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129-810: The ARRL is the primary representative organization of amateur radio operators to the US government. It performs this function by lobbying the US Congress and the Federal Communications Commission . The ARRL is also the international secretariat of the International Amateur Radio Union , which performs a similar role internationally, advocating for amateur radio interests before the International Telecommunication Union and

258-612: A US Court of Appeals agreed with the ARRL that the FCC violated the APA, especially by redacting data from the public that could have shed doubt on the FCC's decision. "It is one thing for the Commission to give notice and make available for comment the studies on which it relied in formulating the rule while explaining its non-reliance on certain parts," D.C. Circuit Judge Judith Rogers wrote. "It

387-478: A federal structure with two overlapping power centers so that each citizen as an individual is subject to the powers of state government and national government. To protect against abuse of power, each branch of government – executive, legislative, and judicial – had a separate sphere of authority and could check other branches according to the principle of the separation of powers . Furthermore, there were checks and balances within

516-490: A "remarkably resilient institution". Congress is the "heart and soul of our democracy", according to this view, even though legislators rarely achieve the prestige or name recognition of presidents or Supreme Court justices ; one wrote that "legislators remain ghosts in America's historical imagination." One analyst argues that it is not a solely reactive institution but has played an active role in shaping government policy and

645-562: A New York City cousin helped him construct a small radio transmitter, and after moving to Hartford the next year he constructed progressively more powerful stations. Radio transmitters in the United States were not licensed at this time, so he initially operated using the self-assigned call letters SNT, which stood for "Southern New England-Tuska". Around 1910, while in the ninth grade, Tuska began earning "pocket money" by selling rubber band-powered model aeroplanes on consignment through

774-641: A commission as a Lieutenant in the U.S. Army's Signal Corps. Originally posted in Washington, D.C., he next established a radio training school at the Ellington Airfield near Houston, Texas. He was later transferred to the radio school at the Firing center at Camp McClellan in Alabama. After the end of the war, he returned to Hartford. In late 1919, the government ban on amateur radio stations

903-580: A higher class of license. The ARRL sponsors numerous amateur radio contests throughout the year with the biggest of these being November Sweepstakes and the International DX Contest. Other contests and sponsored operating events include Straight Key Night, VHF Sweepstakes, UHF Contest, and 10 GHz and Up Contest. The ARRL also participates as a Headquarters station for the IARU HF World Championship. Field Day

1032-538: A modification of the original regeneration circuit, which was called the "Superdyne". Eventually demand outpaced the company's capabilities, so it began farming out some activities to other concerns, including the A. C. Gilbert Company in New Haven. Westinghouse soon sued to eliminate this practice, claiming it violated the non-transferable provisions of the rights granted by the Armstrong license. In late 1925 it

1161-526: A political party does not mean that such members are unable to caucus with members of the political parties. Members can also switch parties at any time, although this is quite uncommon. Article One of the United States Constitution states, "All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives." The House and Senate are equal partners in

1290-444: A powerful effect of waking up a somewhat dormant Congress which investigated presidential wrongdoing and coverups; the scandal "substantially reshaped" relations between the branches of government, suggested political scientist Bruce J. Schulman . Partisanship returned, particularly after 1994; one analyst attributes partisan infighting to slim congressional majorities which discouraged friendly social gatherings in meeting rooms such as

1419-524: A revised constitution with a two-chamber or bicameral Congress. Smaller states argued for equal representation for each state. The two-chamber structure had functioned well in state governments. A compromise plan, the Connecticut Compromise , was adopted with representatives chosen by population (benefiting larger states) and exactly two senators chosen by state governments (benefiting smaller states). The ratified constitution created

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1548-456: A special Members Only section of the ARRL web site that includes technical documents, expanded product reviews of amateur radio equipment, expanded contesting information, and a searchable database of all league publications. A flagship annual publication, The Radio Amateur's Handbook , has been published since 1926. The ARRL also publishes a series of manuals designed to assist interested persons in obtaining an amateur radio license or upgrading to

1677-634: A state's at-large representation to the federal government by senators. Most incumbents seek re-election, and their historical likelihood of winning subsequent elections exceeds 90 percent. The historical records of the House of Representatives and the Senate are maintained by the Center for Legislative Archives, which is a part of the National Archives and Records Administration . Congress

1806-766: Is an accepted version of this page Minority (49) Minority (212) Vacant (3) [REDACTED] [REDACTED] The United States Congress is the legislature of the federal government of the United States . It is bicameral , composed of a lower body, the United States House of Representatives , and an upper body, the United States Senate . It meets in the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C. Members are chosen through direct election , though vacancies in

1935-457: Is an annual event organized by the ARRL that includes both a competitive element as well as an emphasis on emergency communications readiness and the promotion of amateur radio. Criticisms of ARRL have included its support for less strict licensing requirements in the 2000s, which opponents consider a " dumbing down " of amateur radio or making it more like CB radio , moves allegedly made to gain additional membership. Other critics have felt almost

2064-693: Is directly responsible for the governing of the District of Columbia , the current seat of the federal government. The First Continental Congress was a gathering of representatives from twelve of the Thirteen Colonies . On July 4, 1776, the Second Continental Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence , referring to the new nation as the "United States of America". The Articles of Confederation in 1781 created

2193-440: Is elected and gives each House the power to create its own structure. Section Seven lays out the process for creating laws, and Section Eight enumerates numerous powers. Section Nine is a list of powers Congress does not have, and Section Ten enumerates powers of the state, some of which may only be granted by Congress. Constitutional amendments have granted Congress additional powers. Congress also has implied powers derived from

2322-493: Is essentially charged with reconciling our many points of view on the great public policy issues of the day. Congress is constantly changing and is constantly in flux. In recent times, the American South and West have gained House seats according to demographic changes recorded by the census and includes more women and minorities . While power balances among the different parts of government continue to change,

2451-433: Is extraordinarily sensitive to public pressure. Several academics described Congress: Congress reflects us in all our strengths and all our weaknesses. It reflects our regional idiosyncrasies, our ethnic, religious, and racial diversity, our multitude of professions, and our shadings of opinion on everything from the value of war to the war over values. Congress is the government's most representative body   ... Congress

2580-481: Is quite another thing to provide notice and an opportunity for comment on only those parts of the studies that the Commission likes best." The American Radio Relay League offers several services to members that support their on-air operations. For members with an interest in DXing , the organization operates both incoming and out-going QSL bureaus for the exchange of QSL cards with stations in other countries. Staff at

2709-532: Is required before an impeached person can be removed from office. The term Congress can also refer to a particular meeting of the legislature. A Congress covers two years; the current one, the 118th Congress , began on January 3, 2023, and will end on January 3, 2025. Since the adoption of the Twentieth Amendment to the United States Constitution , the Congress has started and ended at noon on

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2838-496: Is the organization's monthly membership journal, named after a Morse code Q signal that means "calling all stations". The organization also publishes two bimonthly magazines of special interest: QEX for radio electronics experimenters, and the National Contest Journal for contesting enthusiasts. The ARRL publishes various technical books and online courses. Members of the organization also have access to

2967-529: The tabloidization of media coverage. Others saw pressure to squeeze a political position into a thirty-second soundbite. A report characterized Congress in 2013 as unproductive, gridlocked, and "setting records for futility". In October 2013, with Congress unable to compromise, the government was shut down for several weeks and risked a serious default on debt payments, causing 60% of the public to say they would "fire every member of Congress" including their own representative. One report suggested Congress posed

3096-544: The Board of Education . Congress began reasserting its authority. Lobbying became a big factor despite the 1971 Federal Election Campaign Act . Political action committees or PACs could make substantive donations to congressional candidates via such means as soft money contributions. While soft money funds were not given to specific campaigns for candidates, the money often benefited candidates substantially in an indirect way and helped reelect candidates. Reforms such as

3225-541: The Commerce Clause , the enumerated power to regulate commerce, in rulings such as McCulloch v. Maryland , have effectively widened the scope of Congress's legislative authority far beyond that prescribed in Section Eight. Constitutional responsibility for the oversight of Washington, D.C. , the federal district and national capital, and the U.S. territories of Guam , American Samoa , Puerto Rico ,

3354-650: The Congress of the Confederation in its legislative function. Although not legally mandated, in practice since the 19th century, members of Congress are typically affiliated with one of the two major parties , the Democratic Party or the Republican Party , and only rarely with a third party or independents affiliated with no party. In the case of the latter, the lack of affiliation with

3483-469: The Congress of the Confederation , a unicameral body with equal representation among the states in which each state had a veto over most decisions. Congress had executive but not legislative authority, and the federal judiciary was confined to admiralty and lacked authority to collect taxes, regulate commerce, or enforce laws. Government powerlessness led to the Convention of 1787 which proposed

3612-609: The Conservative Coalition . Democrats maintained control of Congress during World War II . Congress struggled with efficiency in the postwar era partly by reducing the number of standing congressional committees. Southern Democrats became a powerful force in many influential committees although political power alternated between Republicans and Democrats during these years. More complex issues required greater specialization and expertise, such as space flight and atomic energy policy. Senator Joseph McCarthy exploited

3741-576: The Department of Commerce ordering them off the air and to dismantle all antennas, because the United States had entered World War I . During the war the ARRL facilitated the recruitment of amateurs into communications positions with the armed services, but had little else to do since all civilian experimentation with radio equipment was prohibited. In November 1918 the Armistice was signed, but Congress introduced bills to put all radio operations in

3870-659: The Loma Preita earthquake in the San Francisco Bay area putting in over 3000 volunteer hours in the first week. In 2005, ARES, with hundreds of volunteer amateur radio operators, provided key communications assistance to recovery organizations and officials coordinating Hurricane Katrina disaster relief . Over 2,000 Amateur Radio clubs are members of the ARRL Affiliated Club Program. In 1914, Hiram Percy Maxim of Hartford, Connecticut,

3999-523: The Northern Mariana Islands . These six members of Congress enjoy floor privileges to introduce bills and resolutions, and in recent Congresses they vote in permanent and select committees, in party caucuses and in joint conferences with the Senate. They have Capitol Hill offices, staff and two annual appointments to each of the four military academies. While their votes are constitutional when Congress authorizes their House Committee of

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4128-531: The U.S. Virgin Islands , and the Northern Mariana Islands rests with Congress. The republican form of government in territories is devolved by congressional statute to the respective territories including direct election of governors, the D.C. mayor and locally elective territorial legislatures. Clarence D. Tuska Clarence Denton "C. D." Tuska (August 15, 1896 – June 30, 1985) was an early radio experimenter and amateur operator , who also became one of

4257-408: The U.S. census results, provided that each state has at least one congressional representative. Each senator is elected at-large in their state for a six-year term, with terms staggered , so every two years approximately one-third of the Senate is up for election. Each state, regardless of population or size, has two senators, so currently, there are 100 senators for the 50 states. Article One of

4386-481: The Winlink system and manufacturer-specific proprietary modes such as Pactor 3, DSTAR , and Wide-coverage Internet Repeater Enhancement System (WIRES). Regulation by bandwidth favors these proprietary technologies at the expense of narrowband and open-standard digital modes (such as JT65 , PSK31 , RTTY , and CW ). Many Amateur Radio operators who are seeking to develop and experiment with new technology see

4515-663: The World Administrative Radio Conferences . The organization is governed by a member-elected, volunteer Board of Directors. Each director serves a three-year term and represents the members within their particular region of the country. The national headquarters facilities are located in Newington, Connecticut . Along with the administrative headquarters, the 7-acre (2.8 ha) site is home to amateur radio station W1AW . The ARRL Field Organization carries out local and regional activities across

4644-449: The second-wave feminism movement , when activists moved into electoral politics. Beginning in the 1970s, donors and political action committees like EMILY's List began recruiting, training and funding women candidates. Watershed political moments like the confirmation of Clarence Thomas and the 2016 presidential election created momentum for women candidates, resulting in the Year of

4773-620: The "First Amateur Two-Way Communication Earth & Mars". The cup is a Philippine Igorot wood carving, a bowl supported by two standing figures. In the American Radio Relay League (ARRL) and the Radio Amateurs of Canada (RAC), the Section Manager is an elected volunteer who implements and manages programs in the section. The Section Manager is elected by the members of the organization who reside in

4902-484: The "biggest risk to the U.S. economy" because of its brinksmanship , "down-to-the-wire budget and debt crises" and "indiscriminate spending cuts", resulting in slowed economic activity and keeping up to two million people unemployed. There has been increasing public dissatisfaction with Congress, with extremely low approval ratings which dropped to 5% in October 2013. In 2009, Congress authorized another delegate for

5031-439: The 1960s opened the possibility for Black, Asian American, Latina and other non-white women candidates to run for Congress. Racially polarized voting, racial stereotypes and lack of institutional support still prevent women of color from reaching Congress as easily as white people . Senate elections, which require victories in statewide electorates, have been particularly difficult for women of color. Carol Moseley Braun became

5160-790: The 2002 Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act limited campaign donations but did not limit soft money contributions. One source suggests post-Watergate laws amended in 1974 meant to reduce the "influence of wealthy contributors and end payoffs" instead "legitimized PACs" since they "enabled individuals to band together in support of candidates". From 1974 to 1984, PACs grew from 608 to 3,803 and donations leaped from $ 12.5   million to $ 120   million along with concern over PAC influence in Congress. In 2009, there were 4,600 business, labor and special-interest PACs including ones for lawyers , electricians , and real estate brokers . From 2007 to 2008, 175 members of Congress received "half or more of their campaign cash" from PACs. From 1970 to 2009,

5289-509: The ARRL as backing down too quickly on the regulation by bandwidth issue. Recent FCC rulings on the new soundcard mode called ROS point to the need to drop regulations that hinder experimentation and impede the development of narrowband techniques on the bands where they are most needed An ARRL decision on November 14, 2017 to censure a member of its board of directors drew strong criticism from many Amateur Radio operators. Numerous operators expressed concern that this decision profoundly undermines

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5418-548: The ARRL as president. The ARRL has opposed regulatory support for Broadband over Power Lines , arguing that the power lines will radiate interfering radio energy, impeding amateur radio activities. The League has filed several interference reports with the FCC . The ARRL sued the FCC, claiming that the FCC violated the Administrative Procedure Act in creating its rules pertaining to BPL. On April 25, 2008,

5547-574: The American response as a "police action". According to Time magazine in 1970, "U.S. presidents [had] ordered troops into position or action without a formal congressional declaration a total of 149 times." In 1993, Michael Kinsley wrote that "Congress's war power has become the most flagrantly disregarded provision in the Constitution," and that the "real erosion [of Congress's war power] began after World War   II." Disagreement about

5676-451: The Board. Local and regional operational activities of the American Radio Relay League are carried out through its Field Organization. The organization divides the 15 Divisions into 71 separate geographic regions called Sections. Each Section has a similar team of one elected, volunteer Section Manager and several volunteer positions. Section Managers are elected by the members living within

5805-462: The Constitution's Necessary and Proper Clause . Congress has authority over financial and budgetary policy through the enumerated power to "lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay the Debts and provide for the common Defence and general Welfare of the United States". There is vast authority over budgets, although analyst Eric Patashnik suggested that much of Congress's power to manage

5934-472: The Field Organization has an appointed Section Emergency Coordinator. The ARES organization supports training, establishes Memorandums of Understanding (MOU) with governmental and relief agencies, and organizes regular practice exercises. ARES has provided essential supplemental emergency communications innumerable times throughout the league's history. In 1989, hundreds of amateurs responded to

6063-604: The Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof". Article Four gives Congress the power to admit new states into the Union. One of Congress's foremost non-legislative functions is the power to investigate and oversee the executive branch. Congressional oversight is usually delegated to committees and is facilitated by Congress's subpoena power. Some critics have charged that Congress has in some instances failed to do an adequate job of overseeing

6192-631: The Harris Parker Toy Store. After these sales started to decline, he next constructed a simple crystal radio receiver, also offered through consignment at the toy store. Inventor Hiram Percy Maxim took this set home to test, but soon returned it, and the store owner incorrectly informed Tuska that Maxim had said it "didn't work". This upset Tuska, so with a friend, William Ball, he traveled, unannounced, to Maxim's house to investigate. After clarifying that Maxim actually just needed better quality equipment, Tuska and Ball arranged for ordering

6321-491: The House expanded delegates, along with their powers and privileges representing U.S. citizens in non-state areas, beginning with representation on committees for Puerto Rico's resident commissioner in 1970. In 1971, a delegate for the District of Columbia was authorized, and in 1972 new delegate positions were established for U.S. Virgin Islands and Guam . In 1978, an additional delegate for American Samoa were added. In

6450-510: The House of Representatives are elected for the two-year term of a Congress. The Reapportionment Act of 1929 established that there be 435 representatives, and the Uniform Congressional Redistricting Act requires that they be elected from single-member constituencies or districts . It is also required that the congressional districts be apportioned among states by population every ten years using

6579-477: The House of Representatives have equal legislative authority, although only the House may originate revenue and appropriation bills . Congress has an important role in national defense , including the exclusive power to declare war, to raise and maintain the armed forces , and to make rules for the military. Some critics charge that the executive branch has usurped Congress's constitutionally defined task of declaring war. While historically presidents initiated

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6708-625: The Jeffersonian Republican Party and began the era of the First Party System . In 1800, Thomas Jefferson 's election to the presidency marked a peaceful transition of power between the parties. John Marshall , 4th chief justice of the Supreme Court , empowered the courts by establishing the principle of judicial review in law in the landmark case Marbury v. Madison in 1803, effectively giving

6837-464: The Senate may be filled by a governor 's appointment. Congress has 535 voting members: 100 senators and 435 representatives. The vice president of the United States , as President of the Senate, has a vote in the Senate only when there is a tie. The House of Representatives has six non-voting members . Congress convenes for a two-year term , commencing every other January. Elections are held every even-numbered year on Election Day . The members of

6966-635: The Supreme Court a power to nullify congressional legislation. The Civil War , which lasted from 1861 to 1865, which resolved the slavery issue and unified the nation under federal authority but weakened the power of states' rights . The Gilded Age (1877–1901) was marked by Republican dominance of Congress. During this time, lobbying activity became more intense, particularly during the administration of President Ulysses S. Grant in which influential lobbies advocated for railroad subsidies and tariffs on wool. Immigration and high birth rates swelled

7095-449: The U.S. Constitution requires that members of Congress be at least 25 years old for the House and at least 30 years old for the U.S. Senate, be a U.S. citizen for seven years for the House and nine years for the Senate, and be an inhabitant of the state which they represent. Members in both chambers may stand for re-election an unlimited number of times. The Congress was created by the U.S. Constitution and first met in 1789, replacing

7224-526: The United States defining broadcasting, so WQB was never formally classified as being a broadcasting station. By February 1922, it was reported that the station was transmitting on 360 meters (833 kHz), and Tuska had "just completed a 'broadcasting' room" studio. The most ambitious programs were twice-a-week evening broadcasts from the Capitol Theater, featuring organ recitals by Walter Dawley. But Tuska soon suspended most of WQB's broadcasts, with

7353-638: The United States under control of the Navy. The ARRL strongly opposed the bills. Maxim testified before Congressional committees and the League organized an effective grass roots campaign with thousands of individuals contacting their congressmen in opposition. The bills were defeated, and in April 1919 amateurs were permitted to put up antennas again, but only for receiving. Meanwhile, the League needed reorganization. A financing plan consisting of selling bonds to members

7482-530: The United States. The ARRL is governed by a member-elected, volunteer Board of Directors. The organization divides its membership into 15 Divisions, each representing a portion of the country. One Director and one vice-director are elected by the members of each Division to serve a three-year term. Director elections are staggered so that one-third of the Directors and Vice Directors are up for election each year. The Board of Directors manages policy direction for

7611-554: The White House a little more in favor of the executive branch", according to one account. Past presidents, including Ronald Reagan , George H. W. Bush , Bill Clinton , and George W. Bush , have made public statements when signing congressional legislation about how they understand a bill or plan to execute it, and commentators, including the American Bar Association , have described this practice as against

7740-504: The Whole votes, recent Congresses have not allowed for that, and they cannot vote when the House is meeting as the House of Representatives. On January 6, 2021, the Congress gathered to confirm the election of Joe Biden, when supporters of the outgoing president Donald Trump attacked the building . The session of Congress ended prematurely, and Congress representatives evacuated. Trump supporters occupied Congress until D.C police evacuated

7869-552: The Woman and the election of members of The Squad , respectively. Women of color faced additional challenges that made their ascension to Congress even more difficult. Jim Crow laws , voter suppression and other forms of structural racism made it virtually impossible for women of color to reach Congress prior to 1965. The passage of the Voting Rights Act that year , and the elimination of race-based immigration laws in

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7998-461: The World and its educational website) went unavailable. The organization didn't admit that the outage was caused by ransomware until it filed legally-mandated notifications of the data breach on July 11, more than two months after the breach started on May 3. In August 2024, the organization confirmed that it paid a million dollar ransom to resolve the malware attack. Sixteen radio amateurs have led

8127-563: The air. The ARRL developed the government-approved War Emergency Radio Service , a Civil Defense system. Thousands of League members, and many thousands more who received technical training through its publications, served in the conflict. In late 1945 the bands began to reopen. The end of the war brought a tremendous expansion of amateur radio as large amounts of war surplus equipment was available, many recently trained operators became active, and experiments began in such newly developed modes as single sideband and microwaves . The 1950s saw

8256-485: The appropriate components, which were used to construct a set that "gave satisfactory service for a number of years". Both Maxim and Tuska became prominent local amateur radio enthusiasts, with the two forming an informal "father-foster-son relationship", as Tuska's father was deceased. After the United States enacted the Radio Act of 1912 , all radio transmitters now were required to be licensed, and in early 1913 Tuska

8385-662: The area. The event was the first time since the Burning of Washington by the British during the War of 1812 that the United States Congress was forcefully occupied. Various social and structural barriers have prevented women from gaining seats in Congress. In the early 20th century, women's domestic roles and the inability to vote forestalled opportunities to run for and hold public office. The two party system and

8514-417: The budget has been lost when the welfare state expanded since "entitlements were institutionally detached from Congress's ordinary legislative routine and rhythm." Another factor leading to less control over the budget was a Keynesian belief that balanced budgets were unnecessary. The Sixteenth Amendment in 1913 extended congressional power of taxation to include income taxes without apportionment among

8643-574: The club and incorporated under Connecticut law. Finances were shaky, and most of the income came from sales of booklets, maps and message blanks. By March 1915, there were 600 stations on the roster, and due to improvements in equipment and operating ability, some of the better stations were claiming communication ranges of up to a thousand miles. It was apparent that the ARRL now needed some kind of bulletin to stay in touch with its members. Maxim and Tuska agreed to personally finance it, and in December 1915

8772-531: The continued development of amateur radio and consequent growth of the ARRL. New civil defense systems and procedures were developed by the League, including regular communications between isolated service members and their families. Equipment rapidly improved, although there was some trouble with television interference. The ARRL and many of its members cooperated with scientists during the International Geophysical Year in 1957, measuring

8901-547: The development of such an organization. Maxim and Clarence D. Tuska , the secretary of the Hartford Radio Club, developed application forms and sent them out to every amateur station they could think of. By September 1914 they had over 230 stations on the roster. In early 1915, disagreements began to surface as to the role of the Hartford Radio Club in the new organization, and in February the ARRL split off from

9030-472: The dormant ARRL, and an eight-page "midget issue" of QST was published in April 1919, where it was announced that $ 7,500 in 5% two-year bonds were being sold in order to restart the league. Approximately $ 4,700 of these funds were allocated for purchasing QST from Tuska and paying several months of outstanding printing fees. The fundraising proved successful, and monthly publication of QST resumed in June under

9159-612: The early years as political parties became pronounced. With the passage of the Constitution and the Bill of Rights , the anti-federalist movement was exhausted. Some activists joined the Anti-Administration Party that James Madison and Thomas Jefferson were forming about 1790–1791 to oppose policies of Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton ; it soon became the Democratic-Republican Party or

9288-495: The effects of solar activity on propagation in the VHF band. A controversial idea was originated in 1961 when the League encouraged "incentive licensing", which sought reversion to the principle that higher levels of license privileges should require higher levels of demonstrated knowledge and CW skill but took away some amateur privileges until licensees requalified at higher levels; "incentives" are still in effect and only holders of

9417-487: The electorate. Lame duck reforms according to the Twentieth Amendment reduced the power of defeated and retiring members of Congress to wield influence despite their lack of accountability. The Great Depression ushered in President Franklin Roosevelt and strong control by Democrats and historic New Deal policies. Roosevelt 's election in 1932 marked a shift in government power towards

9546-634: The establishment of the Hartford Courant ' s new broadcasting station, WDAK, even loaning the transmitting tubes formerly used at WQB in order to help the newspaper start operations. After the sale of the C. D. Tuska Company to Atwater Kent, he began working in that concern's patent office, earning a law degree from LaSalle Extension University in 1934. The next year he joined the Radio Corporation of America , where he became Director of Patent Operations in 1947. He became an expert in

9675-425: The exclusive power of removal , allowing impeachment and removal of the president, federal judges and other federal officers. There have been charges that presidents acting under the doctrine of the unitary executive have assumed important legislative and budgetary powers that should belong to Congress. So-called signing statements are one way in which a president can "tip the balance of power between Congress and

9804-595: The executive branch. Numerous New Deal initiatives came from the White House rather initiated by Congress. President Roosevelt pushed his agenda in Congress by detailing Executive Branch staff to friendly Senate committees (a practice that ended with the Legislative Reorganization Act of 1946). The Democratic Party controlled both houses of Congress for many years. During this time, Republicans and conservative southern Democrats formed

9933-404: The explanation that he "was obliged to discontinue broadcasting as he needed to devote all his time to the activities of the C. D. Tuska Co." Although there were occasional reports of additional broadcasts as late as April, regular operations had ceased, and WQB was formally deleted on June 24, 1922. The remainder of Tuska's working life was in the radio field. In March 1922, he participated in

10062-463: The extent of congressional versus presidential power regarding war has been present periodically throughout the nation's history. Congress can establish post offices and post roads, issue patents and copyrights , fix standards of weights and measures, establish Courts inferior to the Supreme Court , and "make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in

10191-564: The fear of communism during the Second Red Scare and conducted televised hearings. In 1960, Democratic candidate John F. Kennedy narrowly won the presidency and power shifted again to the Democrats who dominated both chambers of Congress from 1961 to 1980, and retained a consistent majority in the House from 1955 to 1994. Congress enacted Johnson's Great Society program to fight poverty and hunger. The Watergate Scandal had

10320-487: The field, authoring books that included Patent Notes for Engineers in 1956, Inventors and Inventions in 1957 and Accounting and Tax Aspects of Patents and Research (with J. A. McFadden) in 1960, as well as eight Journal of the Franklin Institute articles, including "So, You Want To Be an Inventor". In 1974, following the death of his wife Edith, Tuska moved from Princeton to Hightstown, New Jersey. At

10449-551: The first beginnings of DXpeditions . The League also began to act in an advisory capacity for the American delegations at international radio conferences. In 1925 the International Amateur Radio Union was formed, and it remains headquartered at Newington. The long-running Frankford Radio Club (W3BKX) was founded around 1927 and affiliated with ARRL in 1930. In the 1930s the Great Depression took its toll on development. Hiram Percy Maxim died in 1936. His callsign W1AW

10578-468: The first issue dated December 1915. One of the provisions of the Radio Act of 1912 was that, in a limited number of cases where it was shown to be of value, amateurs could be issued "Special Amateur" licenses, that permitted operation in the band of wavelengths from 600 to 200 meters (500 to 1500 kHz). Maxim successfully convinced government regulators that relay work fell into this category, and in

10707-542: The first radio receiver manufacturers. He is best known as the co-founder, along with Hiram Percy Maxim , of the American Radio Relay League (ARRL). He was also the original editor and owner of the amateur radio publication QST , which he subsequently sold to the ARRL in 1919, as part of his reorientation toward professional activities within the radio industry. Tuska was born in New York city,

10836-412: The first woman of color to reach the Senate in 1993. The second, Mazie Hirono , won in 2013. In 2021, Kamala Harris became the first female President of the Senate , which came with her role as the first female Vice President of the United States . Article One of the Constitution creates and sets forth the structure and most of the powers of Congress. Sections One through Six describe how Congress

10965-405: The first, 16-page issue of QST was sent free to all members. Further issues would be supplied through subscription at $ 1 per year. In 1916, with ARRL membership nearing a thousand, Maxim set up six trunk lines of relay stations, both east–west and north–south, and individual managers were appointed. Messages were now being relayed over longer and longer distances, and in February 1917 a message

11094-448: The general public, for picking up broadcasting stations, was included as part of the "amateur and experimental" rights. As a result of rapidly expanding demand, in late March 1922 it was announced that there were plans to increase the company work staff from 35 to 125 persons. By early June, it became necessary to move into an even larger factory, with the staff now numbering 175. In 1923 Tuska, in conjunction with Robert Miner, developed

11223-455: The highest class of license ( Amateur Extra ) maintain all amateur privileges. By 1964 the positive influence of the ARRL was so evident that the United States issued a commemorative postage stamp on its 50th anniversary. As the League prepared for the future a new headquarters building was opened at Newington. In May, June, and July 2024, various ARRL online systems (including the Logbook of

11352-402: The internal structure of Congress is important to understand along with its interactions with so-called intermediary institutions such as political parties , civic associations , interest groups , and the mass media . The Congress of the United States serves two distinct purposes that overlap: local representation to the federal government of a congressional district by representatives and

11481-486: The lack of term limits favored incumbent white men, making the widow's succession – in which a woman temporarily took over a seat vacated by the death of her husband – the most common path to Congress for white women. Women candidates began making substantial inroads in the later 20th century, due in part to new political support mechanisms and public awareness of their underrepresentation in Congress. Recruitment and financial support for women candidates were rare until

11610-430: The late 20th century, the media became more important in Congress's work. Analyst Michael Schudson suggested that greater publicity undermined the power of political parties and caused "more roads to open up in Congress for individual representatives to influence decisions". Norman Ornstein suggested that media prominence led to a greater emphasis on the negative and sensational side of Congress, and referred to this as

11739-488: The law. Generally militia forces are controlled by state governments, not Congress. Congress also has implied powers deriving from the Constitution's Necessary and Proper Clause which permit Congress to "make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof". Broad interpretations of this clause and of

11868-408: The legislative process – legislation cannot be enacted without the consent of both chambers. The Constitution grants each chamber some unique powers. The Senate ratifies treaties and approves presidential appointments while the House initiates revenue -raising bills. The House initiates impeachment cases, while the Senate decides impeachment cases. A two-thirds vote of the Senate

11997-441: The legislature since there were two separate chambers. The new government became active in 1789. Political scientist Julian E. Zelizer suggested there were four main congressional eras, with considerable overlap, and included the formative era (1780s–1820s), the partisan era (1830s–1900s), the committee era (1910s–1960s), and the contemporary era (1970–present). Federalists and anti-federalists jostled for power in

12126-516: The more efficient continuous wave system of generating radio-frequency energy and transmitting Morse Code became standard. In 1923 a two-way contact between Connecticut and France bridged the Atlantic Ocean for the first time. With government uncertainty as to how to allocate both commercial and amateur frequencies, the ARRL kept discipline in amateur ranks so that spectrum was not unnecessarily occupied. They worked with Washington and

12255-518: The national organization on a section-wide basis. The Section Traffic Manager is appointed by the Section Manager to supervise and coordinate traffic handling efforts within the National Traffic System and the section. The Section Emergency Coordinator is the assistant to the Section Manager for amateur radio emergency communications preparedness. The SEC is appointed by the Section Manager. United States Congress This

12384-403: The new league proved difficult, so Tuska suggested the establishment of a magazine to promote and coordinate the organization's activities, and, following advice from an uncle, founded QST magazine. Although QST acted as the official publication of the ARRL, initially the magazine was personally owned by Tuska, who became its first editor. The publication was prepared at his mother's house, with

12513-590: The new ownership. In 1920, with Maxim's help, Tuska established the C. D. Tuska Company in Hartford. After an unsuccessful attempt to market an electrical experimenter's kit, he later began offering radio equipment, eventually manufacturing radio receivers for amateurs and experimenters. As part of this effort, he obtained a license to use the Armstrong regenerative circuit patent, which was an important advance in radio reception. Although Tuska's company initially

12642-500: The only child of Ida Anna Ruddell and David Tuska. He lived in Nyack, New York until 1909, when his family moved to Hartford, Connecticut. After graduating from high school, he attended the local Trinity College (class of 1919, although he did not receive his Bachelor of Science degree until 1939). Tuska had an early interest in radio communication (then known as "wireless telegraphy") and experimentation. In 1908, while living in Nyack,

12771-560: The opposite, however, arguing that the ARRL was slow to lobby for the removal or the easing of the Morse code proficiency requirements of the various license classes, a "conservatism" keeping otherwise qualified people out of amateur radio and thus threatening its future. Other critics have cited ARRL's support for segmentation of the HF amateur bands in the U.S. by bandwidth , rather than by mode , which some have claimed gives preference to users of

12900-628: The organization as a whole. The Board of Directors appoints an executive committee, led by the President and consisting of members of the ARRL Board of Directors, to make policy decisions between full Board meetings. ARRL's officers manage day-to-day administrative operation of the organization, led by the Chief Executive Officer. These paid officers hold their positions as long as the Board of Directors approve but have no vote on

13029-535: The organization headquarters maintain and operates station W1AW , the Hiram Percy Maxim Memorial Station, as a living memorial to the "Father of Organized Amateur Radio". The W1AW station is used for regular Morse code training transmissions for those wishing to learn and also broadcasts a variety of bulletins of interest to radio amateurs. The ARRL/VEC ( Volunteer Examiner Coordinator ) sponsors amateur radio license examinations for

13158-584: The other branches of government. In the Plame affair , critics including Representative Henry A. Waxman charged that Congress was not doing an adequate job of oversight in this case. There have been concerns about congressional oversight of executive actions such as warrantless wiretapping , although others respond that Congress did investigate the legality of presidential decisions. Political scientists Ornstein and Mann suggested that oversight functions do not help members of Congress win reelection. Congress also has

13287-400: The pleasure of the Section Manager. The Section Manager also assists members with questions, issues or problems dealing with the organization's products and services; maintains liaison with the frequency coordinating body in the jurisdiction; maintains a relationship with the local field office of the Federal Communications Commission (FCC)(US only), and maintains communications with members in

13416-478: The principles of representational democracy and of openness and transparency. A December 2017 white paper critical of the ARRL's actions was published online by CQ . This censure was rescinded by the ARRL Board of Directors at its next board meeting, in July ;2019. The Elser-Mathes Cup was created in 1928 by U.S. Amateurs Fred Johnson Elser (W6FB/W7OX) and Stanley M. Mathes (7OE/K1CY) to be awarded for

13545-597: The process for going to war, they asked for and received formal war declarations from Congress for the War of 1812 , the Mexican–American War , the Spanish–American War , World War I , and World War II , although President Theodore Roosevelt 's military move into Panama in 1903 did not get congressional approval. In the early days after the North Korean invasion of 1950 , President Truman described

13674-703: The ranks of citizens and the nation grew at a rapid pace. The Progressive Era was characterized by strong party leadership in both houses of Congress and calls for reform; sometimes reformers said lobbyists corrupted politics. The position of Speaker of the House became extremely powerful under leaders such as Thomas Reed in 1890 and Joseph Gurney Cannon . By the beginning of the 20th century, party structures and leadership emerged as key organizers of Senate proceedings. A system of seniority, in which long-time members of Congress gained more and more power, encouraged politicians of both parties to seek long terms. Committee chairmen remained influential in both houses until

13803-504: The reforms of the 1970s. Important structural changes included the direct popular election of senators according to the Seventeenth Amendment , ratified on April 8, 1913. Supreme Court decisions based on the Constitution's commerce clause expanded congressional power to regulate the economy. One effect of popular election of senators was to reduce the difference between the House and Senate in terms of their link to

13932-534: The result was that amateurs received the orderly series of harmonic frequency bands that they largely hold today (originally 1.8, 3.5, 7, 14, 28, and 56 MHz; other bands have since been added and the 56 MHz allocation was changed to 50 MHz). Other activities during this time included transcontinental relays to quickly move messages across the United States, communications assistance in several emergencies, and encouragement for an amateur radio operator on an Arctic expedition of Donald B. MacMillan —perhaps

14061-409: The section and holds office for a two-year term. There are no term limits. For each of the section's activities, the Section Manager appoints individuals to oversee the activities. These individuals are collectively referred to as the cabinet . Cabinet positions include: The Section Manager also appoints volunteers to serve within these program areas. The volunteers in any given Section serve at

14190-510: The section for a two-year term. The Section Manager appoints a team of volunteers. A Section Manager may optionally appoint one or more Assistant Section Managers. An important function of the ARRL Field Organization is organizing emergency communications in the event of civil or natural disaster . The ARRL's Amateur Radio Emergency Service (ARES) program is organized through the ARRL Field Organization. Each Section of

14319-464: The section via email bulletins, web pages, and personal visits to Amateur Radio club meetings, hamfests and conventions. There are currently 71 sections in the ARRL, (United States) and 12 sections in the RAC (Canada). An Affiliated Club Coordinator is the assistant to the Section Manager for radio club matters. One ACC is appointed in each section by the Section Manager to encourage club affiliation with

14448-413: The several States, and without regard to any census or enumeration. The Constitution also grants Congress the exclusive power to appropriate funds, and this power of the purse is one of Congress's primary checks on the executive branch. Congress can borrow money on the credit of the United States, regulate commerce with foreign nations and among the states, and coin money. Generally, the Senate and

14577-736: The spirit of the Constitution. There have been concerns that presidential authority to cope with financial crises is eclipsing the power of Congress. In 2008, George F. Will called the Capitol building a "tomb for the antiquated idea that the legislative branch matters". The Constitution enumerates the powers of Congress in detail. In addition, other congressional powers have been granted, or confirmed, by constitutional amendments. The Thirteenth (1865), Fourteenth (1868), and Fifteenth Amendments (1870) gave Congress authority to enact legislation to enforce rights of African Americans, including voting rights , due process , and equal protection under

14706-458: The spring of 1914, Hiram Percy Maxim began promoting the idea of a national organization of amateurs that would transmit messages over greater distances by organizing relays. This resulted in Maxim's incorporation of the American Radio Relay League, with Maxim as president, and Tuska the organization's secretary. At this time Tuska also resigned from the Hartford Radio Club. Communications throughout

14835-628: The spring of 1915 Tuska was upgraded to a Special Amateur license, with the call sign 1ZT, which permitted operation on the standard relay wavelength of 425 meters (706 kHz). In April 1917, the entry of the United States into World War One resulted in all civilian radio stations being shut down for the duration of the conflict. Despite this, Tuska hoped to continue publishing QST , but with all amateur stations now silenced, and large numbers of their operators entering military service, this proved impossible. The magazine suspended publication after its September 1917 issue, and Tuska applied for and received

14964-401: The third day of January of every odd-numbered year. Members of the Senate are referred to as senators; members of the House of Representatives are referred to as representatives, congressmen, or congresswomen. Scholar and representative Lee H. Hamilton asserted that the "historic mission of Congress has been to maintain freedom" and insisted it was a "driving force in American government" and

15093-448: The three classes of U.S. amateur license. License classes and examinations are held in various locations throughout the year. Although the FCC currently recognizes 14 different organizations as VECs, the VEC sponsored by the ARRL oversees about two-thirds of all U.S. amateur radio license examinations. The ARRL provides dozens of publications and journals to both members and non-members. QST

15222-688: The time of his death in 1985, he was living in Cranbury, New Jersey. His Trinity College obituary reported that during his life he received about twenty patents, and his memberships included the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, the Philadelphia Patent Law Office, and the Old Guard of Princeton. In 1982, Tuska was inducted as the second member of the American Radio Relay League's Hall of Fame, and in 2001 he

15351-464: Was a minor concern oriented toward the relatively small amateur radio market, in 1922 a nationwide increase in the number of broadcasting stations caused an explosive growth in the radio industry. Moreover, although Tuska's Armstrong license only covered "amateur and experimental" offering (in contrast to the "commercial" rights held by Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Company ), a series of court rulings later clarified that radio receiver sales to

15480-537: Was a prominent businessman, engineer, and inventor (notably of the Maxim Silencer ). He was also an active radio amateur , with one of the best-equipped stations in the Hartford area. One night in April he attempted to send a message to another ham in Springfield, Massachusetts. He had a one-kilowatt station (call 1WH), and Springfield was only 30 miles (48 km) away, well within his normal range. He

15609-541: Was adopted and about $ 7500 was raised. QST was purchased from its owner, Clarence Tuska. ARRL continued to lobby Congress for the resumption of transmitting privileges, and after a number of protests and appeals, amateur radio was fully restored in November 1919. The 1920s saw tremendous technical growth in radio. Pushed both by wartime demands and by the growing commercialization of radio, equipment rapidly improved. The use of spark gap technology quickly disappeared as

15738-507: Was announced that the C. D. Tuska Company was being acquired by another radio manufacturer. This turned out to be the Atwater Kent company, which required an Armstrong license in order to fend off its own legal entanglements with Westinghouse. In August 1921, the C. D. Tuska Company was issued a license for a Limited Commercial radio station with the call letters WQB, which was located at Tuska's home at 136 Oakland Terrace. The station

15867-434: Was issued a standard Amateur license with the call sign 1WD. On January 14, 1914, local amateurs founded the Hartford Radio Club, and Tuska became the club's secretary. In the fall of 1915, he began teaching a radio principles class at the local Y.M.C.A. Tuska also began experimenting with radiotelephony, using an arc transmitter of his own design, which employed tungsten electrodes to make audio transmissions. In March 1916 it

15996-597: Was licensed to the League and remains in use as the first-ever Memorial Station. In 1937 the DXCC Award, for working 100 countries, was established, and it still is the premier achievement in amateur radio. Operators, often under the ARRL Emergency Corps, helped at numerous disasters. The League's QST magazine acted as a forum for experimenters in voice, television, and very high frequency work. During World War II , US amateurs were again told to leave

16125-419: Was lifted, and Tuska was issued a standard amateur license with the call sign 1AY. However, as the family bread-winner — in the 1920 U.S. census, he was listed as "head of household", living with his mother and grandmother Annie E. Ruddell, who were both widowed — he became focused on earning a living, so he turned to the professional side of the radio industry. At the same time an effort was being made to revive

16254-415: Was reported that he was broadcasting semi-regular phonograph concerts, at a time when virtually all radio transmissions were still employing the dots-and-dashes of Morse code . Under the provisions of the Radio Act of 1912, most amateur stations were restricted to operating on a wavelength of 200 meters (1500 kHz), which effectively limited their transmitting range to about 25 miles (40 kilometers). In

16383-410: Was sent from New York to Los Angeles and an answer received in one hour and twenty minutes. In 1917, the ARRL was reorganized to a more formal organization. A constitution was adopted, twelve directors and four officers were elected (including President Maxim and Secretary Tuska), and membership was opened to anyone interested in radio. No sooner had this happened than all amateurs received a letter from

16512-625: Was unable to make contact, and remembering that he knew another ham in Windsor Locks, about halfway, he asked him to relay the message. At that time, the maximum reliable range of a station was a few hundred miles, and so Maxim realized that a formally organized relay system would be of tremendous use to amateurs. Maxim was a member of the Radio Club of Hartford, and he presented a plan for the organization of an "American Radio Relay League" at its April 1914 meeting. The club agreed to sponsor

16641-514: Was used to investigate developing radiotelephones for two-way mobile communication, and an August 1921 report noted the successful test of "a full-fledged wireless outfit in the rear of [Fire Chief John C. Moran's] Marmon touring car". WQB was also one of the first post-World War One stations to conduct regular entertainment broadcasts, although at the time the station received its initial (and only) license in August 1921 there were no regulations in

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