphasis on critical thinking, moral education, and the study of classical texts has continued to influence educational theory and practice up to
7257-458: The core principles of classical education—especially the value of studying great books and the liberal arts—remained influential in certain academic and intellectual circles, particularly within liberal arts colleges and universities. Mortimer Adler 's work in the mid-20th century, particularly through the Great Books movement, sought to reestablish the study of classic texts as central to
7380-459: The cultural and political developments of the Middle Ages. The Renaissance , beginning in the 14th century, marked a profound revival of classical learning and values, driven largely by the humanist movement . This intellectual revolution sought to rediscover and reintegrate the literature, philosophy, and educational ideals of ancient Greece and Rome into the fabric of European culture. At
7503-407: The deconstruction of the religious narrative in favor of human-generated knowledge. This ultimately uncoupled the fate of humans from the divine will, prompting social and political shifts. The relation of state and citizens changed as civic humanistic principles emerged; people were no longer to be servile to religiously grounded monarchies but could pursue their own destinies. Kline also points at
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#17327827755667626-404: The development of both the mind and body, became the archetype for classical education in the Western world. This model was not only influential in ancient Greece but also served as the foundation for educational systems in later Western societies. The blend of intellectual rigor, moral education, and physical training established in ancient Athens continues to be a reference point for discussions on
7749-570: The development of the Renaissance. Petrarch wrote Latin poems such as Canzoniere and De viris illustribus , in which he described humanist ideas. His most-significant contribution was a list of books outlining the four major disciplines—rhetoric, moral philosophy, poetry, and grammar—that became the basis of humanistic studies ( studia humanitatis ). Petrarch's list relied heavily on ancient writers, especially Cicero. The revival of classicist authors continued after Petrarch's death. Florence chancellor and humanist Coluccio Salutati made his city
7872-503: The dominant outlook of pre-university education. Parallel with advances in education, Renaissance humanists made progress in fields such as philosophy, mathematics, and religion. In philosophy, Angelo Poliziano , Nicholas of Cusa , and Marsilio Ficino further contributed to the understanding of ancient classical philosophers and Giovanni Pico della Mirandola undermined the dominance of Aristotelian philosophy by revitalizing Sextus Empiricus ' skepticism. Religious studies were affected by
7995-456: The elimination of hunger and improvements to health, housing, and education. In the same edited collection , Humanist philosopher H. J. Blackham argued humanism is a concept focusing on improving humanity's social conditions by increasing the autonomy and dignity of all humans. In 1999, Jeaneane D. Fowler said the definition of humanism should include a rejection of divinity, and an emphasis on human well-being and freedom. She also noted there
8118-474: The empirical world. He also supported the idea of the moral autonomy of the individual, which is fundamental to his philosophy. According to Kant, morality is the product of the way humans live and not a set of fixed values. Instead of a universal ethic code, Kant suggested a universal procedure that shapes the ethics that differ among groups of people. Philosopher and humanist advocate Corliss Lamont , in his book The Philosophy of Humanism (1997), states: In
8241-441: The end of the 15th century, the center of humanism had shifted from Italy to northern Europe, with Erasmus of Rotterdam being the leading humanist scholar. The longest-lasting effect of Renaissance humanism was its education curriculum and methods. Humanists insisted on the importance of classical literature in providing intellectual discipline, moral standards, and a civilized taste for the elite—an educational approach that reached
8364-427: The first agnostic statements; according to one fragment: "About the gods I am able to know neither that they exist nor that they do not exist nor of what kind they are in form: for many things prevent me for knowing this, its obscurity and the brevity of man's life". Socrates spoke of the need to "know thyself"; his thought changed the focus of then-contemporary philosophy from nature to humans and their well-being. He
8487-460: The formation of ethical and informed citizens. In the broader cultural context, the legacy of classical education extends beyond the classroom. It has shaped Western literature, art, and philosophy, providing a framework for exploring and expressing the complexities of the human experience. The works of Homer , Virgil , and Plato, among others, have inspired countless generations of artists, writers, and thinkers, ensuring that classical ideas remain
8610-423: The fundamental unit of the universe is an indivisible atom. Human happiness, living well, friendship, and the avoidance of excesses were the key ingredients of Epicurean philosophy that flourished in and beyond the post-Hellenic world. It is a repeated view among scholars that the humanistic features of ancient Greek thought are the roots of humanism 2,000 years later. Other predecessor movements that sometimes use
8733-735: The gradual decline of religious control over educational institutions and the rise of secular education systems that prioritized empirical knowledge and critical thinking . The Enlightenment thinkers believed that education was essential for the progress of society and the cultivation of informed citizens capable of contributing to public life. In France, the Enlightenment had a profound impact on higher education. Universities, previously dominated by religious instruction, began to incorporate more secular subjects such as natural sciences , philosophy , and modern languages into their curricula. The French state, influenced by Enlightenment ideals, increasingly took control of educational institutions, promoting
8856-496: The growth of Renaissance humanism when Pope Nicholas V initiated the translation of Hebrew and Greek biblical texts, and other texts in those languages, to contemporaneous Latin. Humanist values spread from Italy in the 15th century. Students and scholars went to Italy to study before returning to their homelands carrying humanistic messages. Printing houses dedicated to ancient texts were established in Venice, Basel, and Paris. By
8979-437: The heart of this movement was the studia humanitatis , a curriculum that emphasized the study of grammar, rhetoric, history, poetry, and moral philosophy—disciplines seen as essential for the development of virtuous and well-rounded individuals. Humanism played a central role in reshaping the educational landscape of the Renaissance. Humanists like Petrarch and Erasmus advocated for the study of classical texts not merely as
9102-443: The idea—which is sometimes attributed to Thomas Paine —of a " religion of humanity ". According to scholar Tony Davies, this was intended to be an atheist cult based on some humanistic tenets, and had some prominent members but soon declined. It was nonetheless influential during the 19th century, and its humanism and rejection of supernaturalism are echoed in the works of later authors such as Oscar Wilde , George Holyoake —who coined
9225-481: The importance of education for all citizens, not just the elite. This period also saw the establishment of new educational institutions, including schools and academies, which offered instruction in a range of subjects beyond the traditional classical curriculum. These developments laid the groundwork for the expansion of popular education in the 19th century. The Enlightenment also fostered the rise of public spheres where education, particularly secular education, played
9348-408: The importance of moral questions about one's interactions with people according to one's worldview. This is examined using a process of dialogue. Humanist counseling originated in post-World War II Netherlands. Humanistic counseling is based on the works of psychologists Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow . It introduced a positive, humanistic psychology in response to what Rogers and Maslow viewed as
9471-422: The intellectual, cultural, and educational landscapes of Europe and the Americas for centuries. Its influence can be traced from the Renaissance through to modern times, with its principles continuing to inform contemporary educational practices. The revival of classical learning during the Renaissance had a profound impact on European intellectual life. Humanist scholars like Petrarch and Erasmus reintroduced
9594-478: The invocation of supernatural phenomena fails to coherently explain the world. One form of irrational thinking is adducing . Humanists are skeptical of explanations of natural phenomena or diseases that rely on hidden agencies. Human autonomy is another hallmark of humanist philosophy. For people to be autonomous, their beliefs and actions must be the result of their own reasoning. For humanists, autonomy dignifies each individual; without autonomy, people's humanity
9717-415: The irrationality of nationalism and totalitarianism , whether these are part of fascism or Marxist–Leninist communism . According to professor Joseph O. Baker, in political theory, contemporary humanism is formed by two main tendencies; the first is individualistic and the second inclines to collectivism . The trajectory of each tendency can lead to libertarianism and socialism respectively, but
9840-413: The knowledge and skills necessary to engage in public life, think critically, and pursue moral and intellectual virtues. In ancient Greece , the classical curriculum emerged from the educational practices of philosophers like Socrates , Plato , and Aristotle , who emphasized dialectical reasoning and the pursuit of truth. The Roman Empire adopted and adapted these Greek educational ideals, placing
9963-534: The last centuries. Worth notes religious persons can be secularists. Law notes secularism is criticized for suppressing freedom of expression of religious persons but firmly denies such accusation; instead, he says, secularism protects this kind of freedom but opposes the privileged status of religious views. According to Andrew Copson, humanism is not incompatible with some aspects of religion. He observes that components like belief, practice, identity, and culture can coexist, allowing an individual who subscribes to only
10086-428: The libertarian view is the neoliberal or capitalistic consequences they feel it entails. Humanism has been a part of both major 20th-century ideological currents—liberalism and Marxism. Early 19th-century socialism was connected to humanism. In the 20th century, a humanistic interpretation of Marxism focused on Marx's early writings, viewing Marxism not as " scientific socialism " but as a philosophical critique aimed at
10209-504: The lifestance is by definition naturalistic, scientific, and secular". However, according to Andrew Copson the view that there are still two types of humanism – religious and secular – "has begun to seriously muddy the conceptual water". Humanism is strongly linked to rationality. For humanists, humans are reasonable beings, and reasoning and the scientific method are means of finding truth. Humanists argue science and rationality have driven successful developments in various fields while
10332-425: The link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Classical_education&oldid=1255961779 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Classical education in the Western world Classical education in
10455-473: The meaning of life are a morally worthy purpose in life, positive self-evaluation, an understanding of one's environment, being seen and understood by others, the ability to emotionally connect with others, and a desire to have a meaning in life. Humanist professor Anthony B. Pinn places the meaning of life in the quest of what he calls "complex subjectivity". Pinn, who is advocating for a non-theistic, humanistic religion inspired by African cultures, says seeking
10578-572: The modern university concept of the humanities —the arts, philosophy, history, literature, and related disciplines. The word reappeared during the Italian Renaissance as umanista and entered the English language in the 16th century. The word "humanist" was used to describe a group of students of classical literature and those advocating for a classical education. In 1755, in Samuel Johnson 's influential A Dictionary of
10701-444: The never-reaching meaning of life contributes to well-being, and that rituals and ceremonies, which are occasions for reflection, provide an opportunity to assess the meaning of life, improving well-being. The hallmark of contemporary humanism in politics is the demand for secularism. Philosopher Alan Haworth said secularism delivers fair treatment to all citizens of a nation-state since all are treated without discrimination; religion
10824-518: The over-pessimistic view of psychoanalysis in the early 1960s. Other sources include the philosophies of existentialism and phenomenology . Some modern counseling organizations have humanist origins, like the British Association for Counselling and Psychotherapy , which was founded by Harold Blackham , which he developed alongside the British Humanist Association 's Humanist Counselling Service. Modern-day humanist pastoral care in
10947-553: The overcoming of " alienation ". In the US, liberalism is associated mostly with humanistic principles, which is distinct from the European use of the same word, which has economical connotations. In the post-1945 era, Jean-Paul Sartre and other French existentialists advocated for humanism, linking it to socialism while trying to stay neutral during the Cold War . Humanist counseling is humanism-inspired applied psychology, which
11070-533: The plurality of species. Darwin's theory also suggested humans are simply a natural species, contradicting the traditional theological view of humans as more than animals. Philosophers Ludwig Feuerbach , Friedrich Nietzsche , and Karl Marx attacked religion on several grounds, and theologians David Strauss and Julius Wellhausen questioned the Bible. In parallel, utilitarianism was developed in Britain through
11193-451: The present day. The Renaissance humanists' reimagining of classical education ensured that the wisdom of the ancient world remained a vital part of Western intellectual life, shaping the development of education for centuries to come. The Age of Enlightenment , spanning the 17th and 18th centuries, marked a shift in the history of education, as intellectual currents of the time emphasized reason , science , and secularism . This period saw
11316-613: The primary centers of learning in the early Middle Ages . These universities, first established in the 11th and 12th centuries, became the principal institutions for advanced study, particularly in the fields of theology , law , medicine , and the arts . The earliest universities, such as the University of Bologna , the University of Paris , and the University of Oxford , were largely self-governing institutions, operating under charters granted by secular or religious authorities. They were organized into faculties, each responsible for
11439-440: The purposes and methods of education. Roman education played a crucial role in shaping the classical education tradition in the Western world, particularly through its emphasis on rhetoric, law, and civic duty. Unlike the more diverse educational systems of ancient Greece, Roman education was more uniform, reflecting the centralization of Roman society and its focus on preparing citizens for public life. The Roman educational system
11562-416: The question of the meaning of life became more prominent. Unlike religions, humanism does not have a definite view on the meaning of life. Humanists commonly say people create rather than discover meaning. While philosophers such as Nietzsche and Sartre wrote on the meaning of life in a godless world, the work of Albert Camus has echoed and shaped humanism. In Camus' The Myth of Sisyphus , he quotes
11685-552: The role of reason in making moral judgements". Humanism's godless approach to morality has driven criticism from religious commentators. The necessity for a divine being delivering sets of doctrines for morals to exist is a common argument; according to Dostoevsky 's character Ivan Karamázov in The Brothers Karamazov , "if God does not exist, then everything is permitted". This argument suggests chaos will ensue if religious belief disappears. For humanists, theism
11808-466: The roots of this animosity since the Renaissance, when humanistic views deconstructed the previous religiously defined order. Kline describes several ways this antithesis has evolved. Kline notes the emergence of a confident human-made knowledge, which was a new way of epistemology , repelled the church from its authoritative position. Kline uses the paradigm of non-humanists Copernicus , Kepler , and Galileo to illustrate how scientific discoveries added to
11931-677: The same or equivalent vocabulary to modern Western humanism can be found in Chinese philosophy and religions such as Taoism and Confucianism . Arabic translations of Ancient Greek literature during the Abbasid Caliphate in the eighth and ninth centuries influenced Islamic philosophers. Many medieval Muslim thinkers pursued humanistic, rational, and scientific discourse in their search for knowledge, meaning, and values . A wide range of Islamic writings on love, poetry, history, and philosophical theology show medieval Islamic thought
12054-445: The sciences. Moreover, classical education has influenced not only the content of education but also its purpose. The Renaissance humanists believed that education should prepare individuals for public life and civic responsibility, a belief that has persisted in various forms throughout Western educational history. The classical emphasis on rhetoric and moral philosophy has informed the development of educational systems that prioritize
12177-684: The scientific method was followed in the late 19th century in Britain by the start of many rationalist and ethical associations, such as the National Secular Society , the Ethical Union , and the Rationalist Press Association . In the 20th century, humanism was further promoted by the work of philosophers such as A. J. Ayer , Antony Flew , and Bertrand Russell , whose advocacy of atheism in Why I Am Not
12300-426: The singular form of the word, revealing a universal conception of "man". In parallel, Baconian empiricism—though not humanism per se —led to Thomas Hobbes 's materialism. Scholar J. Brent Crosson argues that, while there is a widely-held belief that the birth of humanism was solely a European affair, intellectual thought from Africa and Asia significantly contributed as well. He also notes that during enlightenment,
12423-461: The social and legal status of women in Roman society is a topic of ongoing scholarly interest. The rise of universities in medieval Europe marked a significant development in the history of classical education, transforming the intellectual landscape and laying the foundation for modern higher education. Medieval universities emerged from the earlier cathedral and monastic schools , which had been
12546-446: The species since the beginning of human history, developing by recognizing and thinking upon behaviors. He adds morality is universal among human cultures and all cultures strive to improve their moral level. Shook concludes that while morality was initially generated by our genes, culture shaped human morals and continues to do so. He calls "moral naturalism" the view that morality is a natural phenomenon, can be scientifically studied, and
12669-550: The state. Contemporary humanist organizations work under the umbrella of Humanists International . Well-known humanist associations include Humanists UK and the American Humanist Association . The word "humanism" derives from the Latin word humanitas , which was first used in ancient Rome by Cicero and other thinkers to describe values related to liberal education . This etymology survives in
12792-527: The study of the liberal arts , which were divided into the trivium ( grammar , rhetoric , and logic ) and the quadrivium ( arithmetic , geometry , music , and astronomy ). These subjects provided the foundation for more advanced studies in theology, law, and medicine. Latin was the language of instruction, and the teaching method was predominantly based on lectures and disputations, where students engaged in formal debates to develop their rhetorical and analytical skills. Life at medieval universities
12915-478: The texts and ideas of antiquity. Humanists of this period championed the study of classical languages , literature , and philosophy , seeing them as essential for cultivating a virtuous and knowledgeable citizenry. This revival continued into the Age of Enlightenment , where classical education played a central role in shaping the intellectual movements that emphasized reason , individualism , and secularism . Despite undergoing significant transformations over
13038-476: The universal man did not encompass all humans but was shaped by gender and race. According to Crosson, the shift from man to human started during enlightenment and is still ongoing. Crosson also argues that enlightenment, especially in Britain, produced not only a notion of universal man, but also gave birth to pseudoscientific ideas, such as those about differences between races, that shaped European history. French philosopher Auguste Comte (1798–1857) introduced
13161-615: The vigorous enjoyments of youth to the contemplative delights of mellowed age, from the simple gratifications of food and drink, sunshine and sports, to the more complex appreciation of art and literature, friendship and social communion. The humanist attitude toward morality has changed since its beginning. Starting in the 18th century, humanists were oriented toward an objective and universalist stance on ethics. Both Utilitarian philosophy —which aims to increase human happiness and decrease suffering—and Kantian ethics , which states one should act in accordance with maxims one could will to become
13284-456: The well-being and freedom of humans. There is no single, widely accepted definition of humanism, and scholars have given different meanings to the term. For philosopher Sidney Hook , writing in 1974, humanists are opposed to the imposition of one culture in some civilizations, do not belong to a church or established religion, do not support dictatorships, and do not justify the use of violence for social reforms. Hook also said humanists support
13407-447: The wisdom of the ancients. The humanist educational program expanded the traditional medieval curriculum, which had been dominated by the trivium (grammar, rhetoric, logic) and quadrivium (arithmetic, geometry, music, astronomy). Humanists redefined the trivium to place greater emphasis on rhetoric and moral philosophy, while also incorporating history and poetry as essential components of a well-rounded education. This curriculum, known as
13530-537: The word secularism — George Eliot , Émile Zola , and E. S. Beesly . Paine's The Age of Reason , along with the 19th-century Biblical criticism of the German Hegelians David Strauss and Ludwig Feuerbach , also contributed to new forms of humanism. Advances in science and philosophy provided scholars with further alternatives to religious belief. Charles Darwin 's theory of natural selection offered naturalists an explanation for
13653-436: The works of Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill . Utilitarianism, a moral philosophy, centers its attention on human happiness, aiming to eliminate human and animal pain via natural means. In Europe and the US, as philosophical critiques of theistic beliefs grew, large parts of society distanced themselves from religion. Ethical societies were formed, leading to the contemporary humanist movement. The rise of rationalism and
13776-426: The works of Virgil and Cicero , was central to this stage, with teachers using these texts to teach both language and moral lessons. The creation and circulation of teaching materials, such as textbooks and commentaries, played a significant role in standardizing the curriculum and ensuring that students across the empire received a similar education. The final stage of Roman education was rhetorical training, which
13899-510: The works of ancient Greek and Roman authors, embedding classical texts into the curricula of universities and schools. This emphasis on the studia humanitatis , or the study of humanity through literature, history, and moral philosophy, laid the foundation for what we now consider the liberal arts. The Renaissance not only revived classical texts but also reinvigorated the methods of critical thinking, analysis, and rhetoric that are central to classical education. The impact of classical education
14022-423: Was Dorothy Sayers , whose 1947 essay, The Lost Tools of Learning , argued for a return to the medieval trivium as a method for teaching children how to think rather than merely what to think. Sayers' work became a cornerstone for the later revival of classical education, particularly within the Christian education movement . Sayers proposed that the trivium—comprising grammar, logic, and rhetoric—should be taught in
14145-436: Was a theist executed for atheism, who investigated the nature of morality by reasoning. Aristotle (384–322 BCE) taught rationalism and a system of ethics based on human nature that also parallels humanist thought. In the third century BCE, Epicurus developed an influential, human-centered philosophy that focused on achieving eudaimonia . Epicureans continued Democritus ' atomist theory—a materialistic theory that suggests
14268-457: Was essential for those pursuing careers in law, politics, or public speaking. Roman rhetorical education emphasized the art of persuasion and the development of oratory skills, which were considered the highest form of intellectual achievement. This stage was often guided by experienced rhetoricians who taught students the techniques of argumentation, speech composition, and delivery. The bond between teacher and student in these rhetorical schools
14391-643: Was heavily influenced by Greek models, especially in its later stages, but it adapted these influences to fit the needs of Roman culture and governance. Education in Rome was primarily divided into three stages: elementary, secondary, and rhetorical. The elementary stage focused on basic literacy, numeracy, and moral education, often delivered by a ludi magister or elementary teacher. Roman children, regardless of social class, were expected to learn reading, writing, and arithmetic, which were considered essential for participating in Roman society. This foundational education
14514-436: Was more holistic, aiming to cultivate well-rounded individuals who could contribute to civic life. Athenian education emphasized intellectual development alongside physical training, with a strong focus on the arts , philosophy , and rhetoric . This system was designed to prepare young men for active participation in the democratic processes of the city-state . The concept of paideia , central to Athenian education, involved
14637-410: Was not only for free citizens but, in some cases, was extended to slaves, particularly those who were expected to perform administrative duties for their masters. As students progressed to the secondary level, the focus shifted to the study of Latin literature and grammar , which were seen as crucial for understanding and interpreting Roman law, history, and culture. The study of Latin texts, such as
14760-435: Was often challenging, with students facing a demanding academic schedule, financial difficulties, and sometimes harsh living conditions. Despite these challenges, universities became vibrant centers of intellectual and social activity, with students and scholars forming a distinct community. The universities' influence extended beyond education, as they played a crucial role in shaping European intellectual life and contributed to
14883-475: Was often close and enduring, reflecting the importance of personal mentorship in Roman education. Roman education was not limited to men; women also had access to education, though it was generally less formal and focused more on domestic skills. However, women from elite families sometimes received an education that included literature and rhetoric, preparing them for roles in managing estates or participating in intellectual life. The role of education in improving
15006-463: Was open to humanistic ideas of individualism, occasional secularism, skepticism, liberalism, and free speech; schools were established at Baghdad, Basra and Isfahan. The intellectual movement later known as Renaissance humanism first appeared in Italy and has greatly influenced both contemporaneous and modern Western culture. Renaissance humanism emerged in Italy and a renewed interest in literature and
15129-448: Was perceived—as a tool for personal and societal advancement rather than merely a means of religious instruction. The 19th and 20th centuries witnessed a significant decline in classical education. During this period, classical education, which had dominated European and American schools and universities, faced challenges from various educational reforms that sought to modernize curricula and make education more accessible and practical for
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