117-592: The Clifton Antiquarian Club is an archaeological society founded in 1884 in Bristol to investigate antiquities in the surrounding areas of western England and southern Wales. The 28 years of research undertaken by the members and associates of the original society fill the first seven volumes of the Proceedings of the Clifton Antiquarian Club . The original club was dissolved in 1912, but it
234-541: A German castle in 1901, was the first to use the name America and the first to depict a Western Hemisphere . The Library of Congress purchased the 1507 Waldseemüller map in 2003. On 30 April 2007, German Chancellor Angela Merkel transferred the map, also known as America's "birth certificate," to the people of the United States in a ceremony at the Library of Congress. There are several alternate theories of
351-464: A basic level of analysis, artifacts found are cleaned, catalogued and compared to published collections. This comparison process often involves classifying them typologically and identifying other sites with similar artifact assemblages. However, a much more comprehensive range of analytical techniques are available through archaeological science , meaning that artifacts can be dated and their compositions examined. Bones, plants, and pollen collected from
468-563: A big impact throughout Europe. However, prior to the development of modern techniques, excavations tended to be haphazard; the importance of concepts such as stratification and context were overlooked. In the mid-18th century, the German Johann Joachim Winckelmann lived in Rome and devoted himself to the study of Roman antiquities, gradually acquiring an unrivalled knowledge of ancient art. Then, he visited
585-401: A clear objective as to what the archaeologists are looking to achieve must be agreed upon. This done, a site is surveyed to find out as much as possible about it and the surrounding area. Second, an excavation may take place to uncover any archaeological features buried under the ground. And, third, the information collected during the excavation is studied and evaluated in an attempt to achieve
702-451: A field survey. Regional survey is the attempt to systematically locate previously unknown sites in a region. Site survey is the attempt to systematically locate features of interest, such as houses and middens , within a site. Each of these two goals may be accomplished with largely the same methods. Survey was not widely practised in the early days of archaeology. Cultural historians and prior researchers were usually content with discovering
819-484: A lack of public interest, and opposition to the excavation of human remains. In Ancient Mesopotamia , a foundation deposit of the Akkadian Empire ruler Naram-Sin (ruled c. 2200 BC ) was discovered and analysed by king Nabonidus , c. 550 BC , who is thus known as the first archaeologist. Not only did he lead the first excavations which were to find the foundation deposits of
936-528: A large region or site can be expensive, so archaeologists often employ sampling methods.) As with other forms of non-destructive archaeology, survey avoids ethical issues (of particular concern to descendant peoples) associated with destroying a site through excavation. It is the only way to gather some forms of information, such as settlement patterns and settlement structure. Survey data are commonly assembled into maps , which may show surface features and/or artifact distribution. The simplest survey technique
1053-666: A meeting of that organisation held at Tuam, County Galway. In addition, he was a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of London . Alfred Hudd was closely involved with the Caerwent Exploration Fund. At a meeting of the Society of Antiquaries of London in February 1899, Alfred Trice Martin, also a founding member of the Clifton Antiquarian Club and a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of London, suggested that
1170-475: A number of round earthworks on L'Ancresse Common, north Guernsey. This eventually revealed them to be field kitchens from the Napoleonic Wars era military camps. Originally, they had expected to uncover prehistoric archaeology but several key finds enabled the team to narrow down the date range of use to the first decade of the 19th century. Currently scheduled for 2021, the next excavation will be at
1287-405: A prehistoric site on Le Jaonnet Common, north-west Guernsey. Archaeology Archaeology or archeology is the study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture . The archaeological record consists of artifacts , architecture , biofacts or ecofacts, sites , and cultural landscapes . Archaeology can be considered both a social science and a branch of
SECTION 10
#17327656361291404-419: A site can all be analyzed using the methods of zooarchaeology , paleoethnobotany , palynology and stable isotopes while any texts can usually be deciphered . Alfred Hudd Alfred Edmund Hudd FSA (1846 – 7 October 1920) was a native of Clifton, Bristol , England. An accountant as a young man, his means were such that he was able to pursue his interests as a naturalist and antiquarian . He
1521-504: A site excavated depends greatly on the country and "method statement" issued. Sampling is even more important in excavation than in survey. Sometimes large mechanical equipment, such as backhoes ( JCBs ), is used in excavation, especially to remove the topsoil ( overburden ), though this method is increasingly used with great caution. Following this rather dramatic step, the exposed area is usually hand-cleaned with trowels or hoes to ensure that all features are apparent. The next task
1638-414: A site reveals its stratigraphy; if a site was occupied by a succession of distinct cultures, artifacts from more recent cultures will lie above those from more ancient cultures. Excavation is the most expensive phase of archaeological research, in relative terms. Also, as a destructive process, it carries ethical concerns. As a result, very few sites are excavated in their entirety. Again the percentage of
1755-408: A sole source. The material record may be closer to a fair representation of society, though it is subject to its own biases, such as sampling bias and differential preservation. Often, archaeology provides the only means to learn of the existence and behaviors of people of the past. Across the millennia many thousands of cultures and societies and billions of people have come and gone of which there
1872-527: A stone wall, will develop more slowly, while those above other types of features (such as middens ) may develop more rapidly. Photographs of ripening grain , which changes colour rapidly at maturation, have revealed buried structures with great precision. Aerial photographs taken at different times of day will help show the outlines of structures by changes in shadows. Aerial survey also employs ultraviolet , infrared , ground-penetrating radar wavelengths, Lidar and thermography . Geophysical survey can be
1989-486: A systematic excavation of Caerwent, a Roman town in south Wales, be undertaken. The Caerwent Exploration Fund was established by the Clifton Antiquarian Club soon thereafter. In September 1899, at Caerwent, Godfrey Morgan , Lord Tredegar , was elected President of the Caerwent Exploration Fund and Alfred Hudd was elected Treasurer. Hudd and Thomas Ashby, Junior , both members of the Executive Committee of
2106-487: A systematic guide to the ruins and topography of ancient Rome in the early 15th century, for which he has been called an early founder of archaeology. Antiquarians of the 16th century, including John Leland and William Camden , conducted surveys of the English countryside, drawing, describing and interpreting the monuments that they encountered. The OED first cites "archaeologist" from 1824; this soon took over as
2223-537: A vice-president from 1887 to 1893, and had contributed several papers to the Proceedings . He died on 3 February 1908 at Weston-super-Mare . George Forrest Browne (1833–1930), Bishop of Stepney , became Bishop of Bristol in 1897. He had been an explorer of ice caves in France and Switzerland as a young man, and was the author of a number of books. Bishop Browne was the Disney Professor of Archaeology at
2340-495: A wide range of influences, including systems theory , neo-evolutionary thought , [35] phenomenology , postmodernism , agency theory , cognitive science , structural functionalism , Marxism , gender-based and feminist archaeology , queer theory , postcolonial thoughts , materiality , and posthumanism . An archaeological investigation usually involves several distinct phases, each of which employs its own variety of methods. Before any practical work can begin, however,
2457-596: Is an editorial board to ensure that the content reaches a high standard. Volume 8, Landscape Enquiries , was published in December 2007. The thirteen chapter book includes contributions from members of the Clifton Antiquarian Club, as well as non-member scholars from Britain, Australia, Italy, Norway, and the United States. Volume 9 of the Proceedings, Early Medieval Enquiries , was published in March 2010. The subject of
SECTION 20
#17327656361292574-606: Is distinct from palaeontology , which is the study of fossil remains. Archaeology is particularly important for learning about prehistoric societies, for which, by definition, there are no written records. Prehistory includes over 99% of the human past, from the Paleolithic until the advent of literacy in societies around the world. Archaeology has various goals, which range from understanding culture history to reconstructing past lifeways to documenting and explaining changes in human societies through time. Derived from Greek,
2691-451: Is little or no written record or existing records are misrepresentative or incomplete. Writing as it is known today did not exist in human civilization until the 4th millennium BC, in a relatively small number of technologically advanced civilizations. In contrast, Homo sapiens has existed for at least 200,000 years, and other species of Homo for millions of years (see Human evolution ). These civilizations are, not coincidentally,
2808-406: Is located at 9 Kewstoke Road, Stoke Bishop, Bristol, BS9 1HA, England. Lectures are held throughout the year, to which both members and non-members are welcome. The subject of the talks generally alternates between the prehistoric and medieval eras. The lectures that have been given by the current version of the Clifton Antiquarian Club include: In addition, at least two excursions are scheduled by
2925-775: Is no hard proof to substantiate his theory that Cabot named America after Richard Ameryk. Hudd's first wife Kate died on 4 April 1889 and was buried in the Old Protestant Cemetery in Naples , Italy. Hudd married Adeline Sophia Tyzack in the fourth quarter of 1891 in the registration district of Kensington , London. In 1901, he resided at 94 Pembroke Road in Clifton with his second wife Adeline and two daughters. Alfred Edmund Hudd of 108 Pembroke Road in Clifton died on 7 October 1920, his death registered in Bristol in
3042-426: Is no one approach to archaeological theory that has been adhered to by all archaeologists. When archaeology developed in the late 19th century, the first approach to archaeological theory to be practised was that of cultural-historical archaeology , which held the goal of explaining why cultures changed and adapted rather than just highlighting the fact that they did, therefore emphasizing historical particularism . In
3159-443: Is reflected or emitted from the observed scene. Passive instruments sense only radiation emitted by the object being viewed or reflected by the object from a source other than the instrument. Active instruments emit energy and record what is reflected. Satellite imagery is an example of passive remote sensing. Here are two active remote sensing instruments: The archaeological project then continues (or alternatively, begins) with
3276-428: Is surface survey. It involves combing an area, usually on foot but sometimes with the use of mechanized transport, to search for features or artifacts visible on the surface. Surface survey cannot detect sites or features that are completely buried under earth, or overgrown with vegetation. Surface survey may also include mini-excavation techniques such as augers , corers, and shovel test pits. If no materials are found,
3393-596: Is through archaeology. Because archaeology is the study of past human activity, it stretches back to about 2.5 million years ago when the first stone tools are found – The Oldowan Industry . Many important developments in human history occurred during prehistory, such as the evolution of humanity during the Paleolithic period, when the hominins developed from the australopithecines in Africa and eventually into modern Homo sapiens . Archaeology also sheds light on many of humanity's technological advances, for instance
3510-431: Is to form a site plan and then use it to help decide the method of excavation. Features dug into the natural subsoil are normally excavated in portions to produce a visible archaeological section for recording. A feature, for example a pit or a ditch, consists of two parts: the cut and the fill . The cut describes the edge of the feature, where the feature meets the natural soil. It is the feature's boundary. The fill
3627-420: Is what the feature is filled with, and will often appear quite distinct from the natural soil. The cut and fill are given consecutive numbers for recording purposes. Scaled plans and sections of individual features are all drawn on site, black and white and colour photographs of them are taken, and recording sheets are filled in describing the context of each. All this information serves as a permanent record of
Clifton Antiquarian Club - Misplaced Pages Continue
3744-486: The University of Cambridge . He was also a vice-president of the Society of Antiquaries of London . He was elected a member of the Clifton Antiquarian Club on 24 November 1897. Despite his relatively short tenure as a member, he was elected president at the 15th annual meeting on 19 January 1899, serving until January 1903. At the 19th annual meeting of the club, held on 21 January 1903, Conwy Lloyd Morgan (1852–1936)
3861-527: The earthworks at Maes Knoll , the remains of a univallate hillfort from the Iron Age . Women not only accompanied men on the day trips; sometimes they actively participated in the investigations. On 20 July 1889, the club undertook an excursion to Tintern Abbey and Monmouth. Bagnall-Oakeley and her husband served as guides for the Monmouth portion of the excursion. The group visited St Thomas Church ,
3978-806: The gatehouse on the Monnow Bridge, the ruins of Monmouth Castle , the Church of St Mary, and "Geoffrey's" Window. Another example of this was the project sponsored jointly by the Clifton Antiquarian Club and the Monmouthshire and Caerleon Antiquarian Association on 22 August 1888. The excursion is described in editor Alfred Edmund Hudd's postscript to the 1888 paper authored by the Reverend William Oakeley, "The Chambered Tumulus at Heston Brake, Monmouthshire ", found in Volume 2 of
4095-530: The humanities . It is usually considered an independent academic discipline , but may also be classified as part of anthropology (in North America – the four-field approach ), history or geography . Archaeologists study human prehistory and history, from the development of the first stone tools at Lomekwi in East Africa 3.3 million years ago up until recent decades. Archaeology
4212-580: The trench method , on several Native American burial mounds in Virginia . His excavations were prompted by the "Moundbuilders" question ; however, his careful methods led him to admit he saw no reason why ancestors of the Native Americans of his time could not have raised those mounds. One of the major achievements of 19th-century archaeology was the development of stratigraphy . The idea of overlapping strata tracing back to successive periods
4329-512: The 'Mathew,' the which said ship departed from the port of Bristowe the 2nd of May and came home again the 6th August following. Hudd reasoned that the scholars of the 1507 Cosmographiae Introductio , unfamiliar with Richard Ameryk, assumed that the name America, which he claimed had been in use for ten years, was based on Amerigo Vespucci and, therefore, mistakenly transferred the honour from Ameryk to Vespucci. While Hudd's speculation has found support from more than one 21st century author, there
4446-559: The 1870s. These scholars individuated nine different cities that had overlapped with one another, from prehistory to the Hellenistic period . Meanwhile, the work of Sir Arthur Evans at Knossos in Crete revealed the ancient existence of an equally advanced Minoan civilization . The next major figure in the development of archaeology was Sir Mortimer Wheeler , whose highly disciplined approach to excavation and systematic coverage in
4563-642: The 1920s and 1930s brought the science on swiftly. Wheeler developed the grid system of excavation , which was further improved by his student Kathleen Kenyon . Archaeology became a professional activity in the first half of the 20th century, and it became possible to study archaeology as a subject in universities and even schools. By the end of the 20th century nearly all professional archaeologists, at least in developed countries, were graduates. Further adaptation and innovation in archaeology continued in this period, when maritime archaeology and urban archaeology became more prevalent and rescue archaeology
4680-676: The Bristol Museum and Library (now the Bristol City Museum and Art Gallery ), and was attended by 23 men from the community. Bishop William Clifford was elected president and Alfred Edmund Hudd secretary. Two vice-presidents and a treasurer were also chosen. The club's mission was the investigation of antiquities in the surrounding area, which included not only western England, but also southern Wales. The club decided to limit membership to 40 men at any given time, although there could also be up to ten honorary members. Many of
4797-746: The Bristol Naturalists' Society : Hudd was also a Fellow of the Entomological Society of London, founded in 1833, and now known as the Royal Entomological Society of London . In 1912, he presented his collection of 1300 coleoptera (beetle) specimens to the Bristol Museum and Library, now the Bristol City Museum and Art Gallery , to supplement the Stephen Barton (d. 1898) collection. His collection of lepidoptera (butterflies and moths) specimens
Clifton Antiquarian Club - Misplaced Pages Continue
4914-709: The Clifton Antiquarian Club each year; some are day trips, others are longer tours. During the September 2010 excursion to the Gower Peninsula, Dr George Nash of the University of Bristol and other members of the club discovered a carving of a reindeer in one of the caves. This represents the second discovery of Upper Palaeolithic rock art in the British Isles, and the first in Wales. Carbon dating has placed
5031-589: The Fund, supervised the excavations at Caerwent. During the period between 1899 and 1913, two-thirds of the Roman town in south Wales was revealed. The archive of Caerwent, which was discovered during the excavations by the Fund, is in the archaeology collection of Newport Museum . The reports on the excavations at Caerwent were published in Archaeologia , the journal of the Society of Antiquaries of London. Much of
5148-532: The New World and reasoned that, as the three previously known continents, Europe, Asia, and Africa, had feminine names, so should the New World. Accordingly, the feminised version of the Latin form of the baptismal name of the "discoverer" of the New World, Vespucci, was utilised. The appendix of the book included Waldseemüller's map of the world in which the New World was labelled "America." The map, rediscovered in
5265-622: The Proceedings of the Clifton Antiquarian Club. On that day, the tumulus at the site Heston Brake in Portskewett was opened and examined under the direction of the members of the two associations. There was evidence that the tumulus had been previously disturbed. The few relics which remained, fragments of pottery and human bones and teeth, are now in the Caerleon Museum, the National Roman Legion Museum . At
5382-643: The Roman town was revealed. The archive of Caerwent, excavated by the Caerwent Exploration Fund, is in the archaeology collection of Newport Museum . The reports on the Caerwent excavation were published in Archaeologia , the journal of the Society of Antiquaries. It was decided at the first meeting of the Clifton Antiquarian Club that at least two meetings would be held every year. One of those general meetings would be scheduled for January of each year. At that annual meeting, election of officers and new members would take place. Members and, occasionally, associates of
5499-505: The Song period, were revived in the 17th century during the Qing dynasty , but were always considered a branch of Chinese historiography rather than a separate discipline of archaeology. In Renaissance Europe , philosophical interest in the remains of Greco - Roman civilization and the rediscovery of classical culture began in the late Middle Ages , with humanism . Cyriacus of Ancona
5616-676: The Spanish military engineer Roque Joaquín de Alcubierre in the ancient towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum , both of which had been covered by ash during the Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79 . These excavations began in 1748 in Pompeii, while in Herculaneum they began in 1738. The discovery of entire towns, complete with utensils and even human shapes, as well the unearthing of frescos , had
5733-767: The UK, metal detectorists have been solicited for involvement in the Portable Antiquities Scheme . Regional survey in underwater archaeology uses geophysical or remote sensing devices such as marine magnetometer, side-scan sonar , or sub-bottom sonar. Archaeological excavation existed even when the field was still the domain of amateurs, and it remains the source of the majority of data recovered in most field projects. It can reveal several types of information usually not accessible to survey, such as stratigraphy , three-dimensional structure, and verifiably primary context. Modern excavation techniques require that
5850-426: The ability to use fire, the development of stone tools , the discovery of metallurgy , the beginnings of religion and the creation of agriculture . Without archaeology, little or nothing would be known about the use of material culture by humanity that pre-dates writing. However, it is not only prehistoric, pre-literate cultures that can be studied using archaeology but historic, literate cultures as well, through
5967-408: The archaeological excavations being conducted at Pompeii and Herculaneum . He was one of the founders of scientific archaeology and first applied the categories of style on a large, systematic basis to the history of art He was one of the first to separate Greek art into periods and time classifications. Winckelmann has been called both "The prophet and founding hero of modern archaeology " and
SECTION 50
#17327656361296084-434: The area surveyed is deemed sterile . Aerial survey is conducted using cameras attached to airplanes , balloons , UAVs , or even Kites . A bird's-eye view is useful for quick mapping of large or complex sites. Aerial photographs are used to document the status of the archaeological dig. Aerial imaging can also detect many things not visible from the surface. Plants growing above a buried human-made structure, such as
6201-678: The areas that he and, separately, Christopher Columbus had explored were not part of Asia, but rather a New World . America first received its name in the Cosmographiae Introductio , published by cartographer Martin Waldseemüller in 1507. Vespucci's published letters (the authenticity of which is contested) were the inspiration for that work, which was authored by a group of scholars in Saint-Dié , Lorraine , France. They revised Ptolemy's Geography to include
6318-560: The artifacts they had found in chronological order. A major figure in the development of archaeology into a rigorous science was army officer and ethnologist Augustus Pitt Rivers , who began excavations on his land in England in the 1880s. Highly methodical by the standards of the time, he is widely regarded as the first scientific archaeologist. He arranged his artifacts by type or " Typology (archaeology) ", and within types chronologically. This style of arrangement, designed to highlight
6435-563: The best-known; they are open to the inquiry of historians for centuries, while the study of pre-historic cultures has arisen only recently. Within a literate civilization many events and important human practices may not be officially recorded. Any knowledge of the early years of human civilization – the development of agriculture, cult practices of folk religion, the rise of the first cities – must come from archaeology. In addition to their scientific importance, archaeological remains sometimes have political or cultural significance to descendants of
6552-609: The bishop's death, a new president was not chosen until the following year, when one of the club's founding members, James Roger Bramble (1841–1908), succeeded in the role. A solicitor, he was the force behind the creation of St Vincent Lodge No. 1404 of Bristol. Former Lieutenant Colonel of the Second Gloucester Royal Engineer Volunteers, Bramble was elected president on 10 January 1894 at the 10th annual meeting, and served until 1899. He had previously served as treasurer from 1884 to 1887, and as
6669-414: The carving at approximately 12,600 years, although Dr Nash believes it to be older. The carving may represent the oldest specimen of rock art in the British Isles. The excursions, which have been undertaken the last thirteen years include: The current Proceedings of the Clifton Antiquarian Club are published every four years, giving members the opportunity to have their personal research published. There
6786-476: The club presented him with a silver bowl and a set of four silver candlesticks. In 1911, the membership of the club again paid tribute to his efforts, with an inscribed, inlaid grandfather clock. Alfred Hudd was a member of the Bristol and Gloucestershire Archaeological Society , and served on its Council. On 9 August 1904, he was elected to membership of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland at
6903-534: The club undertook an excavation at the Neolithic monument of Le Trépied, situated on the western edge of Guernsey . Charcoal obtained from primary contexts were sent for radiocarbon dating which yielded a date range of 4447–4267 cal BC, the earliest yet for a passage grave in the Channel Islands and represents the likely construction date. In 2018–19 fieldwork began to establish the precise nature of
7020-440: The club's own field projects. Recent fieldwork has centred on the island of Guernsey , Channel Islands. In 2014 the club undertook excavations at two sites separated by just 50 metres on the west coast beach at Baie de Port Grat, St Sampson, where the remains of a new Neolithic chambered tomb had been discovered. Further up on the beach, the site of two Bronze Age cists were re-located and assessed. In 2015 another Bronze Age site
7137-437: The club, however, was inclusion of women in the membership, such that women now comprise 50% of the members. Other changes include a new junior section of the society, CAC Kids, with child-friendly activities. In addition, there is an increasingly comprehensive website on which some of the publications from the original Proceedings are available. The new version of the Clifton Antiquarian Club was incorporated on 12 October 2006. It
SECTION 60
#17327656361297254-400: The club, male and female, made presentations to the society at its meetings. Their papers were read to the membership and eventually published in its Proceedings . With a total of 21 papers, Alfred E. Hudd was one of the most prolific contributors to the Proceedings . Although her husband Reverend William Oakeley was a member of the society, heiress and antiquarian Mary Ellen Bagnall-Oakeley
7371-473: The early 20th century, many archaeologists who studied past societies with direct continuing links to existing ones (such as those of Native Americans , Siberians , Mesoamericans etc.) followed the direct historical approach , compared the continuity between the past and contemporary ethnic and cultural groups. In the 1960s, an archaeological movement largely led by American archaeologists like Lewis Binford and Kent Flannery arose that rebelled against
7488-643: The empirical evidence that existed for the understanding of the past, encapsulated in the motto of the 18th century antiquary, Sir Richard Colt Hoare : "We speak from facts, not theory". Tentative steps towards the systematization of archaeology as a science took place during the Enlightenment period in Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries. In Imperial China during the Song dynasty (960–1279), figures such as Ouyang Xiu and Zhao Mingcheng established
7605-644: The established cultural-history archaeology. They proposed a "New Archaeology", which would be more "scientific" and "anthropological", with hypothesis testing and the scientific method very important parts of what became known as processual archaeology . In the 1980s, a new postmodern movement arose led by the British archaeologists Michael Shanks , Christopher Tilley , Daniel Miller , and Ian Hodder , which has become known as post-processual archaeology . It questioned processualism's appeals to scientific positivism and impartiality, and emphasized
7722-633: The evolutionary trends in human artifacts, was of enormous significance for the accurate dating of the objects. His most important methodological innovation was his insistence that all artifacts, not just beautiful or unique ones, be collected and catalogued. William Flinders Petrie is another man who may legitimately be called the Father of Archaeology. His painstaking recording and study of artifacts, both in Egypt and later in Palestine , laid down many of
7839-538: The father of the discipline of art history . The father of archaeological excavation was William Cunnington (1754–1810). He undertook excavations in Wiltshire from around 1798, funded by Sir Richard Colt Hoare. Cunnington made meticulous recordings of Neolithic and Bronze Age barrows , and the terms he used to categorize and describe them are still used by archaeologists today. Future U.S. President Thomas Jefferson also did his own excavations in 1784 using
7956-765: The fifteenth century, and the general accuracy of his records entitles him to be called the founding father of modern classical archeology." He traveled throughout Greece and all around the Eastern Mediterranean, to record his findings on ancient buildings, statues and inscriptions, including archaeological remains still unknown to his time: the Parthenon , Delphi , the Egyptian pyramids , the hieroglyphics . He noted down his archaeological discoveries in his diary, Commentaria (in six volumes). Flavio Biondo , an Italian Renaissance humanist historian, created
8073-528: The first history books of India. One of the first sites to undergo archaeological excavation was Stonehenge and other megalithic monuments in England. John Aubrey (1626–1697) was a pioneer archaeologist who recorded numerous megalithic and other field monuments in southern England. He was also ahead of his time in the analysis of his findings. He attempted to chart the chronological stylistic evolution of handwriting, medieval architecture, costume, and shield-shapes. Excavations were also carried out by
8190-475: The ideas behind modern archaeological recording; he remarked that "I believe the true line of research lies in the noting and comparison of the smallest details." Petrie developed the system of dating layers based on pottery and ceramic findings , which revolutionized the chronological basis of Egyptology . Petrie was the first to scientifically investigate the Great Pyramid in Egypt during the 1880s. He
8307-472: The importance of a more self-critical theoretical reflexivity . However, this approach has been criticized by processualists as lacking scientific rigor, and the validity of both processualism and post-processualism is still under debate. Meanwhile, another theory, known as historical processualism , has emerged seeking to incorporate a focus on process and post-processual archaeology's emphasis of reflexivity and history. Archaeological theory now borrows from
8424-407: The latter book is early medieval Britain and it features eighteen papers that relate to British history in the period AD 410 to 1066. The tenth volume of the Proceedings was published in December 2014 and exclusively contained members current archaeological work together with details of all the club's recent activities. Volume 11 followed in 2018 and continued the mix of club members' work together with
8541-444: The lives and interests of the populace. Writings that were produced by people more representative of the general population were unlikely to find their way into libraries and be preserved there for posterity. Thus, written records tend to reflect the biases, assumptions, cultural values and possibly deceptions of a limited range of individuals, usually a small fraction of the larger population. Hence, written records cannot be trusted as
8658-671: The locations of monumental sites from the local populace, and excavating only the plainly visible features there. Gordon Willey pioneered the technique of regional settlement pattern survey in 1949 in the Viru Valley of coastal Peru , and survey of all levels became prominent with the rise of processual archaeology some years later. Survey work has many benefits if performed as a preliminary exercise to, or even in place of, excavation. It requires relatively little time and expense, because it does not require processing large volumes of soil to search out artifacts. (Nevertheless, surveying
8775-499: The members lived in the Clifton area of Bristol. While women could interact on a limited basis with the club, they were not formal members. The first meeting included a presentation by John Taylor, Bristol City Librarian. He read his research paper "Anglo-Norman Church Doorways" to the assembled men. The first president, William Joseph Hugh Clifford (1823–1893), was ordained as a priest in August 1850 by Archbishop Errington in Clifton. He
8892-724: The most effective way to see beneath the ground. Magnetometers detect minute deviations in the Earth's magnetic field caused by iron artifacts, kilns , some types of stone structures , and even ditches and middens. Devices that measure the electrical resistivity of the soil are also widely used. Archaeological features whose electrical resistivity contrasts with that of surrounding soils can be detected and mapped. Some archaeological features (such as those composed of stone or brick) have higher resistivity than typical soils, while others (such as organic deposits or unfired clay) tend to have lower resistivity. Although some archaeologists consider
9009-499: The naming of America. Alfred Hudd proposed his theory in a paper which was read at 21 May 1908 meeting of the Clifton Antiquarian Club, and which appeared in Volume 7 of the club's Proceedings . In "Richard Ameryk and the name America," Hudd discussed the 1497 discovery of North America by John Cabot , an Italian who had sailed on behalf of England. Upon his return to England after his first (1497) and second (1498–1499) voyages, Cabot received two pension payments from King Henry VII . Of
9126-443: The now-destroyed archaeology and is used in describing and interpreting the site. Once artifacts and structures have been excavated, or collected from surface surveys, it is necessary to properly study them. This process is known as post-excavation analysis , and is usually the most time-consuming part of an archaeological investigation. It is not uncommon for final excavation reports for major sites to take years to be published. At
9243-461: The official would not be unexpected. Further, Hudd quoted a late 15th-century manuscript (a calendar of Bristol events), the original of which had been lost in an 1860 Bristol fire, that indicated the name America was already known in Bristol in 1497. This year (1497), on St. John the Baptist's day (June 24th), the land of America was found by the merchants of Bristow, in a ship of Bristowe called
9360-411: The original Clifton Antiquarian Club. Heston Brake, the site of the August 1888 excursion, proved to be the inspiration for the resurrection of the Clifton Antiquarian Club as it exists today. A complete set of the seven volumes of the original Proceedings was obtained and examined. The decision was made to adhere to the primary objectives of the original society. A major departure from the old version of
9477-529: The original research objectives of the archaeologists. It is then considered good practice for the information to be published so that it is available to other archaeologists and historians, although this is sometimes neglected. Before actually starting to dig in a location, remote sensing can be used to look where sites are located within a large area or provide more information about sites or regions. There are two types of remote sensing instruments—passive and active. Passive instruments detect natural energy that
9594-417: The original society. Not only a founding member of the club, Alfred Edmund Hudd had the distinction of being the only member of the Clifton Antiquarian Club to remain with the original organisation from its inception in 1884 to its end in 1912. He served as editor of the society's seven volumes of Proceedings , also contributing 21 papers. His service to the organisation was acknowledged on 5 January 1898 when
9711-413: The past. Since its early development, various specific sub-disciplines of archaeology have developed, including maritime archaeology , feminist archaeology , and archaeoastronomy , and numerous different scientific techniques have been developed to aid archaeological investigation. Nonetheless, today, archaeologists face many problems, such as dealing with pseudoarchaeology , the looting of artifacts,
9828-698: The people who produced them, monetary value to collectors, or strong aesthetic appeal. Many people identify archaeology with the recovery of such aesthetic, religious, political, or economic treasures rather than with the reconstruction of past societies. This view is often espoused in works of popular fiction, such as Raiders of the Lost Ark, The Mummy, and King Solomon's Mines. When unrealistic subjects are treated more seriously, accusations of pseudoscience are invariably levelled at their proponents (see Pseudoarchaeology ) . However, these endeavours, real and fictional, are not representative of modern archaeology. There
9945-550: The precise locations of objects and features, known as their provenance or provenience, be recorded. This always involves determining their horizontal locations, and sometimes vertical position as well (also see Primary Laws of Archaeology ). Likewise, their association , or relationship with nearby objects and features , needs to be recorded for later analysis. This allows the archaeologist to deduce which artifacts and features were likely used together and which may be from different phases of activity. For example, excavation of
10062-444: The society's seven volumes of Proceedings . He also contributed 21 papers to the journal. His service to the organisation was acknowledged on 5 January 1898 when the club presented him with a silver bowl and a set of four silver candlesticks. In 1911, the membership again presented him with a tribute, an inscribed, inlaid grandfather clock. Hudd was also a member of the Bristol and Gloucestershire Archaeological Society. In addition, he
10179-434: The society, an attempt was made to find a buyer for the hundreds of volumes of Proceedings that they had in stock. The club was offered £9 10s by a bookseller, but that offer was declined. Today, a single seven-volume set of the original leather-bound Proceedings sells for more than £500. The seven volumes of the original Proceedings are as follows: The membership of the club dwindled through retirement or death, and it
10296-475: The sub-discipline of historical archaeology . For many literate cultures, such as Ancient Greece and Mesopotamia , their surviving records are often incomplete and biased to some extent. In many societies, literacy was restricted to the elite classes, such as the clergy , or the bureaucracy of court or temple. The literacy of aristocrats has sometimes been restricted to deeds and contracts. The interests and world-view of elites are often quite different from
10413-474: The success of the Caerwent Exploration Fund has been attributed to Alfred Hudd. The traditional theory of the naming of America is that it was named in honour of Amerigo Vespucci , an Italian navigator. At the turn of the sixteenth century, Vespucci undertook a series of voyages (the number of which remains unresolved) in search of a western passage to the Indies. After the voyage of 1501–1502, he proposed that
10530-519: The temples of Šamaš the sun god, the warrior goddess Anunitu (both located in Sippar ), and the sanctuary that Naram-Sin built to the moon god, located in Harran , but he also had them restored to their former glory. He was also the first to date an archaeological artifact in his attempt to date Naram-Sin's temple during his search for it. Even though his estimate was inaccurate by about 1,500 years, it
10647-476: The term archaeology means "the study of ancient history". The discipline involves surveying , excavation , and eventually analysis of data collected, to learn more about the past. In broad scope, archaeology relies on cross-disciplinary research. Archaeology developed out of antiquarianism in Europe during the 19th century, and has since become a discipline practiced around the world. Archaeology has been used by nation-states to create particular visions of
10764-412: The time of that 1888 excavation, Bagnall Oakeley made measurements of all the components of the tumulus. Her illustration (pictured) , which accompanies her husband's paper, is entitled, "Plan of Chambered Tumulus at Heston Brake, nr Portskewett, Mon." The 28 years of research presented by the members and associates of the club were compiled in seven volumes of Proceedings . At the time of dissolution of
10881-559: The tradition of Chinese epigraphy by investigating, preserving, and analyzing ancient Chinese bronze inscriptions from the Shang and Zhou periods. In his book published in 1088, Shen Kuo criticized contemporary Chinese scholars for attributing ancient bronze vessels as creations of famous sages rather than artisan commoners, and for attempting to revive them for ritual use without discerning their original functionality and purpose of manufacture. Such antiquarian pursuits waned after
10998-488: The two customs officials at the Port of Bristol who were responsible for handing over the money to Cabot, the more senior was Richard Ameryk ( High Sheriff of Bristol in 1503). Hudd postulated that Cabot named the land that he had discovered after Ameryk, from whom he received the pension conferred by the king. He stated that Cabot had a reputation for being free with gifts to his friends, such that his expression of gratitude to
11115-430: The understanding that he would resume the chair of his department. Initially appointed the chairman of the geology and zoology department in 1884, he became the chair of the psychology and ethics department after his 1910 vice-chancellorship. He retired in 1919, living in Clifton until 1925 or 1926. He moved to Hastings, where he died in 1936. On 31 January 1906, at the 22nd annual meeting of the club, George Forrest Browne
11232-576: The use of metal detectors to be tantamount to treasure hunting, others deem them an effective tool in archaeological surveying. Examples of formal archaeological use of metal detectors include musketball distribution analysis on English Civil War battlefields, metal distribution analysis prior to excavation of a 19th-century ship wreck, and service cable location during evaluation. Metal detectorists have also contributed to archaeology where they have made detailed records of their results and refrained from raising artifacts from their archaeological context. In
11349-472: The usual term for one major branch of antiquarian activity. "Archaeology", from 1607 onward, initially meant what we would call "ancient history" generally, with the narrower modern sense first seen in 1837. However, it was Jacob Spon who, in 1685, offered one of the earliest definitions of "archaeologia" to describe the study of antiquities in which he was engaged, in the preface of a collection of transcriptions of Roman inscriptions which he had gleaned over
11466-412: The years of his travels, entitled Miscellanea eruditae antiquitatis. Twelfth-century Indian scholar Kalhana 's writings involved recording of local traditions, examining manuscripts, inscriptions, coins and architectures, which is described as one of the earliest traces of archaeology. One of his notable work is called Rajatarangini which was completed in c. 1150 and is described as one of
11583-401: Was a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of London, and was closely involved with the Caerwent Exploration Fund. At a meeting of the Society of Antiquaries in February 1899, Alfred Trice Martin, a founding member of the Clifton Antiquarian Club and a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries, had proposed a systematic excavation of Caerwent , a Roman town in south Wales. The Caerwent Exploration Fund
11700-665: Was a member of a number of societies, often assuming leadership positions. Hudd is perhaps best known for his roles as author of Catalogue of the Lepidoptera of the Bristol District , editor of the Proceedings of the Clifton Antiquarian Club , supervisor of the excavations undertaken by the Caerwent Exploration Fund, and author of " Richard Ameryk and the name America." Alfred Edmund Hudd, son of leather merchant Samuel Hudd and his wife Mary Ann,
11817-525: Was a restlessly itinerant Italian humanist and antiquarian who came from a prominent family of merchants in Ancona , a maritime republic on the Adriatic . He was called by his contemporaries pater antiquitatis ('father of antiquity') and today "father of classical archaeology": "Cyriac of Ancona was the most enterprising and prolific recorder of Greek and Roman antiquities, particularly inscriptions, in
11934-597: Was added to the George C. Griffiths (1852–1924) collection at the Bristol Museum. Hudd also contributed a short chapter on "The Insects of the Bristol District" to the Handbook to Bristol and the neighbourhood . Hudd was elected secretary of the Clifton Antiquarian Club at its first meeting on 23 January 1884 at the Bristol Museum and Library. He retained that position during all twenty-eight years of
12051-690: Was also decided at the first meeting of the club that two excursions would be held every year. Women were allowed to attend as the guests. The club's first excursion took place on 29 May 1884. Thirty members and friends visited the Ashton Court mansion and estate at the outskirts of Bristol. The group then inspected Long Ashton Church and the Ashton Cross. Later, the club ventured to churches and houses in Somerset , including Barrow Gurney , Stanton Drew , Chew Magna , and Dundry . They also toured
12168-421: Was also responsible for mentoring and training a whole generation of Egyptologists, including Howard Carter who went on to achieve fame with the discovery of the tomb of 14th-century BC pharaoh Tutankhamun . The first stratigraphic excavation to reach wide popularity with public was that of Hissarlik , on the site of ancient Troy , carried out by Heinrich Schliemann , Frank Calvert and Wilhelm Dörpfeld in
12285-591: Was appointed Bishop of Clifton , and in February 1857 was consecrated by Pope Pius IX in Rome. He served as president from 1884 until his death on 14 August 1893. He also served as a vice-president of the Bristol and Gloucestershire Archaeological Society and the Somersetshire Archaeological Society, now the Somerset Archaeological and Natural History Society , publishing papers in both of their journals. After
12402-473: Was born in the second quarter of 1846 in Clifton. An accountant, he married Catharine Bowles Edmonds in the first quarter of 1872, their marriage recorded in the registration district of Faringdon , Berkshire. In 1881, Alfred and his wife resided at Clinton House on Pembroke Road in Clifton. By 1870, Hudd was a member of the Bristol Naturalists' Society , which had been founded in 1862. He
12519-423: Was borrowed from the new geological and paleontological work of scholars like William Smith , James Hutton and Charles Lyell . The systematic application of stratigraphy to archaeology first took place with the excavations of prehistorical and Bronze Age sites. In the third and fourth decades of the 19th century, archaeologists like Jacques Boucher de Perthes and Christian Jürgensen Thomsen began to put
12636-421: Was developed as a result of increasing commercial development. The purpose of archaeology is to learn more about past societies and the development of the human race . Over 99% of the development of humanity has occurred within prehistoric cultures, who did not make use of writing , thereby no written records exist for study purposes. Without such written sources, the only way to understand prehistoric societies
12753-539: Was elected president to succeed the Bishop of Bristol. Morgan had been elected principal of University College, Bristol in 1887. He resigned three years later on 31 January 1906, proposing that his predecessor, the Bishop of Bristol, be re-elected president. In 1910, the university charter of the University College, Bristol was granted, and he agreed to accept a vice-chancellorship on a temporary basis, with
12870-401: Was established by the Clifton Antiquarian Club shortly thereafter, in 1899. In September of that year, at Caerwent, Godfrey Morgan , Lord Tredegar , was elected President of the Fund, and Alfred Hudd was elected Treasurer. Alfred Hudd and Thomas Ashby, Junior , both members of the executive committee of the Fund, supervised the excavations. During the period between 1899 and 1913, two-thirds of
12987-526: Was first appointed to the Council of the society on 6 May 1875, and remained a member of the Council for years, until about 1892. After a hiatus as a Council member for several years, Hudd was reappointed to the Council in 1899, where he remained until at least 1901. He specialised in entomology. His Catalogue of the Lepidoptera of the Bristol District was published in six parts in the Proceedings of
13104-533: Was formally dissolved on 15 January 1912. The occasion was its 28th annual general meeting. At the invitation of Bishop George Forrest Browne, then president, the final meeting was held at the Bishop's Palace in Redland Green . The palace was later destroyed during a bombing raid on 2 December 1940. In June 2006, an excursion to the Heston Brake chambered tumulus site in Portskewett led to mention of
13221-531: Was never invited to be a member. However, as a friend of the club, she made presentations, and did so even before her husband became a member in 1891. The five papers that she submitted to the Proceedings cover the period from 1887 (Volume 1) to 1896 (Volume 3). In chronological order, they include: Other women who contributed papers to the Proceedings included E. Hodges (read on 19 June 1894, appeared in Volume 3) and Ida M. Roper (read on 8 November 1905, appeared in Volume 6; second presentation in Volume 7). It
13338-459: Was re-elected president. He was again re-elected in 1907 and 1908, and served at the time of the club's dissolution in 1912. He died on 1 June 1930. The secretary of the club, Alfred Edmund Hudd of Pembroke Road in Clifton, retained that position during all twenty-eight years of the original society. He had the distinction of being the only member to remain with the organisation from its inception in 1884 until its end in 1912. He served as editor of
13455-511: Was re-evaluated, in the ditch which surrounded the Rousse loophole tower situated on Rousse Headland, one of the Guernsey loophole towers in north-west Guernsey. This had been briefly excavated in 1993 as part of tower restoration work. Late Neolithic/Early Bronze Age pottery was discovered together with flint tools and fragments of stone axes, in an area of considerable human activity. In 2017
13572-462: Was resurrected in 2006. Four additional volumes of Proceedings have been published by the club in its current incarnation. The Clifton Antiquarian Club was established on 23 January 1884 in Bristol. The impetus for its formation was a letter that had circulated among archaeologists and others in the Clifton area of Bristol suggesting that an antiquarian club be formed. The first meeting was held at
13689-464: Was still a very good one considering the lack of accurate dating technology at the time. The science of archaeology (from Greek ἀρχαιολογία , archaiologia from ἀρχαῖος , arkhaios , "ancient" and -λογία , -logia , " -logy ") grew out of the older multi-disciplinary study known as antiquarianism . Antiquarians studied history with particular attention to ancient artifacts and manuscripts, as well as historical sites. Antiquarianism focused on
#128871