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125-508: The American Humanist Association was founded in 1941 and currently provides legal assistance to defend the constitutional rights of secular and religious minorities, lobbies Congress on church-state separation and other issues, and maintains a grassroots network of 250 local affiliates and chapters that engage in social activism and community-building events . The AHA has several publications, including The Humanist , Free Mind , peer-reviewed semi-annual scholastic journal Essays in

250-524: A "distinctive work/family nexus that in turn influences the overall patterns of black political economy". For example, anti-miscegenation laws effectively suppressed the upward economic mobility of black women. The intersectionality of race and gender has been shown to have a visible impact on the labor market. "Sociological research clearly shows that accounting for education, experience, and skill does not fully explain significant differences in labor market outcomes." The three main domains in which we see

375-655: A billboard in Moscow, Idaho , and online ads on the family of websites run by Cheezburger and Pandora Radio , as well as Facebook , Reddit , Google , and YouTube . Ads were turned down because of their content by Disney, Time for Kids and National Geographic Kids. The National Day of Reason was created by the American Humanist Association and the Washington Area Secular Humanists in 2003. In addition to serving as

500-470: A certain example where immigrant women's lives are threatened by their abusive citizen spouses. In A primer on intersectionality , the authors argue that earlier immigration reform (which required spouses who immigrated to the US to marry American citizens to remain properly married for two years before they were eligible to receive permanent resident status) provided "no exceptions for battered women who often faced

625-507: A channel to address political and social disparities. Intersectionality recognizes these issues which were ignored by early social justice movements. Many recent academics, such as Leslie McCall , have argued that the introduction of the intersectionality theory was vital to sociology and that before the development of the theory, there was little research that specifically addressed the experiences of people who are subjected to multiple forms of oppression within society. An example of this idea

750-743: A coalition of women and men within the AHA to work toward the advancement of women's rights and equality between the sexes in all aspects of society. Originally called the Women's Caucus, the new name was adopted in 1985 as more representative of all the members of the caucus and of the caucus' goals. Over the years, members of the Caucus have advocated for the passage of the Equal Rights Amendment and participated in various public demonstrations, including marches for women's and civil rights. In 1982,

875-756: A critical framework in addressing issues such as reproductive justice, where the intersection of race, class, and gender shapes women of color's access to healthcare and family planning resources. For example, the work of Loretta Ross and the SisterSong Collective has emphasized how policies disproportionately affect Black, Indigenous, and Latina women, highlighting the importance of applying an intersectional lens in policy-making. This ensures that systematic disparities are identified and addressed to create equitable healthcare policies and resources for marginalized communities. However, little good-quality quantitative research has been done to support or undermine

1000-636: A godless organization". The campaign featured violent or sexist quotes from holy books, contrasted with quotes from humanist thinkers, including physicist Albert Einstein , and was largely underwritten by Todd Stiefel, a retired pharmaceutical company executive. In late 2011 it launched a holiday billboard campaign, placing advertisements in 7 different cities: Kearny, New Jersey ; Washington, D.C. ; Cranston, Rhode Island ; Bastrop, Louisiana ; Oregon City, Oregon ; College Station, Texas and Rochester Hills, Michigan ", cities where AHA stated "atheists have experienced discrimination due to their lack of belief in

1125-727: A holiday for secularists , the National Day of Reason was created in response to the unconstitutionality of the National Day of Prayer . According to the organizers of the event, the National Day of Prayer "violates the First Amendment of the United States Constitution because it asks federal, state, and local government entities to set aside tax dollar supported time and space to engage in religious ceremonies". Several organizations associated with

1250-499: A homogeneous category who shared the same life experiences. However, once established that the forms of oppression experienced by white middle-class women were different from those experienced by black, poor, or disabled women, feminists began seeking ways to understand how gender, race, and class combine to "determine the female destiny". The concept of intersectionality is intended to illuminate dynamics that have often been overlooked by feminist theory and movements. Racial inequality

1375-629: A more nuanced analysis that recognizes caste as a central axis of inequality. These adaptations illustrate, how intersectionality, far from being a static theory, continues to evolve as a powerful tool for addressing region-specific systems of exclusion and privilege. Postcolonial feminists and transnational feminists criticize intersectionality as a concept emanating from WEIRD (Western, educated, industrialized, rich, democratic) societies that unduly universalizes women's experiences. Postcolonial feminists have worked to revise Western conceptualizations of intersectionality that assume all women experience

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1500-484: A multifaceted connection between race, gender, and other systems that work together to oppress, while also allowing privilege in other areas. Intersectionality is relative because it displays how race, gender, and other components "intersect" to shape the experiences of individuals. Crenshaw used intersectionality to denote how race, class, gender, and other systems combine to shape the experiences of many by making room for privilege. Crenshaw used intersectionality to display

1625-435: A person as unacceptable based on a certain, unachieved criterion. Intersectional theories in relation to gender recognize that each person has their own mix of identities which combine to create them, and where these identities "meet in the middle" therein lies each person's intersectionality. These intersections lie between components such as class, race, religion, ethnicity, ability, income, indignity, and any other part of

1750-601: A person's identity which shapes their life, and the way others treat them. Stephanie A. Shields in her article on intersectionality and gender explains how each part of someones identity "serve as organizing features of social relations, mutually constitute, reinforce, and naturalize one another." Shields explains how one aspect can not exist individually, rather it "takes its meaning as a category in relation to another category." Intersectionality has been applied in many fields from politics, education healthcare, and employment, to economics. Today, intersectionality serves as

1875-434: A political failure of the antiracist and feminist discourses was the exclusion of the intersection of race and gender that places priority on the interest of "people of color" and "women", thus disregarding one while highlighting the other. Political engagement should reflect support of women of color; a prime example of the exclusion of women of color that shows the difference in the experiences of white women and women of color

2000-462: A previous one, more precisely the twenty-first Amendment ratified on December 5, 1933, repealed the prohibition of alcohol established by the eighteenth Amendment on January 16, 1919. The provisions providing for rights under the Bill of Rights were originally binding upon only the federal government. In time, most of these provisions became binding upon the states through selective incorporation into

2125-624: A provision to cover direct discrimination on up to two combined grounds—known as combined or dual discrimination. However, this section has never been brought into effect as the government deemed it too 'complicated and burdensome' for businesses." This demonstrates systematic neglect of the issues that intersectionality presents, because the UK courts have explicitly decided not to cover intersectional discrimination in their courts. This neglect of an intersectional framework can often lead to dire consequences. The African American Policy Forum (AAPF) describes

2250-414: A self-described 'Black, Lesbian, Mother, Warrior, Poet,' was instrumental in highlighting the intersections of race, gender, sexuality, and class. In her 1984 work Sister Outsider , Lorde argued that ignoring the multiple dimensions of identity perpetuates systems of oppression. She criticized mainstream feminism for failing to address the specific experiences of marginalized women, famously stating, "There

2375-434: A simple combination of misogyny and racism , but as something more complicated. Intersectionality engages in similar themes as triple oppression , which is the oppression associated with being a poor or immigrant woman of color. Criticism includes the framework's tendency to reduce individuals to specific demographic factors, and its use as an ideological tool against other feminist theories . Critics have characterized

2500-657: A social advantage. However, if this perception is inspired by stereotypes of Asian women as "hyperfeminine", it can serve to perpetuate racialized stereotypes of Asian women as subordinate or oversexualized. Robin Zheng writes that widespread fetishization of East Asian women's physical features leads to "racial depersonalization": the separation of Asian women from their own individual attributes. According to black feminists such as Kimberle Crenshaw , Audre Lorde , bell hooks , and Patricia Hill Collins , experiences of class, gender, and sexuality cannot be adequately understood unless

2625-409: A sociological definition of standpoint theory . A standpoint is an individual's world perspective. The theoretical basis of this approach views societal knowledge as being located within an individual's specific geographic location. In turn, knowledge becomes distinct and subjective; it varies depending on the social conditions under which it was produced. The concept of the outsider within refers to

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2750-466: A standpoint encompassing the self , family, and society. This relates to the specific experiences to which people are subjected as they move from a common cultural world (i.e., family) to that of modern society. Therefore, even though a woman—especially a Black woman—may become influential in a particular field, she may feel as though she does not belong. Her personality, behavior, and cultural being overshadow her value as an individual; thus, she becomes

2875-492: A suggestive title. For example, the First Amendment guarantees the freedom of religion, speech, and the press along with the rights of assembly and petition, the Second Amendment the right to bear arms and so on. However, in order to be easier to distinguish, the legal professionals have divided the constitutional rights into two categories: process rights and substantive rights . Whereas, the process rights refer to

3000-474: A traditional god". The organization spent more than $ 200,000 on their campaign which included a billboard reading "Yes, Virginia, there is no god." In November 2012, the AHA launched a national ad campaign to promote a new website, KidsWithoutGod.com, with ads using the slogans "I'm getting a bit old for imaginary friends" and "You're Not The Only One". The campaign included bus advertising in Washington, DC,

3125-458: A white chapter president of NAACP, was vilified for identifying as Black. Some men choose to identify as women, and some women choose to identify as men. You will be vilified if you deny that they literally are what they identify as. Discuss." After receiving criticism for this tweet, Dawkins responded by saying that "I do not intend to disparage trans people. I see that my academic 'Discuss' question has been misconstrued as such and I deplore this. It

3250-409: Is a positive move that will grow the relief efforts of the humanist community. The end result will be more money directed to charitable activities, dispelling the false claim that nonbelievers don't give to charity." Now Foundation Beyond Belief 's Disaster Recovery program, this effort serves as a focal point for the humanist response to major natural disasters and complex humanitarian crises all over

3375-557: Is a vital element of gaining political and social equity and improving the societal structures that oppress individuals. Chiara Bottici has argued that criticisms of intersectionality that find it to be incomplete, or argue that it fails to recognize the specificity of women's oppression, can be met with an anarcha-feminism that recognizes "that there is something specific about the oppression of women and that in order to fight it you have to fight all other forms of oppression." Cheryl Townsend Gilkes expands on this by pointing out

3500-486: Is frequently misunderstood when bridging theory into quantitative methodology. The concept of intersectionality was introduced to the field of legal studies by black feminist scholar Kimberlé Crenshaw , who used the term in a pair of essays published in 1989 and 1991. Even before Kimberlé Crenshaw coined this term, several Black feminists had already articulated ideas reflecting intersectional thinking. Scholars like Anna Julia Cooper and Maria W. Stewart emphasized on

3625-676: Is informed by their geography, history, and culture. When western feminists write about women in the global South in this way, they dismiss the inherent intersecting identities that are present in the dynamic of feminism in the global South. Mohanty questions the performance of intersectionality and relationality of power structures within the US and colonialism and how to work across identities with this history of colonial power structures. This lack of homogeneity and intersecting identities can be seen through feminism in India , which goes over how women in India practice feminism within social structures and

3750-623: Is not such thing as a single-issue struggle because we do not live single-issue lives." Additionally, Lorde comments in her essay, The master's tools will never dismantle the master's house, that she lived in "a country where racism, sexism, and homophobia are inseparable," advocating for a collective approach to dismantling these overlapping systems of discrimination. Here, Lorde outlines the importance of intersectionality, while acknowledging that different prejudices are inherently linked. Lorde's formulation of this linkage remains seminal in intersectional feminism. Though intersectionality began with

3875-719: Is the supervising organization for various Humanist affiliates and adjunct organizations. The Black Humanist Alliance of the American Humanist Association was founded in 2016 as a pillar of its new "Initiatives for Social Justice". Like the Feminist Humanist Alliance and the LGBT Humanist Alliance, the Black Humanist Alliance uses an intersectional approach to addressing issues facing the Black community. As its mission states,

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4000-503: Is the supreme law of the land, meaning that laws that contradict it are considered unconstitutional and invalid. Usually any constitution defines the structure, functions, powers, and limits of the national government and the individual freedoms, rights, and obligations which will be protected and enforced when needed by the national authorities. Nowadays, most countries have a written constitution comprising similar or distinct constitutional rights. Other coded set of laws have existed before

4125-421: Is the women's suffrage march. Representational intersectionality advocates for the creation of imagery that is supportive of women of color. Representational intersectionality condemns sexist and racist marginalization of women of color in representation. Representational intersectionality also highlights the importance of women of color having representation in media and contemporary settings. Collins refers to

4250-408: Is used to describe how different structures work together and create a complex which highlights the differences in the experiences of women of color with domestic violence and rape. Structural intersectionality entails the ways in which classism, sexism, and racism interlock and oppress women of color while molding their experiences in different arenas. Crenshaw's analysis of structural intersectionality

4375-546: The 6th Amendment 's guarantee of a right to confrontation of witnesses, known as the Confrontation Clause , and the various provisions of the 1st Amendment , guaranteeing the freedoms of speech, the press, government and assembly. For example, the Fifth Amendment protects the right to grand jury proceedings in federal criminal cases. However, because this right was not selectively incorporated into

4500-625: The Establishment Clause . The American Humanist Association has received media attention for its various advertising campaigns; in 2010, the AHA's campaign was said to be the more expensive than similar ad campaigns from the American Atheists and Freedom From Religion Foundation . In 2008 it ran ads on buses in Washington, D.C. , that proclaimed "Why believe in a god? Just be good for goodness' sake", and since 2009

4625-1069: The Huffington Post , the event's attendance was between 8,000 and 10,000 while the Atlantic reported nearly 20,000. The AHA also co-sponsored the 2016 Reason Rally at the Lincoln Memorial . The American Humanist Association has named a "Humanist of the Year" annually since 1953. It has also granted other honors to numerous leading figures, including Salman Rushdie (Outstanding Lifetime Achievement Award in Cultural Humanism 2007), Oliver Stone (Humanist Arts Award, 1996), Katharine Hepburn (Humanist Arts Award 1985), John Dewey (Humanist Pioneer Award, 1954), Jack Kevorkian (Humanist Hero Award, 1996) and Vashti McCollum (Distinguished Service Award, 1991). In 2021, Richard Dawkins said on Twitter that "In 2015, Rachel Dolezal ,

4750-681: The Human Rights Act 1998 fulfills a similar role. The European Convention of Human Rights applies in those nations which are members of the Council of Europe . Persons who have experienced Convention-infringing human rights violations on the territory of ECHR-signatory nations can appeal to the European Court of Human Rights . In authoritarian regimes there are generally few or no guaranteed inalienable rights; alternatively, such rights may exist but be unobserved in practice (as

4875-822: The International Humanist and Ethical Union (IHEU) in Amsterdam, Netherlands. The AHA was the first national membership organization to support abortion rights. Around the same time, the AHA partnered with the American Ethical Union (AEU) to help establish the rights of non-theistic conscientious objectors to the Vietnam War. In the late 1960s, the AHA also secured a religious tax exemption in support of its celebrant program, allowing Humanist celebrants to legally officiate at weddings, perform chaplaincy functions, and in other ways enjoy

5000-768: The United States Constitution was signed during the Constitutional Convention (United States) which took place at the Pennsylvania State House in Philadelphia, now the Independence Hall . On December 15, 1791, the Bill of Rights comprising the first 10 Amendments became part of the U.S. Constitution. Later on, other 17 Amendments were added. Thus, the U.S. Constitution is summing a total of 27 Amendments and 7 Articles. During all this time, only one amendment overturned

5125-483: The due process clause of the 14th Amendment . When a provision is made binding on a state, a state can no longer restrict the rights guaranteed in that provision. Examples of provisions made binding upon the states are the Second Amendment to the United States Constitution which was made "fully applicable" by being Incorporated with the 14th Amendment in 2010, see, McDonald vs. City of Chicago;

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5250-462: The social determinants of health . The Women's Institute for Science, Equity and Race advocates for the disaggregation of data in order to highlight intersectional identities in all kinds of research. Additionally, applications with regard to property and wealth can be traced to the American historical narrative that is filled "with tensions and struggles over property—in its various forms. From

5375-423: The "work/family nexus and black women's poverty". In her 2000 article "Black Political Economy" she describes how, in her view, the intersections of consumer racism , gender hierarchies, and disadvantages in the labor market can be centered on black women's unique experiences. Considering this from a historical perspective and examining interracial marriage laws and property inheritance laws creates what Collins terms

5500-733: The 1970s by members of the Combahee River Collective in Boston, Massachusetts . Simultaneity is the simultaneous influences of race, class, gender, and sexuality, which informed the member's lives and their resistance to oppression. Thus, the women of the Combahee River Collective advanced an understanding of African-American experiences that challenged analyses emerging from black and male-centered social movements, as well as those from mainstream cisgender, white, middle-class, heterosexual feminists. Since

5625-422: The 1980s, as second-wave feminism began to recede, scholars of color including Audre Lorde , Gloria E. Anzaldúa and Angela Davis brought their lived experiences into academic discussion, shaping what would become known as "intersectionality" within race, class, and gender studies in U.S. academia. As articulated by author bell hooks , the emergence of intersectionality "challenged the notion that 'gender'

5750-466: The 1990s, particularly in the wake of the further development of Crenshaw's work in the writings of sociologist Patricia Hill Collins. Crenshaw's term, Collins says, replaced her own previous coinage "black feminist thought", and "increased the general applicability of her theory from African American women to all women". Much like Crenshaw, Collins argues that cultural patterns of oppression are not only interrelated, but are bound together and influenced by

5875-518: The BHA "concern ourselves with confronting expressions of religious hegemony in public policy," but is "also devoted to confronting social, economic, and political deprivations that disproportionately impact Black America due to centuries of culturally ingrained prejudices." The Feminist Humanist Alliance (formerly the Feminist Caucus) of the American Humanist Association was established in 1977 as

6000-614: The Black Humanist Alliance and the Feminist Humanist Alliance, the Council reformed in 2016 as the LGBTQ Humanist Alliance as a larger part of the AHA's "Initiatives for Social Justice". In 2014, the American Humanist Association (AHA) and Foundation Beyond Belief (FBB) merged their respective charitable programs Humanist Charities (established in 2005) and Humanist Crisis Response (established in 2011). AHA's Executive Director Roy Speckhardt commented that, "This merger

6125-617: The Caucus established its annual Humanist Heroine Award, with the initial award being presented to Sonia Johnson . Others receiving the awards have included Tish Sommers , Christine Craft , and Fran Hosken . In 2012 the Caucus declared it would be organizing around two principal efforts: "Refocusing on passing the ERA" and "Promoting the Universal Declaration of Human Rights." In 2016, the Feminist Caucus reorganized as

6250-521: The EU and UK, these intersections are referred to as the notion of "multiple discrimination". Although the EU passed a non-discrimination law which addresses these multiple intersections; there is however debate on whether the law is still proactively focusing on the proper inequalities. Outside of the EU, intersectional categories have also been considered. In Analyzing Gender, Intersectionality, and Multiple Inequalities: Global, Transnational and Local Contexts ,

6375-505: The Feminist Humanist Alliance as a component of their larger "Initiatives for Social Justice". As stated on its website, the "refinement in vision" emphasized "FHA's more active partnership with outreach programs and social justice campaigns with distinctly inclusive feminist objectives." Its current goal is to provide a "movement powered by and for women, transpeople, and genderqueer people to fight for social justice. We are united to create inclusive and diverse spaces for activists and allies on

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6500-556: The National Day of Reason have organized food drives and blood donations , while other groups have called for an end to prayer invocations at city meetings. Other organizations, such as the Oklahoma Atheists and the Minnesota Atheists , have organized local secular celebrations as alternatives to the National Day of Prayer. Additionally, many individuals affiliated with these atheistic groups choose to protest

6625-644: The Philosophy of Humanism , and TheHumanist.com. The organization states that it has over 34,000 members. In 1927, an organization which was named the "Humanist Fellowship" was founded during a gathering in Chicago. In 1928, the Fellowship started publishing the New Humanist magazine with H.G. Creel as its first editor. The New Humanist was published from 1928 to 1936. The first Humanist Manifesto

6750-631: The U.S. Border , Tropical Cyclone Sam , and the Nepal and Ecuadoran Earthquakes , Hurricane Matthew in Haiti, and Hurricanes Irma and Maria . In addition to grants for recovery efforts, volunteers have also helped to rebuild homes and schools in the following locations: Columbia, South Carolina after the effects of Hurricane Joaquin , in Denham Springs, Louisiana ; and in Houston, Texas after

6875-648: The U.S. Constitution. For example, the Alabama Constitution has more than 600 pages and the New Jersey Constitution of 1947 is three times longer than the U.S. Constitution. The reason for this difference between the federal Constitution and the states Constitutions is what Justice Brennan called 'the new judicial federalism'. meaning that rights granted by the States Constitutions can be broader than those comprised by

7000-542: The United States through the Equal Pay Act of 1963 , Title IX , and Roe v. Wade , they largely alienated black women from platforms in the mainstream movement. However, third-wave feminism —which emerged shortly after the term intersectionality was coined in the late 1980s—noted the lack of attention to race, class, sexual orientation, and gender identity in early feminist movements, and tried to provide

7125-548: The United States. In July 1939, a group of Quakers , inspired by the 1933 Humanist Manifesto , incorporated the Humanist Society of Friends as a religious, educational, charitable nonprofit organization authorized to issue charters and train & ordain its own ministry . Upon ordination these ministers were then accorded the same rights and privileges granted by law to priests , ministers, and rabbis of traditional theistic religions. In 1941, Curtis Reese led

7250-500: The authors argue: "The impact of patriarchy and traditional assumptions about gender and families are evident in the lives of Chinese migrant workers (Chow, Tong), sex workers and their clients in South Korea (Shin), and Indian widows (Chauhan), but also Ukrainian migrants (Amelina) and Australian men of the new global middle class (Connell)." This text suggests that there are many more intersections of discrimination for people around

7375-439: The background, ideas, issues, conflicts, and debates within intersectionality. Another branch seeks to apply intersectionality as an analytical strategy to various social institutions in order to examine how they might perpetuate social inequality. The final branch formulates intersectionality as a critical praxis to determine how social justice initiatives can use intersectionality to bring about social change. Audre Lorde ,

7500-578: The black political economy. Patricia Hill Collins writes: "Du Bois saw race, class, and nation not primarily as personal identity categories but as social hierarchies that shaped African-American access to status, poverty, and power." Du Bois nevertheless omitted gender from his theory and considered it more of a personal identity category. Britney Cooper , in her book Beyond Respectability, addresses this omission by exploring how early Black female intellectuals such as Anna Julia Cooper and others critiqued and expanded upon these limited frameworks, emphasizing

7625-415: The citizen. State constitutional rights can also include those entirely unaddressed in the federal constitution, such as the right to adequate education or the right to affordable housing. Countries whose written constitutions include a bill of rights include Germany , India and Japan . The United Kingdom, as it has an uncodified constitution , does not have a constitutional bill of rights, although

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7750-583: The collection stress how their sexuality interacts with their race and gender to inform their perspectives. Similarly, poor women of color detail how their socio-economic status adds a layer of nuance to their identities, ignored or misunderstood by middle-class white feminists. Asian American women often report intersectional experiences that set them apart from other American women. For example, several studies have shown that East Asian women are considered more physically attractive than white women, and other women of color. Taken at face value, this may seem like

7875-437: The constant premises that influence the lives of African-American women, saying, "black women experience a special kind of oppression and suffering in this country which is racist, sexist, and classist because of their dual race and gender identity and their limited access to economic resources." Other writers and theorists were using intersectional analysis in their work before the term was coined. For example, Pauli Murray used

8000-408: The construct of dichotomous oppositional difference. This construct is characterized by its focus on differences rather than similarities. Lisa A. Flores suggests, when individuals live in the borders, they "find themselves with a foot in both worlds". The result is "the sense of being neither" exclusively one identity nor another. Both Collins and Dorothy Smith have been instrumental in providing

8125-519: The continuing effects of colonization that differ from that of Western and other non-Western countries. This is elaborated on by Christine Bose, who discusses a global use of intersectionality which works to remove associations of specific inequalities with specific institutions while showing that these systems generate intersectional effects. She uses this approach to develop a framework that can analyze gender inequalities across different nations and differentiates this from an approach (the one that Mohanty

8250-478: The disadvantages caused by intersecting systems creating structural, political, and representational aspects of violence against minorities in the workplace and society. Crenshaw explained the dynamics that using gender, race, and other forms of power in politics and academics plays a big role in intersectionality. However, long before Crenshaw, W. E. B. Du Bois theorized that the intersectional paradigms of race, class, and nation might explain specific aspects of

8375-410: The due process clause of the 14th amendment, it is not binding upon the states. Therefore, persons involved in state criminal proceedings as a defendant have no federal constitutional right to grand jury proceedings. Whether an individual has a right to a grand jury becomes a question of state law. The content of each Article and Amendment of the U.S. Constitution is easy to predict since they start with

8500-485: The employment of African-American male factory workers disproved racial discrimination, and the employment of white female office workers disproved gender discrimination . The court declined to consider compound discrimination, and dismissed the case. Crenshaw argued that in cases such as this, the courts have tended to ignore black women's unique experiences by treating them as only women or only black. The ideas behind intersectional feminism existed long before

8625-547: The exclusion of Black women's experiences from mainstream feminist narratives and underscored the importance of addressing race, gender, and class as intersecting systems of oppression. Patricia Hill Collins later traced the intellectual roots of intersectionality to Black, Chicana , Latina, Indigenous, and Asian American feminists active between 1960s and 1980s. She acknowledged earlier thinkers such as Cooper and Ida B. Wells , as well as influential intellectuals like Stuart Hall and Nira Yuval-Davis, who explored similar ideas. By

8750-606: The experience of being a black woman cannot be understood in terms independent of either being black or a woman. Rather, it must include interactions between the two identities, which, she adds, should frequently reinforce one another. In order to show that non-white women have a vastly different experience from white women due to their race and/or class and that their experiences are not easily voiced or amplified, Crenshaw explores two types of male violence against women: domestic violence and rape . Through her analysis of these two forms of male violence against women, Crenshaw says that

8875-411: The experiences of non-white women consist of a combination of both racism and sexism. She says that because non-white women are present within discourses that have been designed to address either race or sex—but not both at the same time—non-white women are marginalized within both of these systems of oppression as a result. In her work, Crenshaw identifies three aspects of intersectionality that affect

9000-465: The exploration of the interplay between gender and race, over time other identities and oppressions were added to the theory. For example, in 1981 Cherríe Moraga and Gloria Anzaldúa published the first edition of This Bridge Called My Back . This anthology explored how classifications of sexual orientation and class also mix with those of race and gender to create even more distinct political categories. Many black, Latina, and Asian writers featured in

9125-416: The federal Constitution but not narrowed. State constitutions cannot reduce legal protections afforded by the federal charter, but they can provide additional protections. California v. Ramos , 463 U.S. 992, 1014, 103 S.Ct. 3446, 77 Lawyer's Edition 2nd 1171 (1983). Even where the text of a state constitution matches verbatim that of the federal constitution, the state document may be held to provide more to

9250-679: The first Constitutions were developed having some similar purpose and functions, like the United Kingdom's 1215 Magna Carta or the Virginia Bill of Rights of 1776. 191 constitutions recognize the freedom of assembly . It may be further qualified as the right to "peaceful" or "unarmed" assembly for "legal purposes". The right to vote is mentioned in 143 national constitutions. It may be additionally secret , or mandatory . There may also be restrictions based on residency, age, race, or criminal conviction. On September 17, 1787,

9375-587: The first being each respective court's inability to fully understand the multidimensionality of the plaintiff's intersecting identities. Second is the limited ability that the plaintiffs had to argue their case due to restrictions created by the very legislation that exists in opposition to discrimination such as Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 as used against the plaintiffs in the DeGraffenreid v Motors case. The term gained prominence in

9500-495: The flooding from Hurricane Harvey . The association launched the Appignani Humanist Legal Center (AHLC) in 2006 to ensure that humanists' constitutional rights are represented in court. Through amicus activity, litigation , and legal advocacy, a team of cooperating lawyers, including Jim McCollum, Wendy Kaminer , and Michael Newdow , provide legal assistance by challenging perceived violations of

9625-582: The framework as ambiguous and lacking defined goals. As it is based in standpoint theory , critics say the focus on subjective experiences can lead to contradictions and the inability to identify common causes of oppression. An analysis of academic articles published through December 2019 found that there are no widely adopted quantitative methods to investigate research questions informed by intersectionality and provided recommendations on analytic best practices for future research. An analysis of academic articles published through May 2020 found that intersectionality

9750-452: The globe than Crenshaw originally accounted for in her definition. Chandra Mohanty discusses alliances between women throughout the world as intersectionality in a global context. She rejects the western feminist theory, especially when it writes about global women of color and generally associated "third world women". She argues that "third world women" are often thought of as a homogeneous entity, when, in fact, their experience of oppression

9875-433: The healthcare system. For example, in the period immediately after 9/11 researchers noted low birth weights and other poor birth outcomes among Muslim and Arab Americans, a result they connected to the increased racial and religious discrimination of the time. Some researchers have also argued that immigration policies can affect health outcomes through mechanisms such as stress , restrictions on access to health care, and

10000-449: The impact of intersectionality are wages, discrimination, and domestic labor. Those who experience privilege within the social hierarchy in terms of race, gender, and socio-economic status are less likely to receive lower wages, to be subjected to stereotypes and discriminated against, or to be hired for exploitative domestic positions. Studies of the labor market and intersectionality provide a better understanding of economic inequalities and

10125-574: The implications of the multidimensional impact of race and gender on social status within society. Kimberlé Crenshaw, in "Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics, and Violence Against Women of Color", uses and explains three different forms of intersectionality to describe the violence that women experience. According to Crenshaw, there are three forms of intersectionality: structural, political, and representational intersectionality. Structural intersectionality

10250-593: The imposition of Eurocentric gender norms during colonial rule, which marginalized non-Western gender identities and social structures. Similarly, in South Asia, Dalit feminists have drawn on intersectional analysis to emphasize the compounded marginalization faced by Dalit women, who experience both caste-based and gender-based discrimination. Scholars such as Thenmozhi Soundararajan argue in their works like, "The Trauma of Caste" that mainstream feminist frameworks often neglect these intersecting oppressions, calling for

10375-485: The influence of racialization is carefully considered. This focus on racialization was highlighted many times by scholar and feminist bell hooks , specifically in her 1981 book Ain't I A Woman: Black Women and Feminism . Patricia Hill Collins's essay "Gender, black feminism, and black political economy" highlights her theory on the sociological crossroads between modern and post-modern feminist thought . Black feminists argue that an understanding of intersectionality

10500-477: The interconnected nature of racial and gender oppressions. In Cooper's publication of "A Voice from the South" (1892) emphasized on the importance of considering the 'whole race' by focusing on the lived experiences of Black women. Cooper highlighted that their oppression was just not racial or gender-based but a complex combination of the two. Intersectionality originated in critical race studies and demonstrates

10625-420: The interconnectedness of race, gender, and class in shaping Black women's experiences and political resistance. Cooper highlights how these early Black feminists established a critical intellectual tradition that prefigured later intersectional theories. In the 1970s, a group of black feminist women organized the Combahee River Collective in response to what they felt was an alienation from both white feminism and

10750-436: The intersectional systems of society, such as race, gender, class, and ethnicity. Collins describes this as "interlocking social institutions [that] have relied on multiple forms of segregation... to produce unjust results". Collins sought to create frameworks to think about intersectionality, rather than expanding on the theory itself. She identified three main branches of study within intersectionality. One branch deals with

10875-521: The last couple of decades in the European Union (EU), there has been discussion regarding the intersections of social classifications. Before Crenshaw coined her definition of intersectionality, there was a debate on what these societal categories were. The once definite borders between the categories of gender, race, and class have instead fused into a multidimensional intersection of "race" that now includes religion, sexuality, ethnicities, etc. In

11000-472: The law interacts with intersectionality. For example, the UK's legislation to protect workers' rights has a distinct issue with intersectionality. Under the Equality Act 2010, the things that are listed as 'protected characteristics' are "age, disability, gender reassignment, marriage or civil partnership, pregnancy and maternity, race, religion or belief, sex, and sexual orientation". "Section 14 contains

11125-472: The list of the following Humanists of the Year: Constitutional rights A constitutional right can be a prerogative or a duty, a power or a restraint of power, recognized and established by a sovereign state or union of states. Constitutional rights may be expressly stipulated in a national constitution , or they may be inferred from the language of a national constitution, which

11250-415: The local and national level." The LGBTQ Humanist Alliance (formerly LGBT Humanist Council) of the American Humanist Association is committed to advancing equality for lesbian , gay , bisexual , and transgender people and their families. The alliance "seeks to cultivate safe and affirming communities, promote humanist values, and achieve full equality and social liberation of LGBTQ persons." Paralleling

11375-463: The male-dominated black liberation movement, citing the "interlocking oppressions" of racism, sexism and heteronormativity . In DeGraffenreid v. General Motors (1976), Emma DeGraffenreid and four other black female auto workers alleged compound employment discrimination against black women as a result of General Motors ' seniority-based system of layoffs . The courts weighed the allegations of race and gender discrimination separately, finding that

11500-465: The multiple ways that race and gender interact with class in the labor market; interrogating the ways that states constitute regulatory regimes of identity, reproduction, and family formation"; and examining the inequities in "the power relations [of the intersectionality] of whiteness ... [where] the denial of power and privilege ... of whiteness, and middle-classness", while not addressing "the role of power it wields in social relations". Over

11625-540: The official National Day of Prayer. In 2012, the American Humanist Association co-sponsored the Reason Rally , a national gathering of "humanists, atheists, freethinkers and nonbelievers from across the United States and abroad" in Washington, D.C. The rally, held on the National Mall , had speakers such as Richard Dawkins , James Randi , Adam Savage , and student activist Jessica Ahlqvist . According to

11750-408: The organization has paid for billboard advertisements nationwide. One such billboard, which stated "No God...No Problem" was repeatedly vandalized. In 2010 it launched another ad campaign promoting Humanism, which The New York Times said was the "first (atheist campaign) to include spots on television and cable" and was described by CNN as the "largest, most extensive advertising campaign ever by

11875-427: The outsider within. Speaking from a critical standpoint, Collins points out that Brittan and Maynard say that "domination always involves the objectification of the dominated; all forms of oppression imply the devaluation of the subjectivity of the oppressed". She later notes that self-valuation and self-definition are two ways of resisting oppression, and claims the practice of self-awareness helps to preserve

12000-601: The performances of these nat-cult feminisms are also not essentialist. Instead, they are strategies. Across diverse cultural and geopolitical contexts, intersectionality has proven to be a versatile framework for analyzing overlapping systems of power and inequality. For instance, in Latin America, Maria Lugones introduced the concept of the "coloniality of gender" to explore how colonial histories intersect race, gender, and class, creating unique forms of oppression for Indigenous and Afro-descendant women. Her work reveals

12125-515: The phrase "Jane Crow" in 1947 while at Howard University to describe the compounded challenges faced by black women in the Jim Crow south. Deborah K. King published the article "Multiple Jeopardy, Multiple Consciousness: The Context of a Black Feminist Ideology" in 1988, just before Crenshaw coined the term intersectionality . In the article, King addresses what soon became the foundation for intersectionality, saying, "black women have long recognized

12250-451: The powers and obligations of the government with respect to individuals, the substantive rights, more diverse than the process ones, incorporate the individual freedoms endowed by the individuals creator and protected by the national government. Governments do not grant rights they only grant privilege. Each of the United States has its own governing Constitution. The States Constitutions are usually longer and written in much more detail than

12375-446: The practical uses of intersectionality, owing to misapplication of theoretical concepts and problems in methodology. For example, within the institution of education, Sandra Jones' research on working-class women in academia takes into consideration meritocracy within all social strata, but argues that it is complicated by race and the external forces that oppress. Additionally, people of color often experience differential treatment in

12500-696: The removal of Native Americans (and later Japanese Americans ) from the land, to military conquest of the Mexicans, to the construction of Africans as property, the ability to define, possess, and own property has been a central feature of power in America ;... [and where] social benefits accrue largely to property owners." One could apply the intersectionality framework analysis to various areas where race, class, gender, sexuality and ability are affected by policies, procedures, practices, and laws in "context-specific inquiries, including, for example, analyzing

12625-482: The reorganization and incorporation of the "Humanist Press Association" as the American Humanist Association. Along with its reorganization, the AHA began printing The Humanist magazine. The AHA was originally headquartered in Yellow Springs, Ohio , then San Francisco, California , and, in 1978, Amherst, New York . Subsequently, the AHA moved to Washington, D.C. In 1952, the AHA became a founding member of

12750-1123: The risk of serious injury and death on the one hand, or deportation on the other." They continue to argue that advocates of several kinds hadn't originally considered this particular struggle many immigrant women face, including advocates for fairer immigration policies and advocates for domestic violence survivors. Marie-Claire Belleau argues for "strategic intersectionality" in order to foster cooperation between feminisms of different ethnicities. She refers to different nat-cult (national-cultural) groups that produce different types of feminisms. Using Québécois nat-cult as an example, Belleau says that many nat-cult groups contain infinite sub-identities within themselves, arguing that there are endless ways in which different feminisms can cooperate by using strategic intersectionality, and that these partnerships can help bridge gaps between "dominant and marginal" groups. Belleau argues that, through strategic intersectionality, differences between nat-cult feminisms are neither essentialist nor universal, but should be understood as resulting from socio-cultural contexts. Furthermore,

12875-724: The same rights as traditional clergy . In 1991, the AHA took control of the Humanist Society , a religious Humanist organization that now runs the celebrant program. After this transfer, the AHA commenced the process of jettisoning its religious tax exemption and resumed its exclusively educational status. Today the AHA is recognized by the U.S. Internal Revenue Service as a nonprofit, tax exempt, 501(c)(3), publicly supported educational organization. Membership numbers are disputed, but Djupe and Olson place it as "definitely fewer than 50,000." The AHA has over 575,000 followers on Facebook and over 42,000 followers on Twitter. The AHA

13000-757: The same type of gender and racial oppression. Shelly Grabe coined the term transnational intersectionality to represent a more comprehensive conceptualization of intersectionality. Grabe wrote, "Transnational intersectionality places importance on the intersections among gender, ethnicity, sexuality, economic exploitation, and other social hierarchies in the context of empire building or imperialist policies characterized by historical and emergent global capitalism ." Both Postcolonial and transnational feminists advocate attending to "complex and intersecting oppressions and multiple forms of resistance". Vrushali Patil argues that intersectionality ought to recognize transborder constructions of racial and cultural hierarchies. About

13125-416: The scope of the first and second waves of feminism , which largely focused on the experiences of women who were white , middle-class , to include the different experiences of women of color , poor women , immigrant women , and other groups. Intersectional feminism aims to separate itself from white feminism by acknowledging women's differing experiences and identities. The term intersectionality

13250-448: The self-esteem of the group that is being oppressed while allowing them to avoid any dehumanizing outside influences. Marginalized groups often gain a status of being an "other". In essence, you are "an other" if you are different from what Audre Lorde calls the mythical norm . Gloria Anzaldúa , scholar of Chicana cultural theory, theorized that the sociological term for this is " othering ", i.e. specifically attempting to establish

13375-552: The special circumstances of our lives in the United States: the commonalities that we share with all women, as well as the bonds that connect us to the men of our race." Additionally, Gloria Wekker describes how Gloria Anzaldúa 's work as a Chicana feminist theorist exemplifies how "existent categories for identity are strikingly not dealt with in separate or mutually exclusive terms, but are always referred to in relation to one another". In 1989, Kimberlé Crenshaw coined

13500-568: The term intersectionality as a way to help explain the oppression of African-American women in her essay "Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex: A black Feminist Critique of Anti-discrimination Doctrine, Feminist Theory and Antiracist Politics". Crenshaw's term has risen to the forefront of national conversations about racial justice, identity politics , and policing—and over the years has helped shape legal discussions. In her work, Crenshaw discusses Black feminism , arguing that

13625-473: The term was coined, many feminist scholars have emerged with historical support for the intersectional theory. These women include Beverly Guy-Sheftall and her fellow contributors to Words of Fire: An Anthology of African-American Feminist Thought , a collection of articles describing the multiple oppressions black women in America have experienced from the 1830s to contemporary times. Guy-Sheftall speaks about

13750-574: The term was coined. For example, Sojourner Truth exemplified intersectionality in her 1851 " Ain't I a Woman " speech, where she spoke from her racialized position as a formerly enslaved woman to critique essentialist notions of femininity . Truth highlighted the differences in how society treated white and Black women, noting that white women are often regarded as emotional and delicate, while Black women were stereotyped as brutish and subjected to both gendered and racialized abuse. However, these observations were largely dismissed by many white feminists of

13875-451: The time, who prioritized the suffrage movement over addressing the intersecting oppressions faced by Black women. Similarly, in her 1892 essay "The Colored Woman's Office," Anna Julia Cooper identified Black women as crucial agents of social change, emphasizing their unique understanding of multiple forms of oppression. Scholar bell hooks , in her groundbreaking work "Ain't I a Woman? Black Women and Feminism" (1981), further critiqued

14000-474: The value of centering on the experiences of black women. Joy James takes things one step further by "using paradigms of intersectionality in interpreting social phenomena". Collins later integrated these three views by examining a black political economy through the centering of black women's experiences and the use of a theoretical framework of intersectionality. Collins uses a Marxist feminist approach and applies her intersectional principles to what she calls

14125-624: The various intersections of social inequality as the matrix of domination . These are also known as "vectors of oppression and privilege". These terms refer to how differences among people (sexual orientation, class, race, age, etc.) serve as oppressive measures towards women and change the experience of living as a woman in society. Collins, Audre Lorde (in Sister Outsider ), and bell hooks point towards either/or thinking as an influence on this oppression and as further intensifying these differences. Specifically, Collins refers to this as

14250-403: The visibility of non-white women: structural intersectionality, political intersectionality, and representational intersectionality. Structural intersectionality deals with how non-white women experience domestic violence and rape in a manner qualitatively different from white women. Political intersectionality examines how laws and policies intended to increase equality have paradoxically decreased

14375-621: The visibility of violence against non-white women. Finally, representational intersectionality delves into how pop culture portrayals of non-white women can obscure their own authentic lived experiences. Within Crenshaw's work, she delves into a few legal cases that exhibit the concept of political intersectionality and how anti-discrimination law has been historically limited. These cases include DeGraffenreid v Motors, Moore v Hughes Helicopter Inc., and Payne v Travenol. There are two commonalities, amongst others, that exist between these cases with

14500-503: The world. The program coordinates financial support as well as trained humanist volunteers to help impacted communities. The Disaster Recovery program is sustained through the ongoing partnership between FBB and AHA, and ensures that our community's efforts are centralized and efficient. Between 2014 and 2018, Humanist Disaster Recovery has raised over $ 250,000 for victims of the Syrian Refugee Crisis , Refugee Children of

14625-432: Was a factor that was largely ignored by first-wave feminism, which was primarily concerned with gaining political equality between white men and white women. Early women's rights movements often exclusively pertained to the membership, concerns, and struggles of white women. Second-wave feminism worked to dismantle sexism relating to the perceived domestic purpose of women. While feminists during this time achieved success in

14750-458: Was also not my intent to ally in any way with Republican bigots in US now exploiting this issue." In response to these comments, the American Humanist Association retracted Dawkins' 1996 Humanist of the Year Award. Robby Soave of Reason magazine criticized the retraction, saying that "The drive to punish dissenters from various orthodoxies is itself illiberal." The AHA website presents

14875-474: Was championed by Iris Marion Young , arguing that differences must be acknowledged in order to find unifying social justice issues that create coalitions that aid in changing society for the better. More specifically, this relates to the ideals of the National Council of Negro Women (NCNW). The term also has historical and theoretical links to the concept of simultaneity, which was advanced during

15000-430: Was coined by Kimberlé Crenshaw in 1989. She describes how interlocking systems of power affect those who are most marginalized in society . Activists and academics use the framework to promote social and political egalitarianism . Intersectionality opposes analytical systems that treat each axis of oppression in isolation. In this framework, for instance, discrimination against black women cannot be explained as

15125-587: Was generally the case in the former Francoist Spain ). Intersectionality Intersectionality is a sociological analytical framework for understanding how groups' and individuals' social and political identities result in unique combinations of discrimination and privilege . Examples of these factors include gender , caste , sex , race , ethnicity , class , sexuality , religion , disability , height , age , and weight . These intersecting and overlapping social identities may be both empowering and oppressing . Intersectionality broadens

15250-541: Was issued by a conference held at the University of Chicago in 1933. Signatories included John Dewey , but the majority were ministers (chiefly Unitarian ) and theologians. They identified humanism as an ideology that espouses reason , ethics , and social and economic justice . By 1935, the Humanist Fellowship had become the "Humanist Press Association", the first national association of humanism in

15375-403: Was referring to) which, one, paints national-level inequalities as the same and, two, differentiates only between the global North and South. This is manifested through the intersection of global dynamics like economics, migration, or violence, with regional dynamics, like histories of the nation or gendered inequalities in education and property education. There is an issue globally with the way

15500-400: Was the primary factor determining a woman's fate". The historical exclusion of black women from the feminist movement in the United States resulted in many black 19th- and 20th-century feminists, such as Anna Julia Cooper, challenging their historical exclusion. This disputed the ideas of earlier feminist movements, which were primarily led by white middle-class women, suggesting that women were

15625-721: Was used during her field study of battered women. In this study, Crenshaw uses intersectionality to display the multilayered oppressions that women who are victims of domestic violence face. Political intersectionality highlights two conflicting systems in the political arena, which separates women and women of color into two subordinate groups. The experiences of women of color differ from those of white women and men of color due to their race and gender often intersecting. White women suffer from gender bias, and men of color suffer from racial bias; however, both of their experiences differ from that of women of color, because women of color experience both racial and gender bias. According to Crenshaw,

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