90-645: A119 may refer to: Project A119 , "A Study of Lunar Research Flights," a plan developed by the United States Air Force to nuke the Moon AgustaWestland AW119 , a helicopter RFA Wave Laird (A119) , a ship A119 road (England) , a road connecting Ware and Watton-at-Stone A119 road (Malaysia) , a road in Perak connecting Kampung Kuala Dipang and Tapah A119 road (Russia) ,
180-593: A United States Secret Service agent that the Soviets planned to commemorate the anniversary of the October Revolution by causing a nuclear explosion on the Moon to coincide with a lunar eclipse on 7 November . News reports of the rumored launch included mention of targeting the dark side of the terminator —Project A119 would also consider this boundary as the target for an explosion. It was also reported that
270-415: A barometric switch, activated if the pressure inside the satellite fell below 130 kPa, which would have indicated failure of the pressure vessel or puncture by a meteor, and would have changed the duration of radio signal impulse. While attached to the rocket, Sputnik 1 was protected by a cone-shaped payload fairing , with a height of 80 cm (31.5 in). The fairing separated from both Sputnik and
360-533: A hydrogen bomb for the project, but the United States Air Force vetoed that idea due to the weight of such a device, because it would be too heavy to be propelled by the missile which would have been used. It was then decided to use a W25 warhead, a small, lightweight warhead with a relatively low 1.7 kiloton yield . By contrast, the Little Boy bomb dropped on the Japanese city of Hiroshima in 1945 had
450-552: A 1961 paper written for the United States National Research Council . These were among the eight reports created by the project, all of which were destroyed in 1987. The resulting biography, Carl Sagan: A Life , was published in 1999. Shortly after, a review published in Nature highlighted the discovery of the leaked information. That led Reiffel to break his anonymity and write a letter to
540-611: A dominant issue in the 1960 presidential campaign . The Communist Party newspaper Pravda only printed a few paragraphs about Sputnik 1 on 4 October. Sputnik also inspired a generation of engineers and scientists. Harrison Storms, the North American designer who was responsible for the X-15 rocket plane, and went on to head the effort to design the Apollo command and service module and Saturn V launch vehicle's second stage,
630-679: A failure to hit the Moon would likely result in the missile returning to Earth. A similar idea had been put forward by Edward Teller , the "father of the H-bomb", who, in February 1957, proposed the detonation of nuclear devices both on and some distance from the lunar surface to analyze the effects of the explosion. A ten-member team, led by Leonard Reiffel , was assembled at the Illinois Institute of Technology in Chicago to study
720-406: A gesture to sway public opinion was ever considered". As a result of the publicity the correspondence created, a freedom of information request was lodged concerning Project A119. It was only then that A Study of Lunar Research Flights – Volume I was made public, over 40 years after its inception. A search for the other volumes of documentation revealed that other reports were destroyed in
810-521: A known distance. Tracking of the booster during launch had to be accomplished through purely passive means, such as visual coverage and radar detection. R-7 test launches demonstrated that the tracking cameras were only good up to an altitude of 200 km (120 mi), but radar could track it for almost 500 km (310 mi). Outside the Soviet Union, the satellite was tracked by amateur radio operators in many countries. The booster rocket
900-640: A leading Soviet physicist, announced that they too would launch an artificial satellite. On 8 August, the Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union approved the proposal to create an artificial satellite. On 30 August, Vasily Ryabikov—the head of the State Commission on the R-7 rocket test launches—held a meeting where Korolev presented calculation data for a spaceflight trajectory to
990-570: A newly-installed computer at the Academy of Sciences . A special reconnaissance commission selected Tyuratam for the construction of a rocket proving ground , the 5th Tyuratam range, usually referred to as "NIIP-5", or "GIK-5" in the post-Soviet time. The selection was approved on 12 February 1955 by the Council of Ministers of the USSR, but the site would not be completed until 1958. Actual work on
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#17327801703421080-577: A probe around the far side of the Moon to take a series of photographs of its surface. The final stage of the project, E-4, was to be a nuclear strike on the Moon, as a display of force. As with the American plan, the E series of projects was canceled while still in its planning stages, due to concerns regarding the safety and reliability of the launch vehicle. The signing of the Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty in 1963 and
1170-465: A redesign to completely fulfill its military purpose. The rocket, however, was deemed suitable for satellite launches, and Korolev was able to convince the State Commission to allow the use of the next R-7 to launch PS-1, allowing the delay in the rocket's military exploitation to launch the PS-1 and PS-2 satellites. On 22 September a modified R-7 rocket, named Sputnik and indexed as 8K71PS, arrived at
1260-602: A report by Mikhail Tikhonravov , with an overview of similar projects abroad. Tikhonravov had emphasized that the launch of an orbital satellite was an inevitable stage in the development of rocket technology. On 29 July 1955, U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower announced through his press secretary that, during the International Geophysical Year (IGY), the United States would launch an artificial satellite. Four days later, Leonid Sedov ,
1350-532: A road connecting Cheboksary and Syktyvkar [REDACTED] Topics referred to by the same term This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the same title formed as a letter–number combination. If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=A119&oldid=1150925797 " Category : Letter–number combination disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description
1440-509: A system of ground stations was to be developed to collect data transmitted by the satellite, observe the satellite's orbit, and transmit commands to the satellite. Because of the limited time frame, observations were planned for only 7 to 10 days and orbit calculations were not expected to be extremely accurate. By the end of 1956, it became clear that the complexity of the ambitious design meant that 'Object D' could not be launched in time because of difficulties creating scientific instruments and
1530-451: A trajectory measurement system called "Tral", developed by OKB MEI (Moscow Energy Institute), by which they received and monitored data from transponders mounted on the R-7 rocket's core stage. The data were useful even after the satellite's separation from the second stage of the rocket; Sputnik's location was calculated from data on the location of the second stage, which followed Sputnik at
1620-428: A velocity of 7,780 m/s (25,500 ft/s), and a velocity vector inclination to the local horizon of 0 degrees 24 minutes. This resulted in an initial elliptical orbit of 223 km (139 mi) by 950 km (590 mi), with an apogee approximately 500 km (310 mi) lower than intended, and an inclination of 65.10° and a period of 96.20 minutes. Several engines did not fire on time, almost aborting
1710-516: A yield of 13–18 kilotons. The W25 would be carried by a rocket toward the shadowed side of the Moon where it would detonate on impact. The dust cloud resulting from the explosion would be lit by the Sun and therefore visible from Earth. According to Reiffel, the Air Force's progress in the development of intercontinental ballistic missiles would have made such a launch feasible by 1959. The project
1800-412: Is Russian for satellite when interpreted in an astronomical context; its other meanings are spouse or traveling companion . Tracking and studying Sputnik 1 from Earth provided scientists with valuable information. The density of the upper atmosphere could be deduced from its drag on the orbit, and the propagation of its radio signals gave data about the ionosphere . Sputnik 1 was launched during
1890-558: Is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Project A119 Project A119 , also known as A Study of Lunar Research Flights , was a top-secret plan developed in 1958 by the United States Air Force . The aim of the project was to detonate a nuclear bomb on the Moon , which would help in answering some of the mysteries in planetary astronomy and astrogeology . If
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#17327801703421980-486: Is the general term for the artificial satellites of any country and the natural satellites of any planet. The incorrect attribution of 'Sputnik' as a proper name can be traced back to an article released by The New York Times on October 6, 1957, titled "Soviet 'Sputnik' Means A Traveler's Traveler". In the referenced article, the term 'Sputnik' was portrayed as bearing a poetic connotation arising from its linguistic origins. This connotation incorrectly indicated that it
2070-539: The International Geophysical Year from Site No.1/5 , at the 5th Tyuratam range, in Kazakh SSR (now known as the Baikonur Cosmodrome ). The satellite traveled at a peak speed of about 8 km/s (18,000 mph), taking 96.20 minutes to complete each orbit. It transmitted on 20.005 and 40.002 MHz, which were monitored by radio operators throughout the world. The signals continued for 22 days until
2160-623: The National Aeronautics and Space Act ), as well as increased U.S. government spending on scientific research and education through the National Defense Education Act . Sputnik also contributed directly to a new emphasis on science and technology in American schools. With a sense of urgency, Congress enacted the 1958 National Defense Education Act, which provided low-interest loans for college tuition to students majoring in mathematics and science. After
2250-620: The Outer Space Treaty in 1967 prevented future investigation of the concept of detonating a nuclear device on the Moon. By that time, both the United States and the Soviet Union had performed several high-altitude nuclear explosions , including the American Operation Hardtack I , Operation Argus , Operation Fishbowl , and the Soviet Project K . By 1969, the United States had succeeded in being
2340-522: The USSR Academy of Sciences ' mainframe computer . The Sputnik rocket was launched on 4 October 1957 at 19:28:34 UTC (5 October at the launch site ) from Site No.1 at NIIP-5. Telemetry indicated that the strap-ons separated 116 seconds into the flight and the core stage engine shut down 295.4 seconds into the flight. At shutdown, the 7.5-tonne core stage (with PS-1 attached) had attained an altitude of 223 km (139 mi) above sea level,
2430-537: The 1980s by the Illinois Institute of Technology . David Lowry , a nuclear historian from the United Kingdom, has called the project's proposals "obscene", adding, "had they gone ahead, we would never have had the romantic image of Neil Armstrong taking 'one giant leap for mankind ' ". Sputnik 1 Sputnik 1 ( / ˈ s p ʌ t n ɪ k , ˈ s p ʊ t n ɪ k / , Russian : Спутник-1 , Satellite 1 ), sometimes referred to as simply Sputnik ,
2520-483: The All-Union Research Institute of Power Sources (VNIIT) under the leadership of Nikolai S. Lidorenko. Two of these batteries powered the radio transmitter and one powered the temperature regulation system. The batteries had an expected lifetime of two weeks, and operated for 22 days. The power supply was turned on automatically at the moment of the satellite's separation from the second stage of
2610-487: The Antenna Laboratory of OKB-1, led by Mikhail V. Krayushkin. Each antenna was made up of two whip-like parts, 2.4 and 2.9 metres (7.9 and 9.5 ft) in length, and had an almost spherical radiation pattern . The power supply , with a mass of 51 kg (112 lb), was in the shape of an octagonal nut with the radio transmitter in its hole. It consisted of three silver-zinc batteries , developed at
2700-537: The Earth, and the surprise of its successful launch, compounded by the resounding failure of Project Vanguard to launch an American satellite after two attempts, had been dubbed the " Sputnik crisis " by the media and was the impetus for the beginning of the Space Race. Trying to reclaim lost ground, the United States embarked on a series of new studies and projects, which eventually included the launch of Explorer 1 ,
2790-420: The Earth. Organized through the citizen science project Operation Moonwatch , teams of visual observers at 150 stations in the United States and other countries were alerted during the night to watch for the satellite at dawn and during the evening twilight as it passed overhead. The USSR requested amateur and professional radio operators to tape record the signal being transmitted from the satellite. One of
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2880-534: The Moon. They decided to develop a three-stage version of the R-7 rocket for satellite launches. On 30 January 1956, the Council of Ministers approved practical work on an artificial Earth-orbiting satellite. This satellite, named Object D , was planned to be completed in 1957–58; it would have a mass of 1,000 to 1,400 kg (2,200 to 3,100 lb) and would carry 200 to 300 kg (440 to 660 lb) of scientific instruments. The first test launch of "Object D"
2970-677: The Naval Research Laboratory captured recordings of Sputnik 1 during four crossings over the United States. The USAF Cambridge Research Center collaborated with Bendix-Friez , Westinghouse Broadcasting , and the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory to obtain a video of Sputnik's rocket body crossing the pre-dawn sky of Baltimore, broadcast on 12 October by WBZ-TV in Boston. The success of Sputnik 1 seemed to have changed minds around
3060-532: The R-7's capabilities by information derived from U-2 spy plane overflight photos, as well as signals and telemetry intercepts. General James M. Gavin wrote in 1958 that he had predicted to the Army Scientific Advisory Panel on 12 September 1957 that the Soviets would launch a satellite within 30 days, and that on 4 October he and Wernher von Braun had agreed that a launch was imminent. The Eisenhower administration's first response
3150-608: The United States as the technological superpower, and the Soviet Union as a backward country. Privately, however, the CIA and President Eisenhower were aware of progress being made by the Soviets on Sputnik from secret spy plane imagery. Together with the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), the Army Ballistic Missile Agency built Explorer 1 , and launched it on 31 January 1958. Before work
3240-399: The United States as woefully behind. One of the many books that suddenly appeared for the lay-audience noted seven points of "impact" upon the nation: Western leadership, Western strategy and tactics, missile production, applied research, basic research, education, and democratic culture. As public and the government became interested in space and related science and technology, the phenomenon
3330-453: The West. When the Soviets began using Sputnik in their propaganda, they emphasized pride in the achievement of Soviet technology, arguing that it demonstrated the Soviets' superiority over the West. People were encouraged to listen to Sputnik's signals on the radio and to look out for Sputnik in the night sky. While Sputnik itself had been highly polished, its small size made it barely visible to
3420-609: The arrival of the Space Age . However, when the USSR launched Sputnik 2 , containing the dog Laika , the media narrative returned to one of anti-Communism and many people sent protests to the Soviet embassy and the RSPCA. Sputnik 1 was not immediately used for Soviet propaganda. The Soviets had kept quiet about their earlier accomplishments in rocketry, fearing that it would lead to secrets being revealed and failures being exploited by
3510-451: The booster in order to increase its visibility for tracking. A small highly polished sphere, the satellite was barely visible at sixth magnitude, and thus harder to follow optically. The batteries ran out on 26 October 1957, after the satellite completed 326 orbits. The core stage of the R-7 remained in orbit for two months until 2 December 1957, while Sputnik 1 orbited for three months, until 4 January 1958, having completed 1,440 orbits of
3600-413: The booster, and a new payload fairing that made the booster almost four meters shorter than its ICBM version. Object D would later be launched as Sputnik 3 after the much lighter 'Object PS' (Sputnik 1) was launched first. The trajectory of the launch vehicle and the satellite were initially calculated using arithmometers and six-digit trigonometric tables. More complex calculations were carried out on
3690-491: The complex, heavy scientific equipment in favour of a simple radio transmitter. On 15 February 1957 the Council of Ministers of the USSR approved this simple satellite, designated 'Object PS', PS meaning "prosteishiy sputnik", or "elementary satellite". This version allowed the satellite to be tracked visually by Earth-based observers, and it could transmit tracking signals to ground-based receiving stations. The launch of two satellites, PS-1 and PS-2, with two R-7 rockets (8K71),
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3780-571: The construction of the site began on 20 July by military building units. The first launch of an R-7 rocket (8K71 No.5L) occurred on 15 May 1957. A fire began in the Blok D strap-on almost immediately at liftoff, but the booster continued flying until 98 seconds after launch when the strap-on broke away and the vehicle crashed 400 km (250 mi) downrange. Three attempts to launch the second rocket (8K71 No.6) were made on 10–11 June, but an assembly defect prevented launch. The unsuccessful launch of
3870-600: The creation of the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency ( DARPA ), and NASA . In 1949, the Armour Research Foundation (ARF), based at the Illinois Institute of Technology , began studying the effects of nuclear explosions on the environment. Those studies continued until 1962. In May 1958, ARF began covertly researching the potential consequences of a nuclear explosion on the Moon. The main objective of
3960-500: The dummy warhead to the target altitude and velocity, reentered the atmosphere, and broke apart at a height of 10 km (6.2 mi) after traveling 6,000 km (3,700 mi). On 27 August, the TASS issued a statement on the successful launch of a long-distance multistage ICBM. The launch of the fifth R-7 rocket (8K71 No.9), on 7 September, was also successful, but the dummy was also destroyed on atmospheric re-entry, and hence needed
4050-530: The explosive device detonated on the surface, and not in a lunar crater , the flash of explosive light would have been faintly visible to people on Earth with their naked eye . This was meant as a show of force resulting in a possible boosting of domestic morale in the capabilities of the United States, a boost that was needed after the Soviet Union took an early lead in the Space Race . The project
4140-415: The fan was turned on; when it fell below 20 °C (68 °F), the fan was turned off by the dual thermal switch. If the temperature exceeded 50 °C (122 °F) or fell below 0 °C (32 °F), another control thermal switch was activated, changing the duration of the radio signal pulses. Sputnik 1 was filled with dry nitrogen , pressurized to 1.3 atm (130 kPa). The satellite had
4230-447: The first nation to land a man on the moon with the success of the Apollo 11 Moon mission. In December of that year, Apollo scientist Gary Latham suggested detonating a "smallish" nuclear device on the Moon in order to facilitate research into its geological make-up. The idea was dismissed because it would interfere with plans to measure the Moon's natural background radiation. The existence of Project A119 remained largely secret until
4320-635: The first observations of it in the western world were made at the school observatory in Rodewisch ( Saxony ). News reports at the time pointed out that "anyone possessing a short wave receiver can hear the new Russian earth satellite as it hurtles over this area of the globe." Directions, provided by the American Radio Relay League , were to "Tune in 20 megacycles sharply, by the time signals, given on that frequency. Then tune to slightly higher frequencies. The 'beep, beep' sound of
4410-507: The first orbit the Telegraph Agency of the Soviet Union (TASS) transmitted: "As result of great, intense work of scientific institutes and design bureaus the first artificial Earth satellite has been built". The R-7 core stage, with a mass of 7.5 tonnes and a length of 26 metres, also reached Earth orbit. It was a first magnitude object following behind the satellite and visible at night. Deployable reflective panels were placed on
4500-603: The hydrogen bomb payload would be. The R-7 was also known by its GRAU (later GURVO, the Russian abbreviation for "Chief Directorate of the Rocket Forces") designation 8K71. At the time, the R-7 was known to NATO sources as the T-3 or M-104, and Type A. Several modifications were made to the R-7 rocket to adapt it to 'Object D', including upgrades to the main engines, the removal of a 300 kg (660 lb) radio package on
4590-399: The journal confirming that Sagan's activity had at the time been considered a breach of the confidentiality of the project. Reiffel took the opportunity to reveal details of the studies, and his statements were widely reported in the media. Reiffel's revelation of the project was accompanied by his denunciation of the work carried out, with the scientist noting that he was "horrified that such
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#17327801703424680-628: The launch of America's secret WS-117L spy satellites, the U.S. had launched Project Vanguard as its own "civilian" satellite entry for the International Geophysical Year. Eisenhower greatly underestimated the reaction of the American public, who were shocked by the launch of Sputnik and by the televised failure of the Vanguard Test Vehicle 3 launch attempt. The sense of anxiety was inflamed by Democratic politicians and professional cold warriors, who portrayed
4770-533: The launch of Sputnik, a poll conducted and published by the University of Michigan showed that 26% of Americans surveyed thought that Russian sciences and engineering were superior to that of the United States. (A year later, however, that figure had dropped to 10% as the U.S. began launching its own satellites into space.) One consequence of the Sputnik shock was the perception of a " missile gap ". This became
4860-527: The launch site would be collected at six separate observatories and telegraphed to NII-4 . Located back in Moscow (at Bolshevo ), NII-4 was a scientific research arm of the Ministry of Defence that was dedicated to missile development. The six observatories were clustered around the launch site, with the closest situated 1 km (0.62 mi) from the launch pad. A second, nationwide observation complex
4950-667: The low specific impulse produced by the completed R-7 engines (304 seconds instead of the planned 309 to 310 seconds). Consequently, the government rescheduled the launch for April 1958. Object D would later fly as Sputnik 3 . Fearing the U.S. would launch a satellite before the USSR, OKB-1 suggested the creation and launch of a satellite in April–May 1957, before the IGY began in July 1957. The new satellite would be simple, light (100 kg or 220 lb), and easy to construct, forgoing
5040-592: The mid-1990s, when writer Keay Davidson discovered the story while researching the life of Carl Sagan for a biography. Sagan's involvement with the project was apparent from his application for an academic scholarship at the Miller Institute of the University of California, Berkeley , in 1959. In the application, Sagan gave details of the project research, which Davidson felt constituted a violation of national security. The leak consisted of Sagan revealing
5130-439: The military to education systems. The federal government began investing in science, engineering, and mathematics at all levels of education. An advanced research group was assembled for military purposes. These research groups developed weapons such as ICBMs and missile defense systems, as well as spy satellites for the U.S. Initially, U.S. President Dwight Eisenhower was not surprised by Sputnik 1. He had been forewarned of
5220-545: The mission. A fuel regulator in the booster also failed around 16 seconds into launch, which resulted in excessive RP-1 consumption for most of the powered flight and the engine thrust being 4% above nominal. Core stage cutoff was intended for T+296 seconds, but the premature propellant depletion caused thrust termination to occur one second earlier when a sensor detected overspeed of the empty RP-1 turbopump. There were 375 kg (827 lb) of LOX remaining at cutoff. At 19.9 seconds after engine cut-off, PS-1 separated from
5310-403: The naked eye. What most watchers actually saw was the much more visible 26-metre core stage of the R-7. Shortly after the launch of PS-1, Khrushchev pressed Korolev to launch another satellite to coincide with the 40th anniversary of the October Revolution , on 7 November 1957. The launch of Sputnik 1 surprised the American public, and shattered the perception created by American propaganda of
5400-512: The only official documents on the project found so far began in 1958, not the 1957 date of the "anonymous" source whose rumors initiated the US project. The official Soviet plan also differs from the scenario reported in the press. Started in January 1958, it was part of a series of proposals under the codename "E". Project E-1 entailed plans to reach the Moon, while projects E-2 and E-3 involved sending
5490-440: The potential visibility of the explosion, the benefits to science, and the implications for the lunar surface. Among the members of the research team were astronomer Gerard Kuiper and his doctoral student Carl Sagan . Sagan was responsible for the mathematical projection of the expansion of a dust cloud in space around the Moon, an essential element in determining its visibility from Earth. Scientists initially considered using
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#17327801703425580-483: The program, running under the auspices of the United States Air Force which had initially proposed it, was to cause a nuclear explosion that would be visible from Earth. It was hoped that such a display would boost the morale of the American people. At the time of the project's conception, newspapers were reporting a rumor that the Soviet Union was planning to detonate a hydrogen bomb on the Moon. According to press reports in late 1957, an anonymous source had divulged to
5670-417: The proving ground and preparations for the launch of PS-1 began. Compared to the military R-7 test vehicles, the mass of 8K71PS was reduced from 280 to 272 tonnes (617,000 to 600,000 lb), its length with PS-1 was 29.167 metres (95 ft 8.3 in) and the thrust at liftoff was 3.90 MN (880,000 lb f ). PS-1 was not designed to be controlled; it could only be observed. Initial data at
5760-513: The rocket. The satellite had a one-watt, 3.5 kg (7.7 lb) radio transmitting unit inside, developed by Vyacheslav I. Lappo from NII-885 , the Moscow Electronics Research Institute, that worked on two frequencies, 20.005 and 40.002 MHz. Signals on the first frequency were transmitted in 0.3 s pulses (near f = 3 Hz) (under normal temperature and pressure conditions on board), with pauses of
5850-418: The same duration filled by pulses on the second frequency. Analysis of the radio signals was used to gather information about the electron density of the ionosphere. Temperature and pressure were encoded in the duration of radio beeps. A temperature regulation system contained a fan , a dual thermal switch , and a control thermal switch. If the temperature inside the satellite exceeded 36 °C (97 °F),
5940-469: The satellite can be heard each time it rounds the globe." The first recording of Sputnik 1's signal was made by RCA engineers near Riverhead, Long Island. They then drove the tape recording into Manhattan for broadcast to the public over NBC radio. However, as Sputnik rose higher over the East Coast, its signal was picked up by W2AEE, the ham radio station of Columbia University . Students working in
6030-475: The scientific value of the project. The relevant documents remained secret for nearly 45 years and, despite Reiffel's revelations, the United States government has never officially acknowledged its involvement in the study. During the Cold War , the Soviet Union took the lead in the Space Race with the launch of Sputnik 1 on 4 October 1957. Sputnik was the first artificial satellite in orbit around
6120-457: The second stage and the satellite's transmitter was activated. These signals were detected at the IP-1 station by Junior Engineer-Lieutenant V.G. Borisov, where reception of Sputnik 1's "beep-beep-beep" tones confirmed the satellite's successful deployment. Reception lasted for two minutes, until PS-1 passed below the horizon. The Tral telemetry system on the R-7 core stage continued to transmit and
6210-402: The spent R-7 second stage at the same time as the satellite was ejected. Tests of the satellite were conducted at OKB-1 under the leadership of Oleg G. Ivanovsky . The control system of the Sputnik rocket was adjusted to an intended orbit of 223 by 1,450 km (139 by 901 mi), with an orbital period of 101.5 minutes. The trajectory had been calculated earlier by Georgi Grechko , using
6300-418: The third R-7 rocket (8K71 No.7) took place on 12 July. An electrical short caused the vernier engines to put the missile into an uncontrolled roll which resulted in all of the strap-ons separating 33 seconds into the launch. The R-7 crashed about 7 km (4.3 mi) from the pad. The launch of the fourth rocket (8K71 No.8), on 21 August at 15:25 Moscow Time , was successful. The rocket's core boosted
6390-579: The titles of two classified papers from the A119 project — the 1958 paper Possible Contribution of Lunar Nuclear Weapons Detonations to the Solution of Some Problems in Planetary Astronomy , and the 1959 paper Radiological Contamination of the Moon by Nuclear Weapons Detonations . A 1958 paper titled Cosmic Radiation and Lunar Radioactivity , credited to I. Filosofo, was also named by Sagan in
6480-460: The transmitter batteries depleted on 26 October 1957. On 4 January 1958, after three months in orbit, Sputnik 1 burned up while reentering Earth's atmosphere , having completed 1,440 orbits of the Earth, and travelling a distance of approximately 70,000,000 km (43,000,000 mi). Спутник-1 , romanized as Sputnik-Odin ( pronounced [ˈsputnʲɪk.ɐˈdʲin] ), means 'Satellite-One'. The Russian word for satellite, sputnik ,
6570-575: The university's FM station, WKCR , made a tape of this, and were the first to rebroadcast the Sputnik signal to the American public (or whoever could receive the FM station). The Soviet Union agreed to transmit on frequencies that worked with the United States' existing infrastructure, but later announced the lower frequencies. Asserting that the launch "did not come as a surprise", the White House refused to comment on any military aspects. On 5 October,
6660-432: The warhead falling back on Soviet territory, and the potential for an international incident. The existence of the US project was revealed in 2000 by a former executive at the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) , Leonard Reiffel , who had led the project in 1958. A young Carl Sagan was part of the team responsible for predicting the effects of a nuclear explosion in vacuum and low gravity, and evaluating
6750-499: The world regarding a shift in power to the Soviets. The USSR's launch of Sputnik 1 spurred the United States to create the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA, later DARPA ) in February 1958 to regain a technological lead. In Britain, the media and population initially reacted with a mixture of fear for the future, but also amazement about human progress. Many newspapers and magazines heralded
6840-437: Was a 585-millimetre (23.0 in) diameter sphere, assembled from two hemispheres that were hermetically sealed with O-rings and connected by 36 bolts . It had a mass of 83.6 kilograms (184 lb). The hemispheres were 2 mm thick, and were covered with a highly polished 1 mm-thick heat shield made of an aluminium – magnesium – titanium alloy , AMG6T . The satellite carried two pairs of antennas designed by
6930-528: Was approved, provided that the R-7 completed at least two successful test flights. The R-7 rocket was initially designed as an intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) by OKB-1. The decision to build it was made by the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and the Council of Ministers of the USSR on 20 May 1954. The rocket was the most powerful in the world; it was designed with excess thrust since they were unsure how heavy
7020-559: Was bestowed with the specific proper name 'Fellow-Traveler-One', rather than being designated by the general term 'Satellite-One'. In Russian-language references, Sputnik 1 is recognized by the technical name of 'Satellite-One'. On 17 December 1954, chief Soviet rocket scientist Sergei Korolev proposed a developmental plan for an artificial satellite to the Minister of the Defense Industry, Dimitri Ustinov . Korolev forwarded
7110-417: Was canceled by the Air Force in January 1959, seemingly out of fear of the risk to the population if anything went wrong with the launch. Another factor, cited by project leader Leonard Reiffel, was the possible problem of nuclear fallout which would affect future lunar research projects and Moon colonization . Later reports in the 2010s showed that a corresponding Soviet project did indeed exist, although
7200-471: Was coined in the 18th century by combining the prefix s- ('fellow') and putnik ('traveler'), thereby meaning 'fellow-traveler', a meaning corresponding to the Latin root satelles ('guard, attendant or companion'), which is the origin of English satellite . In English, 'Sputnik' is widely recognized as a proper name; however, this is not the case in Russian. In the Russian language, sputnik
7290-415: Was completed, however, the Soviet Union launched a second satellite, Sputnik 2, on 3 November 1957. Meanwhile, the televised failure of Vanguard TV-3 on 6 December 1957 deepened American dismay over the country's position in the Space Race . The Americans took a more aggressive stance in the emerging space race, resulting in an emphasis on science and technological research, and reforms in many areas from
7380-414: Was detected on its second orbit. The designers, engineers, and technicians who developed the rocket and satellite watched the launch from the range. After the launch they drove to the mobile radio station to listen for signals from the satellite. They waited about 90 minutes to ensure that the satellite had made one orbit and was transmitting before Korolev called Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev . On
7470-555: Was easily detectable by amateur radio operators, and the 65° orbital inclination made its flight path cover virtually the entire inhabited Earth. The satellite's success was unanticipated by the United States . This precipitated the American Sputnik crisis and triggered the Space Race . The launch was the beginning of a new era of political, military, technological, and scientific developments. The word sputnik
7560-919: Was established to track the satellite after its separation from the rocket. Called the Command-Measurement Complex, it consisted of the coordination center in NII-4 and seven distant stations situated along the line of the satellite's ground track . These tracking stations were located at Tyuratam , Sary-Shagan , Yeniseysk , Klyuchi , Yelizovo , Makat in Guryev Oblast , and Ishkup in Krasnoyarsk Krai . Stations were equipped with radar , optical instruments, and communications systems. Data from stations were transmitted by telegraphs into NII-4 where ballistics specialists calculated orbital parameters. The observatories used
7650-685: Was located and tracked by the British using the Lovell Telescope at the Jodrell Bank Observatory , the only telescope in the world able to do so by radar. Canada's Newbrook Observatory was the first facility in North America to photograph Sputnik 1. Sputnik 1 was designed to meet a set of guidelines and objectives such as: The chief constructor of Sputnik 1 at OKB-1 was Mikhail S. Khomyakov. The satellite
7740-423: Was low-key and almost dismissive. Eisenhower was even pleased that the USSR, not the U.S., would be the first to test the waters of the still-uncertain legal status of orbital satellite overflights . Eisenhower had suffered the Soviet protests and shoot-downs of Project Genetrix (Moby Dick) balloons and was concerned about the probability of a U-2 being shot down. To set a precedent for "freedom of space" before
7830-424: Was never carried out, being cancelled after "Air Force officials decided its risks outweighed its benefits", and because a Moon landing would undoubtedly be a more popular achievement in the eyes of the American and international public alike. If executed, the plan might have led to a potential militarization of space . An identical project by the Soviet Union (Project E-4) also never came to fruition due to fears of
7920-439: Was scheduled for 1957. Work on the satellite was to be divided among institutions as follows: Preliminary design work was completed in July 1956 and the scientific tasks to be carried out by the satellite were defined. These included measuring the density of the atmosphere and its ion composition, the solar wind , magnetic fields , and cosmic rays . These data would be valuable in the creation of future artificial satellites;
8010-559: Was sometimes dubbed the "Sputnik craze". The U.S. soon had a number of successful satellites, including Explorer 1, Project SCORE , and Courier 1B . However, public reaction to the Sputnik crisis spurred America to action in the Space Race, leading to the creation of both the Advanced Research Projects Agency (renamed the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, or DARPA, in 1972), and NASA (through
8100-565: Was the first artificial Earth satellite . It was launched into an elliptical low Earth orbit by the Soviet Union on 4 October 1957 as part of the Soviet space program . It sent a radio signal back to Earth for three weeks before its three silver-zinc batteries became depleted. Aerodynamic drag caused it to fall back into the atmosphere on 4 January 1958. It was a polished metal sphere 58 cm (23 in) in diameter with four external radio antennas to broadcast radio pulses. Its radio signal
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