105-528: Crapper is slang term for a toilet . It may also refer to: Toilet A toilet is a piece of sanitary hardware that collects human waste such as urine and feces , and sometimes toilet paper , usually for disposal. Flush toilets use water, while dry or non-flush toilets do not. They can be designed for a sitting position popular in Europe and North America with a toilet seat , with additional considerations for those with disabilities , or for
210-420: A composting toilet ). Passenger train toilets , aircraft lavatories , bus toilets, and ships with plumbing often use vacuum toilets. The lower water usage saves weight, and avoids water slopping out of the toilet bowl in motion. Aboard vehicles, a portable collection chamber is used; if it is filled by positive pressure from an intermediate vacuum chamber, it need not be kept under vacuum. A floating toilet
315-423: A sewage treatment plant . However, in many developing countries , this treatment step does not take place. The water in the toilet bowl is connected to a pipe shaped like an upside-down U. One side of the U channel is arranged as a siphon tube longer than the water in the bowl is high. The siphon tube connects to the drain. The bottom of the drain pipe limits the height of the water in the bowl before it flows down
420-405: A urine-diverting toilet . The technology used for modern toilets varies. Toilets are commonly made of ceramic ( porcelain ), concrete, plastic, or wood. Newer toilet technologies include dual flushing , low flushing , toilet seat warming , self-cleaning, female urinals and waterless urinals . Japan is known for its toilet technology . Airplane toilets are specially designed to operate in
525-412: A vacuum sewer system , and removes waste by suction. They may use very little water (less than a quarter of a liter per flush) or none, (as in waterless urinals ). Some flush with coloured disinfectant solution rather than with water. They may be used to separate blackwater and greywater , and process them separately (for instance, the fairly dry blackwater can be used for biogas production, or in
630-422: A combination of multiple factors. Disabilities can be present from birth or can be acquired during a person's lifetime. Historically, disabilities have only been recognized based on a narrow set of criteria—however, disabilities are not binary and can be present in unique characteristics depending on the individual. A disability may be readily visible, or invisible in nature. The United Nations Convention on
735-448: A concern from the earliest stages of human settlements . However, many poor households in developing countries use very basic, and often unhygienic, toilets – and nearly one billion people have no access to a toilet at all; they must openly defecate and urinate. These issues can lead to the spread of diseases transmitted via the fecal-oral route , or the transmission of waterborne diseases such as cholera and dysentery . Therefore,
840-629: A cubicle over the drain. Around the 18th century BC, toilets started to appear in Minoan Crete , Pharaonic Egypt , and ancient Persia . In 2012, archaeologists found what is believed to be Southeast Asia's earliest latrine during the excavation of a neolithic village in the Rạch Núi archaeological site , southern Vietnam. The toilet, dating back 1500 BC, yielded important clues about early Southeast Asian society. More than 30 coprolites , containing fish and shattered animal bones, provided information on
945-429: A disability can impact people's identities. Which style of language used varies between different countries, groups and individuals. Identity-first language describes the person as "disabled". Some people prefer this and argue that this fits the social model of disability better than people-first language, as it emphasizes that the person is disabled not by their body, but by a world that does not accommodate them. This
1050-561: A disability community—such as with art, social media, and sports. Contemporary understandings of disability derive from concepts that arose during the scientific Enlightenment in the west; prior to the Enlightenment, physical differences were viewed through a different lens. There is evidence of humans during prehistory that looked after people with disabilities. At the Windover Archeological Site , one of
1155-628: A disability". This style is reflected in major legislation on disability rights, including the Americans with Disabilities Act and the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities . "Cerebral Palsy: A Guide for Care" at the University of Delaware describes people-first language: The American Psychological Association style guide states that, when identifying a person with
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#17327879714171260-426: A disability, the person's name or pronoun should come first, and descriptions of the disability should be used so that the disability is identified, but is not modifying the person. Acceptable examples included "a woman with Down syndrome " or "a man who has schizophrenia ". It also states that a person's adaptive equipment should be described functionally as something that assists a person, not as something that limits
1365-405: A feature that creates an impairment, restriction, or limitation from reaching the social definition of health, the individual is labeled as disabled. Under this idea, disability is not defined by the physical features of the body but by a deviance from the social convention of health. The social construction of disability would argue that the medical model of disability 's view that a disability
1470-431: A flush for urine or feces, saving a significant amount of water over conventional units. One type of dual flush system allows the flush handle to be pushed up for one kind of flush and down for the other, whereas another design is to have two buttons, one for urination and the other for defecation. In some places, users are encouraged not to flush after urination. Flushing toilets can be plumbed to use greywater (water that
1575-481: A gypsum-based mortar that emptied either into the surrounding water bodies or alternatively into cesspits , the latter of which were regularly emptied and cleaned. Other very early toilets that used flowing water to remove the waste are found at Skara Brae in Orkney, Scotland, which was occupied from about 3100 BC until 2500 BC. Some of the houses there have a drain running directly beneath them, and some of these had
1680-409: A holding tank and uses chemicals to minimize odors. They do not require a connection to a water supply and are used in a variety of situations. These toilets are usually, but not always, self-contained and movable. A chemical toilet is structured around a relatively small tank, which requires frequent emptying. It is not connected to a hole in the ground (like a pit latrine ), nor to a septic tank , nor
1785-400: A matter of the full integration of individuals into society . In this model, disability is not an attribute of an individual, but rather a complex collection of conditions, created by the social environment. The management of the problem requires social action and it is the collective responsibility of society to create a society in which limitations for disabled people are minimal. Disability
1890-506: A negative connotation that they are considered to be slurs. A current point of contention is whether it is appropriate to use person-first language (i.e. a person who is disabled) or identity-first language (i.e. a disabled person) when referring to disability and an individual. Due to the marginalization of disabled people, there have been several activist causes that push for equitable treatment and access in society. Disability activists have fought to receive equal and equitable rights under
1995-433: A person's capability to perform the activities of daily life. As Marta Russell and Ravi Malhotra argue, "The ' medicalization ' of disablement and the tools of classification clearly played an important role in establishing divisions between the 'disabled' and the 'able-bodied. ' " This positions disability as a problem to be solved via medical intervention, which hinders our understanding about what disability can mean. For
2100-413: A person's efforts to go to school, work, socialize, and more. Some examples of invisible disabilities include intellectual disabilities , autism spectrum disorder , attention deficit hyperactivity disorder , fibromyalgia , mental disorders , asthma , epilepsy , allergies , migraines , arthritis , and chronic fatigue syndrome . Employment discrimination is reported to play a significant part in
2205-614: A person, for example, "a woman who uses a wheelchair" rather than "a woman in/confined to a wheelchair". People-first terminology is used in the UK in the form "people with impairments" (such as "people with visual impairments"). However, in the UK, identity-first language is generally preferred over people-first language. The use of people-first terminology has given rise to the use of the acronym PWD to refer to person(s) (or people) with disabilities (or disability). However other individuals and groups prefer identity-first language to emphasize how
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#17327879714172310-492: A political construction is also widely used by international organizations of disabled people, such as Disabled Peoples' International . Using the identity-first language also parallels how people talk about other aspects of identity and diversity. For example: In the autism community, many self-advocates and their allies prefer terminology such as 'Autistic,' 'Autistic person,' or 'Autistic individual' because we understand autism as an inherent part of an individual's identity –
2415-451: A problem of the person, directly caused by disease, trauma, or other health conditions which therefore requires sustained medical care in the form of individual treatment by professionals. In the medical model, management of the disability is aimed at a "cure", or the individual's adjustment and behavioral change that would lead to an "almost-cure" or effective cure. The individual, in this case, must overcome their disability by medical care. In
2520-528: A separate one for the toilet and handwashing sink ( toilet room ). Public toilets ( restrooms ) consist of one or more toilets (and commonly single urinals or trough urinals) which are available for use by the general public. Products like urinal blocks and toilet blocks help maintain the smell and cleanliness of toilets. Toilet seat covers are sometimes used. Portable toilets (frequently chemical "porta johns" ) may be brought in for large and temporary gatherings. Historically, sanitation has been
2625-552: A society) that help overcome or remove a disability. The first recorded example of the use of a prosthesis dates to at least 1800 BC. The wheelchair dates from the 17th century. The curb cut is a related structural innovation. Other examples are standing frames , text telephones , accessible keyboards , large print , braille , and speech recognition software . Disabled people often develop adaptations which can be personal (e.g. strategies to suppress tics in public) or community (e.g. sign language in d/Deaf communities). As
2730-489: A squatting posture more popular in Asia , known as a squat toilet . In urban areas, flush toilets are usually connected to a sewer system ; in isolated areas, to a septic tank . The waste is known as blackwater and the combined effluent, including other sources, is sewage . Dry toilets are connected to a pit , removable container , composting chamber , or other storage and treatment device, including urine diversion with
2835-411: A volume of waste generated over one or two years. This allows the contents of the full pit enough time to transform into a partially sanitized, soil -like material that can be manually excavated. There is a risk of groundwater pollution when pits are located in areas with a high or variable water table, and/or fissures or cracks in the bedrock. A vacuum toilet is a flush toilet that is connected to
2940-401: A wheelchair, multiple sclerosis , muscular dystrophy , obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD), post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), spina bifida , and schizophrenia . This is not an exhaustive list and many injuries and medical problems cause disability. Some causes of disability, such as injuries, may resolve over time and are considered temporary disabilities . An acquired disability
3045-432: Is an impairment, restriction, or limitation is wrong. Instead what is seen as a disability is just a difference in the individual from what is considered "normal" in society. People-first language is one way to talk about disability which some people prefer. Using people-first language is said to put the person before the disability. Those individuals who prefer people-first language would prefer to be called, "a person with
3150-407: Is both cultural and ideological in creation. According to the social model, equal access for someone with an impairment/disability is a human rights concern. The social model of disability has come under criticism. While recognizing the importance played by the social model in stressing the responsibility of society, scholars, including Tom Shakespeare , point out the limits of the model and urge
3255-442: Is common in many Asian countries. The toilet can be connected to one or two pits, in which case it is called a "pour flush pit latrine" or a "twin pit pour flush to pit latrine". It can also be connected to a septic tank. Flush toilets on ships are typically flushed with seawater . Twin pit latrines use two pits used alternatively, when one pit gets full over a few months or years. The pits are of an adequate size to accommodate
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3360-458: Is defined as the execution of a task or action. The ICF lists nine broad domains of functioning which can be affected: In concert with disability scholars, the introduction to the ICF states that a variety of conceptual models have been proposed to understand and explain disability and functioning, which it seeks to integrate. These models include the following: The medical model views disability as
3465-595: Is due in part to the biblical toilet etiquette which encourages washing after all instances of defecation. The bidet is common in predominantly Catholic countries where water is considered essential for anal cleansing , and in some traditionally Orthodox and Lutheran countries such as Greece and Finland respectively, where bidet showers are common. There are toilets on the market with seats having integrated spray mechanisms for anal and genital water sprays (see for example Toilets in Japan ). This can be useful for
3570-439: Is especially true in the UK, where it is argued under the social model that while someone's impairment (for example, having a spinal cord injury ) is an individual property, "disability" is something created by external societal factors such as a lack of accessibility. This distinction between the individual property of impairment and the social property of disability is central to the social model . The term "disabled people" as
3675-503: Is essential for those who are movement impaired. Sitting toilets are often referred to as "western-style toilets". Sitting toilets are more convenient than squat toilets for people with disabilities and the elderly. People use different toilet types based on the country that they are in. In developing countries , access to toilets is also related to people's socio-economic status . Poor people in low-income countries often have no toilets at all and resort to open defecation instead. This
3780-451: Is essentially a toilet on a platform built above or floating on the water. Instead of excreta going into the ground they are collected in a tank or barrel. To reduce the amount of excreta that needs to hauled to shore, many use urine diversion . The floating toilet was developed for residents without quick access to land or connection to a sewer systems. It is also used in areas subjected to prolonged flooding. The need for this type of toilet
3885-417: Is experienced differently based on the other multi-faceted identities of the individual is one often pointed out by disabled self-advocates. The ostracization of disability from mainstream society has created the opportunity for a disability culture to emerge. While disabled activists still promote the integration of disabled people into mainstream society, several disabled-only spaces have been created to foster
3990-413: Is high in areas like Cambodia . A vault toilet is a non-flush toilet with a sealed container (or vault) buried in the ground to receive the excreta, all of which is contained underground until it is removed by pumping. A vault toilet is distinguished from a pit latrine because the waste accumulates in the vault instead of seeping into the underlying soil. A chemical toilet collects human excreta in
4095-417: Is it plumbed into a municipal system leading to a sewage treatment plant . When the tank is emptied, the contents are usually pumped into a sanitary sewer or directly to a treatment plant. The pig toilet , which consists of a toilet linked to a pigsty by a chute, is still in use to a limited extent. It was common in rural China, and was known in Japan, Korea, and India. The "fish pond toilet" depends on
4200-567: Is one of the targets of Sustainable Development Goal 6 to provide toilets (sanitation services) to everyone by 2030. Toilets are one important element of a sanitation system, although other elements are also needed: transport, treatment, disposal, or reuse . Diseases, including Cholera , which still affects some 3 million people each year, can be largely prevented when effective sanitation and water treatment prevents fecal matter from contaminating waterways , groundwater , and drinking water supplies. The fourth millennium BC would witness
4305-420: Is part of the sanitation crisis which international initiatives (such as World Toilet Day ) draw attention to. A typical flush toilet is a ceramic bowl (pan) connected on the "up" side to a cistern (tank) that enables rapid filling with water, and on the "down" side to a drain pipe that removes the effluent. When a toilet is flushed, the sewage should flow into a septic tank or into a system connected to
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4410-492: Is the idea that disability is constructed by social expectations and institutions rather than biological differences. Highlighting the ways society and institutions construct disability is one of the main focuses of this idea. In the same way that race and gender are not biologically fixed, neither is disability. Around the early 1970s, sociologists, notably Eliot Friedson, began to argue that labeling theory and social deviance could be applied to disability studies. This led to
4515-403: Is the result of impairments that occur suddenly or chronically during the lifespan, as opposed to being born with the impairment. Invisible disabilities may not be obviously noticeable. The medical model focuses heavily on finding treatments, cures, or rehabilitative practices for disabled people. Assistive technology is a generic term for devices and modifications (for a person or within
4620-496: The International Space Station use a space toilet with urine diversion which can recover potable water . People with disabilities Disability is the experience of any condition that makes it more difficult for a person to do certain activities or have equitable access within a given society. Disabilities may be cognitive , developmental , intellectual , mental , physical , sensory , or
4725-506: The Middle Ages , disabled people were still able to play significant roles in the rural production based economy, allowing them to make genuine contributions to daily economic life. The Industrial Revolution and the advent of capitalism made it so that people were no longer tied to the land and were then forced to find work that would pay a wage in order to survive. The wage system, in combination with industrialized production, transformed
4830-493: The World Health Organization , distinguishes between body functions (physiological or psychological, such as vision) and body structures (anatomical parts, such as the eye and related structures). Impairment in bodily structure or function is defined as involving an anomaly, defect, loss or other significant deviation from certain generally accepted population standards, which may fluctuate over time. Activity
4935-445: The medical model and the social model . The medical model serves as a theoretical framework that considers disability as an undesirable medical condition that requires specialized treatment. Those who ascribe to the medical model tend to focus on finding the root causes of disabilities, as well as any cures—such as assistive technology. The social model centers disability as a societally-created limitation on individuals who do not have
5040-616: The personal computer has become more ubiquitous, various organizations have formed to develop software and hardware to make computers more accessible for disabled people. Some software and hardware, such as Voice Finger , Freedom Scientific 's JAWS , the Free and Open Source alternative Orca etc. have been specifically designed for disabled people while other software and hardware, such as Nuance 's Dragon NaturallySpeaking , were not developed specifically for disabled people, but can be used to increase accessibility. The LOMAK keyboard
5145-693: The "bedroom ware" or "chamber utensils". Once running water and flush toilets were plumbed into British houses, servants were sometimes given their own lavatory downstairs, separate from the family lavatory. The practice of emptying one's own chamber pot, known as slopping out , continued in British prisons until as recently as 2014 and was still in use in 85 cells in Ireland in July 2017. With rare exceptions, chamber pots are no longer used. Modern related implements are bedpans and commodes , used in hospitals and
5250-484: The 1830s of l'homme moyen – the average man. Quetelet postulated that one could take the sum of all people's attributes in a given population (such as their height or weight) and find their average and that this figure should serve as a statistical norm toward which all should aspire. This idea of the statistical norm threads through the rapid take-up of statistics gathering by Britain, the United States, and
5355-610: The 18th century. By the 16th century, cesspits and cesspools were increasingly dug into the ground near houses in Europe as a means of collecting waste, as urban populations grew and street gutters became blocked with the larger volume of human waste. Rain was no longer sufficient to wash away waste from the gutters. A pipe connected the latrine to the cesspool, and sometimes a small amount of water washed waste through. Cesspools were cleaned out by tradesmen, known in English as gong farmers , who pumped out liquid waste, then shovelled out
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#17327879714175460-549: The Ancient Greeks may not have viewed persons with disability all that differently from more able-bodied individuals as terms describing them in their records appear to be very vague. As long as the disabled person in question could still contribute to society, the Greeks appeared to tolerate them. During the Middle Ages , madness and other conditions were thought to be caused by demons. They were also thought to be part of
5565-476: The Rights of Persons with Disabilities defines disability as including: long-term physical, mental, intellectual or sensory impairments which in interaction with various barriers may hinder [a person's] full and effective participation in society on an equal basis with others. Disabilities have been perceived differently throughout history, through a variety of different theoretical lenses. There are two main models that attempt to explain disability in our society:
5670-539: The United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 6 wants to "achieve access to adequate and equitable sanitation and hygiene for all and end open defecation". The number of different types of toilets used worldwide is large, but can be grouped by: Toilets can be designed to be used either in a standing (urinatiing), sitting or in a squatting posture (defecating). Each type has its benefits. The " sitting toilet ", however,
5775-466: The Western European states during this time period, and it is tied to the rise of eugenics . Disability, as well as the concepts of abnormal, non-normal, and normalcy, came from this. The circulation of these concepts is evident in the popularity of the freak show , where showmen profited from exhibiting people who deviated from those norms. With the rise of eugenics in the latter part of
5880-461: The air. The need to maintain anal hygiene post- defecation is universally recognized and toilet paper (often held by a toilet roll holder ), which may also be used to wipe the vulva after urination, is widely used (as well as bidets ). In private homes, depending on the region and style, the toilet may exist in the same bathroom as the sink, bathtub , and shower. Another option is to have one room for body washing (also called "bathroom") and
5985-444: The anal area after defecation is by toilet paper or sometimes by using a bidet . In many Muslim countries , the facilities are designed to enable people to follow Islamic toilet etiquette Qaḍāʼ al-Ḥājah . For example, a bidet shower may be plumbed in. The left hand is used for cleansing, for which reason that hand is considered impolite or polluted in many Asian countries. The use of water in many Christian countries
6090-587: The associated plumbing to communicate messages and pass products. The acoustic properties of communicating through the toilet bowl, known as toilet talk, potty talk, toilet telephone is influenced by flush patterns and bowl water volumes. Prisoners may also send binary signals by ringing the sewage or water pipes. Toilet talk enables communication for those in solitary confinement. Toilets have been subject to wiretaps. To this day, 1 billion people in developing countries have no toilets in their homes and are resorting to open defecation instead. Therefore, it
6195-405: The back door of the kitchen for use by gardeners and other outside staff such as those working with the horses. The speed of introduction was varied, so that in 1906 the predominantly working-class town of Rochdale had 750 water closets for a population of 10,000. The working-class home had transitioned from the rural cottage, to the urban back-to-back terraces with external rows of privies, to
6300-434: The checking of blood pressure, temperature, and blood sugar. Some toilets have automatic lid operation, heated seats, deodorizing fans, or automated replacement of paper toilet-seat-covers. Interactive urinals have been developed in several countries, allowing users to play video games. The "Toylet", produced by Sega , uses pressure sensors to detect the flow of urine and translates that into on-screen action. Astronauts on
6405-430: The creation of the social construction of disability theory. The social construction of disability is the idea that disability is constructed as the social response to a deviance from the norm. The medical industry is the creator of the ill and disabled social role. Medical professionals and institutions, who wield expertise over health, have the ability to define health and physical and mental norms. When an individual has
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#17327879714176510-724: The diet of humans and dogs, and on the types of parasites each had to contend with. In Sri Lanka , the techniques of the construction of toilets and lavatories developed over several stages. A highly developed stage in this process is discernible in the constructions at the Abhayagiri complex in Anuradhapura where toilets and baths dating back to 2nd century BC to 3rd century CE are known, later forms of toilets from 5th century CE to 13th century CE in Polonnaruwa and Anuradhapura had elaborate decorative motifs carved around
6615-423: The drain. The water in the bowl acts as a barrier to sewer gas entering the building. Sewer gas escapes through a vent pipe attached to the sewer line. The amount of water used by conventional flush toilets usually makes up a significant portion of personal daily water usage. However, modern low flush toilet designs allow the use of much less water per flush. Dual flush toilets allow the user to select between
6720-517: The dramatic growth in the sewage system , especially in London, which made the flush toilet particularly attractive for health and sanitation reasons. Flush toilets were also known as "water closets", as opposed to the earth closets described above. WCs first appeared in Britain in the 1880s, and soon spread to Continental Europe. In America, the chain-pull indoor toilet was introduced in the homes of
6825-446: The elderly or people with disabilities. An accessible toilet is designed to accommodate people with physical disabilities , such as age related limited mobility or inability to walk due to impairments. Additional measures to add toilet accessibility are providing more space and grab bars to ease transfer to and from the toilet seat , including enough room for a caregiver if necessary. In prisons , inmates may utilize toilets and
6930-412: The field include Marta Russell , Robert McRuer , Johanna Hedva , Laura Hershey , Irving Zola , and many more. Prominent disability scholar Lennard J. Davis notes that disability studies should not be considered a niche or specialized discipline, but instead is applicable to a wide range of fields and topics. The International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF), produced by
7035-720: The gods. In Ancient Egypt , staffs were frequently used in society. A common usage for them was for older persons with disabilities to help them walk. Provisions that enabled individuals with impaired mobility to access temples and healing sanctuaries were made in ancient Greece. Specifically, by 370 B.C., at the most important healing sanctuary in the wider area, the Sanctuary of Asclepius at Epidaurus , there were at least 11 permanent stone ramps that provided access to mobility-impaired visitors to nine different structures; evidence that people with disabilities were acknowledged and cared for, at least partly, in ancient Greece. In fact,
7140-690: The groups targeted by the Nazi regime in Germany, resulting in approximately 250,000 disabled people being killed during the Holocaust . At the end of the Second World War , with the example of Nazi eugenics , eugenics faded from public discourse , and increasingly disability cohered into a set of attributes to which medicine could attend – whether through augmentation, rehabilitation, or treatment. In both contemporary and modern history, disability
7245-501: The home. Before the introduction of indoor toilets, it was common to use the chamber pot under one's bed at night and then to dispose of its contents in the morning. During the Victorian era , British housemaids collected all of the household's chamber pots and carried them to a room known as the housemaids' cupboard. This room contained a "slop sink", made of wood with a lead lining to prevent chipping china chamber pots, for washing
7350-401: The home. In pre-modern Denmark, people generally defecated on farmland or other places where the human waste could be collected as fertilizer . The Old Norse language had several terms for referring to outhouses , including garðhús (yard house), náð-/náða-hús (house of rest), and annat hús (the other house). In general, toilets were functionally non-existent in rural Denmark until
7455-615: The homes of invalids. Long-established sanitary wear manufacturers in the United Kingdom include Adamsez, founded in Newcastle-upon-Tyne in 1880, by M.J. and S.H. Adams, and Twyfords , founded in Hanley , Stoke-on-Trent in 1849, by Thomas Twyford and his son Thomas William Twyford . Before the widespread adoption of the flush toilet , there were inventors, scientists, and public health officials who supported
7560-462: The invention of clay pipes, sewers, and toilets, in Mesopotamia , with the city of Uruk today exhibiting the earliest known internal pit toilet, from c. 3200 BC . The Neolithic village of Skara Brae contains examples, c. 3000 BC , of internal small rooms over a communal drain, rather than pit. The Indus Valley Civilisation in northwestern India and Pakistan was home to
7665-508: The law—though there are still political issues that enable or advance the oppression of disabled people. Although disability activism serves to dismantle ableist systems, social norms relating to the perception of disabilities are often reinforced by tropes used by the media. Since negative perceptions of disability are pervasive in modern society, disabled people have turned to self-advocacy in an attempt to push back against their marginalization. The recognition of disability as an identity that
7770-408: The medical approach to disability. Due to this work, physical barriers to access were identified. These conditions functionally disabled them, and what is now known as the social model of disability emerged. Coined by Mike Oliver in 1983, this phrase distinguishes between the medical model of disability – under which an impairment needs to be fixed – and the social model of disability – under which
7875-562: The medical model, medical care is viewed as the main issue, and at the political level, the principal response is that of modifying or reforming healthcare policy. The medical model focuses on finding causes and cures for disabilities. There are many causes of disability that often affect basic activities of daily living , such as eating, dressing, transferring, and maintaining personal hygiene ; or advanced activities of daily living such as shopping, food preparation, driving, or working. However, causes of disability are usually determined by
7980-556: The natural order, especially during and in the fallout of the Black Death , which wrought impairments throughout the general population. In the early modern period there was a shift to seeking biological causes for physical and mental differences, as well as heightened interest in demarcating categories: for example, Ambroise Pare, in the sixteenth century, wrote of "monsters", "prodigies", and "the maimed". The European Enlightenment 's emphases on knowledge derived from reason and on
8085-457: The need for a new model that will overcome the "medical vs. social" dichotomy. The limitations of this model mean that often the vital services and information persons with disabilities face are simply not available, often due to limited economic returns in supporting them. Some say medical humanities is a fruitful field where the gap between the medical and the social model of disability might be bridged. The social construction of disability
8190-493: The nineteenth century, such deviations were viewed as dangerous to the health of entire populations. With disability viewed as part of a person's biological make-up and thus their genetic inheritance, scientists turned their attention to notions of weeding such as "deviations" out of the gene pool. Various metrics for assessing a person's genetic fitness were determined and were then used to deport , sterilize, or institutionalize those deemed unfit. People with disabilities were one of
8295-432: The ones pictured here, are commonly thought to have been used in the sitting position. The Roman toilets were probably elevated to raise them above open sewers which were periodically "flushed" with flowing water, rather than elevated for sitting. Romans and Greeks also used chamber pots , which they brought to meals and drinking sessions. Johan J. Mattelaer said, " Plinius has described how there were large receptacles in
8400-437: The other, with one or more holes to sit on. These were above chutes or pipes that discharged outside the castle or Manor house . Garderobes would be placed in areas away from bedrooms because of the smell and also near kitchens or fireplaces to keep their enclosures warm. The other main way of handling toilet needs was the chamber pot , a receptacle, usually of ceramic or metal, into which one would excrete waste. This method
8505-578: The purposes of the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 , the US Equal Employment Opportunity Commission regulations provide a list of conditions that should easily be concluded to be disabilities: amputation , attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), autism , bipolar disorder , blindness , cancer , cerebral palsy , deafness , diabetes , epilepsy , HIV/AIDS , intellectual disability , major depressive disorder , mobility impairments requiring
8610-447: The same ability as the majority of the population. Although the medical model and social model are the most common frames for disability, there are a multitude of other models that theorize disability. There are many terms that explain aspects of disability. While some terms solely exist to describe phenomena pertaining to disability, others have been centered around stigmatizing and ostracizing those with disabilities. Some terms have such
8715-520: The same principle, of livestock (often carp ) eating human excreta directly. There are cultural differences in socially accepted and preferred voiding positions for urination around the world: in the Middle East and Asia, the squatting position is more prevalent, while in the Western world the standing and sitting position are more common. In the Western world, the most common method of cleaning
8820-655: The same way one refers to 'Muslims,' 'African-Americans,' 'Lesbian/Gay/Bisexual/Transgender/Queer,' 'Chinese,' 'gifted,' 'athletic,' or 'Jewish.' Similarly, Deaf communities in the US reject people-first language in favor of identity-first language. In 2021, the US Association on Higher Education and Disability (AHEAD) announced their decision to use identity-first language in their materials, explaining: "Identity-first language challenges negative connotations by claiming disability directly. Identity-first language references
8925-486: The skeletons was a male about 15 years old who had spina bifida . The condition meant that the boy, probably paralyzed below the waist, was taken care of in a hunter-gatherer community. Disability was not viewed as a means of divine punishment and therefore disabled individuals were neither exterminated nor discriminated against for their impairments. Many were instead employed in different levels of Mesopotamian society including working in religious temples as servants of
9030-461: The society that limits a person needs to be fixed. Like many social categories, the concept of "disability" is under heavy discussion amongst academia, the medical and legal worlds, and the disability community. The academic discipline focused on theorizing disability is disability studies , which has been expanding since the late twentieth century. The field investigates the past, present, and future constructions of disability, along with advancing
9135-444: The solid waste and collected it during the night. This solid waste, euphemistically known as nightsoil , was sold as fertilizer for agricultural production (similarly to the closing-the-loop approach of ecological sanitation ). In the early 19th century, public officials and public hygiene experts studied and debated sanitation for several decades. The construction of an underground network of pipes to carry away solid and liquid waste
9240-571: The streets of cities such as Rome and Pompeii into which chamber pots of urine were emptied. The urine was then collected by fullers." ( Fulling was a vital step in textile manufacture .) The Han dynasty in China two thousand years ago used pig toilets . Garderobes were toilets used in the Post-classical history , most commonly found in upper-class dwellings. Essentially, they were flat pieces of wood or stone spanning from one wall to
9345-486: The through terraced houses of the 1880 with their sculleries and individual external WC. It was the Tudor Walters Report of 1918 that recommended that semi-skilled workers should be housed in suburban cottages with kitchens and internal WC. As recommended floor standards waxed and waned in the building standards and codes, the bathroom with a water closet and later the low-level suite became more prominent in
9450-511: The toilets. Several types of toilets were developed; these include lavatories with ring-well pits, underground terracotta pipes that lead to septic pits, urinary pits with large bottomless clay pots of decreasing size placed one above the other. These pots under urinals contained "sand, lime and charcoal" through which urine filtered down to the earth in a somewhat purified form. In Roman civilization, latrines using flowing water were sometimes part of public bath houses . Roman latrines, like
9555-544: The use of "dry earth closets" – nowadays known either as dry toilets or composting toilets . Although a precursor to the flush toilet system which is widely used nowadays was designed in 1596 by John Harington , such systems did not come into widespread use until the late nineteenth century. With the onset of the Industrial Revolution and related advances in technology, the flush toilet began to emerge into its modern form. A crucial advance in plumbing,
9660-416: The value of natural science to human progress helped spawn the birth of institutions and associated knowledge systems that observed and categorized human beings; among these, the ones significant to the development of today's concepts of disability were asylums , clinics , and prisons . Contemporary concepts of disability are rooted in eighteenth- and nineteenth-century developments. Foremost among these
9765-511: The variety that exists in how our bodies and brains work with a myriad of conditions that exist, and the role of inaccessible or oppressive systems, structures, or environments in making someone disabled." Invisible disabilities, also known as Hidden Disabilities or Non-visible Disabilities (NVD), are disabilities that are not immediately apparent, or seeable. They are often chronic illnesses and conditions that significantly impair normal activities of daily living. Invisible disabilities can hinder
9870-439: The viewpoint that disability is a complex social identity from which we can all gain insight. As disabilities scholar Claire Mullaney puts it, "At its broadest, disability studies encourages scholars to value disability as a form of cultural difference". Scholars of the field focus on a range of disability-related topics, such as ethics, policy and legislation, history, art of the disability community, and more. Notable scholars from
9975-528: The way bodies were viewed as people were increasingly valued for their ability to produce like machines. Capitalism and the industrial revolution effectively solidified this class of "disabled" people who could not conform to the standard worker 's body or level of work power. As a result, disabled people came to be regarded as a problem, to be solved or erased. In the early 1970s, the disability rights movement became established, when disability activists began to challenge how society treated disabled people and
10080-549: The wealthy and in hotels in the 1890s. William Elvis Sloan invented the Flushometer in 1906, which used pressurized water directly from the supply line for faster recycle time between flushes. "High-tech" toilets, which can be found in countries like Japan, include features such as automatic-flushing mechanisms; water jets or "bottom washers"; blow dryers, or artificial flush sounds to mask noises. Others include medical monitoring features such as urine and stool analysis and
10185-490: The world's first known urban sanitation systems. In Mohenjo-Daro ( c. 2800 BC ), toilets were built into the outer walls of homes. These toilets had vertical chutes, via which waste was disposed of into cesspits or street drains. In the Indus city of Lothal ( c. 2350 BC ), houses belonging to the upper class had private toilets connected to a covered sewer network constructed of brickwork held together with
10290-570: Was designed in New Zealand specifically for persons with disabilities. The World Wide Web consortium recognized a need for International Standards for Web Accessibility for persons with disabilities and created the Web Accessibility Initiative (WAI). As at Dec 2012 the standard is WCAG 2.0 (WCAG = Web Content Accessibility Guidelines). The social model of disability sees "disability" as a socially created problem and
10395-404: Was often viewed as a by-product of incest between first-degree relatives or second-degree relatives . Disability scholars have also pointed to the Industrial Revolution , along with the economic shift from feudalism to capitalism , as prominent historical moments in the understanding of disability. Although there was a certain amount of religious superstition surrounding disability during
10500-596: Was only begun in the mid 19th-century, gradually replacing the cesspool system, although cesspools were still in use in some parts of Paris into the 20th century. Even London, at that time the world's largest city, did not require indoor toilets in its building codes until after the First World War . The water closet , with its origins in Tudor times, started to assume its currently known form, with an overhead cistern, s-bends, soil pipes and valves around 1770. This
10605-488: Was previously used for washing dishes, laundry, and bathing) rather than potable water (drinking water). Some modern toilets pressurize the water in the tank, which initiates flushing action with less water usage. Another variant is the pour-flush toilet. This type of flush toilet has no cistern but is flushed manually with a few liters of a small bucket. The flushing can use as little as 2–3 litres (0.44–0.66 imp gal; 0.53–0.79 US gal). This type of toilet
10710-525: Was the S-trap , invented by the Scottish mechanic Alexander Cummings in 1775, and still in use today. This device uses the standing water to seal the outlet of the bowl, preventing the escape of foul air from the sewer. It was only in the mid-19th century, with growing levels of urbanisation and industrial prosperity, that the flush toilet became a widely used and marketed invention. This period coincided with
10815-538: Was the development of clinical medical discourse, which made the human body visible as a thing to be manipulated, studied, and transformed. These worked in tandem with scientific discourses that sought to classify and categorize and, in so doing, became methods of normalization . The concept of the "norm" developed in this time period, and is signaled in the work of the Belgian statistician , sociologist , mathematician , and astronomer Adolphe Quetelet , who wrote in
10920-407: Was the work of Alexander Cumming and Joseph Bramah . Water closets only started to be moved from outside to inside of the home around 1850. The integral water closet started to be built into middle-class homes in the 1860s and 1870s, firstly on the principal bedroom floor and in larger houses in the maids' accommodation, and by 1900 a further one in the hallway. A toilet would also be placed outside
11025-468: Was used for hundreds of years; shapes, sizes, and decorative variations changed throughout the centuries. Chamber pots were in common use in Europe from ancient times, even being taken to the Middle East by medieval pilgrims. By the Early Modern era, chamber pots were frequently made of china or copper and could include elaborate decoration. They were emptied into the gutter of the street nearest to
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