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123-779: The AN/PEQ-2 succeeded the AN/PAQ-4C, which was designed in the early 1990s after the Persian Gulf War . It was widely used by US forces during the War in Afghanistan and the Iraq War . The device is still seeing active service but is being withdrawn and replaced amongst U.S. Armed Forces . It was also part of the U.S. SOPMOD kit, though the device is being replaced by the new smaller LA-5/PEQ-15 . The AN/PEQ-2 has two infrared laser emitters;one narrow beam used for aiming

246-584: A 1998 fatwā , al-Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden cited the sanctions against Iraq as a justification for attacks against Americans. Bin Laden stated that the sanctions had caused the deaths of 1.5 million Iraqi children in an effort "to destroy Iraq, the most powerful neighboring Arab state." In a 2015 article in the journal International Affairs , Francesco Giumelli noted that the UNSC had largely abandoned comprehensive sanctions in favor of targeted sanctions since

369-566: A Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) with the UN in May 1996. Under the OFFP, the UN states that "Iraq was permitted to sell $ 2 billion worth of oil every six months, with two-thirds of that amount to be used to meet Iraq's humanitarian needs. In 1998, the limit on the level of Iraqi oil exports ... was raised to $ 5.26 billion every six months, again with two-thirds of the oil proceeds to be earmarked to meet

492-559: A Kuwaiti armored battalion, 35th Armoured Brigade , deployed them against the Iraqi attack and conducted a robust defense at the Battle of the Bridges near Al Jahra , west of Kuwait City. Kuwaiti aircraft scrambled to meet the invading force, but approximately 20% were lost or captured. A few combat sorties were flown against Iraqi ground forces. The main Iraqi thrust into Kuwait City

615-881: A blue removable safety block which physically prevents turning the mode switch to any of the high-power modes, which are capable of causing eye damage. Both variants are waterproof to a depth of 20 meters and run on two AA batteries . Gulf War Coalition: 292 killed (147 killed by enemy action, 145 non-hostile deaths) 776 wounded (467 wounded in action) 31 tanks destroyed/disabled 28 Bradley IFVs destroyed/damaged 1 M113 APC destroyed 2 British Warrior APCs destroyed 1 artillery piece destroyed 75 aircraft destroyed Kuwait: 420 killed 12,000 captured ≈200 tanks destroyed/captured 850+ other armored vehicles destroyed/captured 57 aircraft lost 8 aircraft captured (Mirage F1s) Coalition intervention Naval operations Air campaign Liberation of Kuwait Post-ceasefire The Gulf War

738-459: A form of economic warfare, which it claimed was aggravated by Kuwait slant-drilling across the border into Iraq's Rumaila oil field . According to oil workers in the area, Iraq's slant drilling claim was fabricated, as "oil flows easily from the Rumaila field without any need for these techniques." At the same time, Saddam looked for closer ties with those Arab states that had supported Iraq in

861-547: A local armed resistance movement following the Iraqi occupation of Kuwait. The Kuwaiti resistance's  [ ar ] casualty rate far exceeded that of the coalition military forces and Western hostages. The resistance predominantly consisted of ordinary citizens who lacked any form of training and supervision. A key element of US political, military and energy economic planning occurred in early 1984. The Iran–Iraq war had been going on for five years by that time and both sides sustained significant casualties, reaching into

984-634: A minimum, 80 per 1000 births; by March 1998, a likely 227,000 excess deaths among children under 5 had occurred, "an average of about 60 excess deaths each day." In 2000, Garfield, citing new data, recalculated his estimate to 350,000 excess deaths. Later on in 1999, the UN International Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF) published a study called the "Iraq Child and Maternal Mortality Survey" (ICMMS). Using survey data from nearly 40,000 households collated in cooperation with Iraqi government and autonomous Kurdistan Region field workers,

1107-562: A national rate in the range 47–100" deaths per 1000 births. In 1999, Garfield—utilizing a statistical model and "Information from twenty-two field studies, including data from thirty-six nutritional assessments ... demographic estimates from nine sources, three Iraqi government reports, ten UN-related reports, and eighteen press and research reports," as well as "four large, well designed and managed studies examining death rates among [Iraqi] children from 1988 through 1998"—estimates that from 1991 to 1996, deaths among children under 5 reached, at

1230-585: A part of the Ottoman Empire 's province of Basra , something that Iraq claimed made Kuwait rightful Iraqi territory. Kuwait's ruling dynasty, the al-Sabah family , had concluded a protectorate agreement in 1899 that assigned responsibility for Kuwait's foreign affairs to the United Kingdom. The UK drew the border between Kuwait and Iraq in 1922, making Iraq almost entirely landlocked. Kuwait rejected Iraqi attempts to secure further provisions in

1353-603: A request for Kuwait to lease Iraq Umm Qasr was rejected. Saudi-backed development projects were hampered by Iraq's large debts, even with the demobilization of 200,000 soldiers. Iraq also looked to increase arms production so as to become an exporter, although the success of these projects was also restrained by Iraq's obligations; in Iraq, resentment to OPEC's controls mounted. Iraq's relations with its Arab neighbors, particularly Egypt, were degraded by mounting violence in Iraq against expatriate groups, who were well-employed during

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1476-495: A strong air defense. Iraqi commandos infiltrated the Kuwaiti border first to prepare for the major units, which began the attack at midnight. The Iraqi attack had two prongs, with the primary attack force driving south straight for Kuwait City down the main highway, and a supporting attack force entering Kuwait farther west, but then turning and driving east, cutting off Kuwait City from the country's southern half. The commander of

1599-627: A successful counteroffensive ( Operation Undeniable Victory ), and the US increased its support for Iraq to prevent Iran from forcing a surrender. In a US bid to open full diplomatic relations with Iraq, the country was removed from the US list of State Sponsors of Terrorism. Ostensibly, this was because of improvement in the regime's record, although former US Assistant Defense Secretary Noel Koch later stated: "No one had any doubts about [the Iraqis'] continued involvement in terrorism  ... The real reason

1722-685: A total Iraqi pullout from Kuwait, without any linkage to other Middle Eastern problems, accepting the British view that any concessions would strengthen Iraqi influence in the region for years to come. On 12 August 1990, Saddam "propose[d] that all cases of occupation, and those cases that have been portrayed as occupation, in the region, be resolved simultaneously". Specifically, he called for Israel to withdraw from occupied territories in Palestine, Syria, and Lebanon, Syria to withdraw from Lebanon, and "mutual withdrawals by Iraq and Iran and arrangement for

1845-448: A year, that Kuwait was still using the Rumaila oil field, and that loans made by the UAE and Kuwait could not be considered debts to its "Arab brothers". He threatened force against Kuwait and the UAE, saying: "The policies of some Arab rulers are American ... They are inspired by America to undermine Arab interests and security." The US sent aerial refuelling planes and combat ships to

1968-509: Is the price worth it?" and Albright replied "I think this is a very hard choice, but the price, we think the price is worth it." Albright wrote later that Saddam Hussein, not the sanctions, was to blame. She criticized Stahl's segment as "amount[ing] to Iraqi propaganda"; said that her question was a loaded question ; wrote "I had fallen into a trap and said something I did not mean"; and regretted coming "across as cold-blooded and cruel". The segment won an Emmy Award . Albright's "non-denial"

2091-762: The 2003 invasion of Iraq and the subsequent Iraq War). Some authors have called it the Second Gulf War to distinguish it from the Iran–Iraq War . Liberation of Kuwait ( Arabic : تحرير الكويت ) ( taḥrīr al-kuwayt ) is the term used by Kuwait and most of the coalition's Arab states, including Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Egypt, and the United Arab Emirates . Terms in other languages include French : la Guerre du Golfe and Guerre du Koweït ( War of Kuwait ); German : Golfkrieg ( Gulf War ) and Zweiter Golfkrieg ( Second Gulf War ). Most of

2214-435: The Battle of Medina Ridge , the Battle of Norfolk , and the Battle of 73 Easting . The war is also known under other names, such as the Second Gulf War (not to be confused with the 2003 Iraq War , also referred to as such ), Persian Gulf War , Kuwait War , First Iraq War , or Iraq War before the term "Iraq War" became identified with the 2003 Iraq War (also known in the US as " Operation Iraqi Freedom "). The war

2337-674: The Foreign & Commonwealth Office (FCO) based on the 1999 ICMMS study, but an internal caveat from the FCO and the Department for International Development (DFID) to the effect that the ICMMS was of questionable reliability because it had been "conducted with the Iraqi regime's 'help' and relied on some Iraqi figures" was not communicated to Blair by a 10 Downing Street official. The inquiry noted "The level of child mortality in Iraq estimated by

2460-611: The Iraq–Saudi Arabia border . The conflict marked the introduction of live news broadcasts from the front lines of the battle, principally by the American network CNN . It has also earned the nickname Video Game War , after the daily broadcast of images from cameras onboard American military aircraft during Operation Desert Storm. The Gulf War has also gained fame for some of the largest tank battles in American military history :

2583-525: The Israeli-occupied territories , where riots had resulted in Palestinian deaths, was vetoed by the US, making Iraq deeply skeptical of US foreign policy aims in the region, combined with the reliance of the US on Middle Eastern energy reserves. In early July 1990, Iraq complained about Kuwait's behavior, such as not respecting their quota, and openly threatened to take military action. On

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2706-646: The Kuwait Air Force was around 2,200 Kuwaiti personnel, with 80 fixed-wing aircraft and 40 helicopters. In spite of Iraqi saber rattling , Kuwait did not mobilize its force; the army had been stood-down on 19 July, and during the Iraqi invasion many Kuwaiti military personnel were on leave. By 1988, at the end of the Iran–Iraq war, the Iraqi Army was the world's fourth largest army, consisting of 955,000 standing soldiers and 650,000 paramilitary forces in

2829-603: The State Department , despite Secretary of State George Shultz 's public condemnation of Iraq's "unjustified and abhorrent" chemical attacks. According to Pell in October 1988: "Agricultural interests objected to the suspension of taxpayer subsidies for agricultural exports to Iraq; the oil industry protested the oil boycott—although alternative supplies are readily available. Even a chemical company called to inquire how its products might be impacted." As described by

2952-572: The United Kingdom , and Egypt as the largest lead-up contributors, in that order. United Nations Security Council Resolution 678 , adopted on 29 November 1990, gave Iraq an ultimatum, expiring on 15 January 1991, to implement Resolution 660 and withdraw from Kuwait, with member-states empowered to use "all necessary means" to force Iraq's compliance. Initial efforts to dislodge the Iraqis from Kuwait began with aerial and naval bombardment of Iraq on 17 January, which continued for five weeks. As

3075-581: The United Nations (UN), the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) Resolution 661 imposed comprehensive sanctions on Iraq following that country's August 1990 invasion of Kuwait . These sanctions included strict limits both on the items that could be imported into Iraq and on those that could be exported. UN Resolutions 660 , 661 , 662 , 664 , 665 , 666 , 667 , 669 , 670 , 674 , 677 , 678 and 687 expressed

3198-435: The fifteen members of the UNSC. (Additionally, some funds were withheld for Kuwaiti reparations .) The sanctions regime was continually modified in response to growing international concern over civilian harms attributed to the sanctions; eventually, all limitations on the quantity of Iraqi oil exports were removed (per Resolution 1284 ), and a large proportion of Iraqi purchases were pre-approved (per Resolution 1409 ), with

3321-481: The national income per capita was estimated to be US$ 1,000—less than half of what it had been in 1990, according to Robert Litwak . High rates of malnutrition, lack of medical supplies, and diseases from lack of clean water were reported during the sanctions. In 2001, the chairman of the Iraqi Medical Association's scientific committee sent a plea to The BMJ to help it raise awareness of

3444-653: The 1999 Unicef survey" as "an especially masterful fraud," citing that three comprehensive surveys (using full birth histories) conducted with the post-invasion Iraqi government—namely, the 2004 Iraq Living Conditions Survey (ILCS), which was initially discounted by the Volcker Committee for finding far fewer child deaths than expected, and the Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys (MICS) carried out by UNICEF and Iraq's Ministry of Health (MOH) in 2006 and again in 2011—all found that

3567-697: The 23rd, the CIA reported that Iraq had moved 30,000 troops to the Iraq-Kuwait border, and the US naval fleet in the Persian Gulf was placed on alert. Saddam believed an anti-Iraq conspiracy was developing – Kuwait had begun talks with Iran, and Iraq's rival Syria had arranged a visit to Egypt. On 15 July 1990, Saddam's government laid out its combined objections to the Arab League , including that policy moves were costing Iraq $ 1 billion

3690-541: The Children Fund , citing UNICEF data published in 2007, reported that "Iraq’s child mortality rate ha[d] increased by a staggering 150 percent since 1990, more than any other country," due to "years of repression, conflict and external sanctions"; according to the data, Iraq's under-5 child mortality rate increased from 50 deaths per 1000 births in 1990 to 125 deaths per 1000 births in 2005. In 2017, researchers Tim Dyson and Valeria Cetorelli described "the rigging of

3813-735: The Emir's youngest brother. Within 12 hours, most resistance had ended within Kuwait, and the royal family had fled, allowing Iraq to control most of Kuwait. After two days of intense combat, most of the Kuwaiti military were either overrun by the Iraqi Republican Guard , or had escaped to Saudi Arabia. The Emir and key ministers fled south along the highway for refuge in Saudi Arabia. Iraqi ground forces consolidated their control of Kuwait City, then headed south and redeployed along

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3936-621: The Human Rights Research Journal of the New Zealand Center for Public Law, examined each of the "most widely accepted ethical frameworks" in the context of violations of Iraqi human rights under the sanctions, finding that "primary responsibility rests with the UNSC" under these frameworks, including rights-utilitarianism, moral Kantianism, and consequentialism. By contrast, some academics, American and UN officials, and Iraqi citizens contend that this ignores

4059-403: The ICMMS (131 deaths per 1000 births) closely matched each other, indicating the latter's reliability. Although Iraqi government field workers conducted the interviews, they were supervised by UNICEF personnel; "any instructions to falsify the data would have had to be slipped in behind [UNICEF's] backs." The researchers also commented that for such tampering to occur, it "would have had to involve

4182-409: The ICMMS found that Iraq's under-5 child mortality rate increased from 56 deaths per 1000 births (during 1984–1989) to 131 deaths per 1000 births (during 1994–1999), which when extrapolated yields an estimate between 400,000 to 500,000 excess deaths among children under 5. The ICMMS reported that the autonomous Kurdistan Region experienced a lower child mortality rate (69 deaths per 1000 births) than

4305-552: The ICMMS was significantly higher than that estimated by later surveys," citing "estimates that the under‑five mortality rate in Iraq was 55 per 1,000 in 1989, 46 per 1,000 in 1999, 42 per 1,000 in 2003, and 37 per 1,000 in 2010 (when Mr Blair gave his evidence to the Inquiry)." Following the 2003 U.S. invasion , the sanctions regime was largely ended on May 22, 2003 (with certain exceptions related to arms and to oil revenue) by paragraph 10 of UNSC Resolution 1483 . In December 2010,

4428-498: The International Study Team (IST) conducted an independent nationally representative household survey and found that mortality among children under the age of 5 increased from 43.2 deaths per 1000 births prior to Operation Desert Storm to 128.5 deaths per 1000 births during the first eight months of 1991; when extrapolated, this accounted for approximately 46,900 excess deaths from January to August 1991. In 1995,

4551-426: The Iraqi dinar, thereby lowering the Kuwaiti currency to one-twelfth of its original value. In response, Sheikh Jaber al-Ahmad al-Sabah ruled the banknotes as invalid and refused to reimburse stolen notes, which became worthless because of a UN embargo. After the conflict ended, many of the stolen banknotes made their way back into circulation. The stolen banknotes are a collectible for numismatists . Kuwaitis founded

4674-517: The Iraqi military struggled against the coalition attacks, Iraq fired missiles at Israel to provoke an Israeli military response, with the expectation that such a response would lead to the withdrawal of several Muslim-majority countries from the coalition. The provocation was unsuccessful; Israel did not retaliate and Iraq continued to remain at odds with most Muslim-majority countries. Iraqi missile barrages against coalition targets in Saudi Arabia were also largely unsuccessful, and on 24 February 1991,

4797-531: The Iraqi people badly, but that's not at all a crime against humanity or genocide." Halliday's successor, Hans von Sponeck , subsequently also resigned in protest, calling the effects of the sanctions a "true human tragedy". Jutta Burghardt, head of the World Food Program in Iraq, followed them. Throughout the Ba'ath Party's rule over Iraq, the agricultural sector had been under-performing. Those in

4920-629: The Iraqi point of view that the measures taken by the UAE and Kuwait is, in the final analysis, parallel to military aggression against Iraq, then it would be reasonable for me to be concerned. Saddam stated that he would attempt last-ditch negotiations with the Kuwaitis but Iraq "would not accept death." According to Glaspie's own account, she stated in reference to the precise border between Kuwait and Iraq, "... that she had served in Kuwait 20 years before; 'then, as now, we took no position on these Arab affairs'." Glaspie similarly believed that war

5043-592: The Jeddah talks was an Iraqi demand for $ 10 billion to cover the lost revenues from Rumaila; Kuwait offered $ 500 million. The Iraqi response was to immediately order an invasion, which started on 2 August 1990 with the bombing of Kuwait's capital, Kuwait City . Before the invasion, the Kuwaiti military was believed to have numbered 16,000 men, arranged into three armored, one mechanized infantry and one under-strength artillery brigade. The pre-war strength of

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5166-516: The Kuwaiti emir Al Sabah and the Iraqi foreign minister – during which the emir stated his intention to turn "every Iraqi woman into a $ 10 prostitute" by bankrupting the country – was a decisive factor in triggering the Iraqi invasion. On the 25th, Saddam met with April Glaspie , the US Ambassador to Iraq , in Baghdad. The Iraqi leader attacked American policy with regards to Kuwait and

5289-523: The Palestinian issue. On 23 August, Saddam appeared on state television with Western hostages to whom he had refused exit visas. In the video, he asks a young British boy, Stuart Lockwood, whether he is getting his milk, and goes on to say, through his interpreter, "We hope your presence as guests here will not be for too long. Your presence here, and in other places, is meant to prevent the scourge of war." Another Iraqi proposal communicated in August 1990

5412-581: The Persian Gulf in response to these threats. Discussions in Jeddah , Saudi Arabia, mediated on the Arab League's behalf by Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak , were held on 31 July and led Mubarak to believe that a peaceful course could be established. During Saddam Hussein's 2003–2004 interrogation following his capture he claimed that in addition to economic disputes, an insulting exchange between

5535-535: The Popular Army. According to John Childs and André Corvisier, a low estimate shows the Iraqi Army capable of fielding 4,500 tanks, 484 combat aircraft and 232 combat helicopters. According to Michael Knights, a high estimate shows the Iraqi Army capable of fielding one million troops and 850,000 reservists, 5,500 tanks, 3,000 artillery pieces, 700 combat aircraft and helicopters; it held 53 divisions, 20 special-forces brigades, and several regional militias, and had

5658-466: The RCC stated it was planning to utilize and exploit "every inch of Iraqi arable land". While official statistics cannot be trusted entirely, they showed massive growth in arable land: from 16,446 donums in 1980 to 45,046 donums in 1990. In turn, irrigation projects were launched to meet the increased demand for water in Iraq's agricultural sector. The increase in agricultural output does not mean that hunger

5781-499: The Saddam Hussein regime and that "there was no major rise in child mortality in Iraq after 1990 and during the period of the sanctions." Nevertheless, sanctions contributed to a significant reduction in Iraq's per capita national income , high rates of malnutrition , shortages of medical supplies, diseases from lack of clean water , lengthy power outages , and the near collapse of the education system —especially prior to

5904-516: The Saudi border. After the decisive Iraqi victory, Saddam initially installed a puppet regime known as the " Provisional Government of Free Kuwait " before installing his cousin Ali Hassan al-Majid as Kuwait's governor on 8 August. After the invasion, the Iraqi military looted over $ 1 billion in banknotes from Kuwait's Central Bank. At the same time, Saddam Hussein made the Kuwaiti dinar equal to

6027-784: The U.S. who supported sanctions believed that low agricultural production in Iraq (coupled with sanctions) would lead to "a hungry population", and "a hungry population was an unruly one". The Iraqi government, which understood the serious effects the sanctions could have on Iraq, was able to increase agricultural output by 24 percent from 1990 to 1991. During the sanction years, the agricultural sector witnessed "a boom of unprecedented proportions". Iraq's Revolutionary Command Council (RCC) introduced several decrees during this period to increase agricultural performance. These decrees may be separated into three categories: The RCC introduced Decree No. 367 in 1990, which stated that all lands which were not under production by their owners would be taken over by

6150-574: The U.S., legal enforcement was handled by the Office of Foreign Assets Control (OFAC). For example, in 2005 OFAC fined Voices in the Wilderness $ 20,000 for gifting medicine and other humanitarian supplies to Iraqis without prior acquisition of an export license as required by law. There is a general consensus that the sanctions achieved the express goals of limiting Iraqi arms. For example, U.S. Under Secretary of Defense Douglas J. Feith says that

6273-538: The UAE: So what can it mean when America says it will now protect its friends? It can only mean prejudice against Iraq. This stance plus maneuvers and statements which have been made has encouraged the UAE and Kuwait to disregard Iraqi rights ... If you use pressure, we will deploy pressure and force. We know that you can harm us although we do not threaten you. But we too can harm you. Everyone can cause harm according to their ability and their size. We cannot come all

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6396-843: The UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) conducted a small survey representative of Baghdad's neighbourhoods and reported that the under-5 child mortality rate had increased to 206 per 1000 births by August 1995; extrapolating approximately 567,000 deaths of children under the age of 5. However, when Sarah Zaidi—one of the study's coauthors—carried out follow-up surveys and reinterviews in 1996 and 1997: "65 deaths recorded in 1995 were not reported in 1996, and nine recorded in 1996 were not reported in 1995"; of 26 women interviewed in 1995 and 1997, "Nine child deaths that had been recorded in 1995 but not in 1996 were confirmed ... 13 were not confirmed, and four miscarriages and stillbirths were found to have been mistakenly recorded as deaths in 1995." Moreover,

6519-546: The UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) reported that the sanctions "have virtually paralyzed the whole economy and generated persistent deprivation, chronic hunger, endemic undernutrition, massive unemployment and widespread human suffering." Denis Halliday , the UN Humanitarian Coordinator in Baghdad , Iraq, resigned in October 1998 resigned after a 34-year career with the UN in order to have

6642-490: The UNSC "voted to return control of Iraq's oil and natural gas revenue to the government on 30 June and to end all remaining activities of the [OFFP]". Iraq's Chapter VII obligations "concerning the return of Kuwaiti and third-State nationals" were rescinded in June 2013 by Resolution 2107 . In December 2021, Iraq's central bank announced that it had paid off its entire debt of $ 52 billion in war reparations to Kuwait. In

6765-626: The UNSC) to individually approve its purchases, with "foodstuffs and certain medical, health and agricultural materials exempt from review" according to the United States Department of State . (Additionally, some of the revenue was redirected for other purposes, notably reparations to Kuwait. ) In May 2002 the process was streamlined by Resolution 1409 , which established a "Goods Review List" for dual-purpose items. From then on, all other Iraqi purchases were automatically approved, while

6888-552: The United States 'satisfactory to both nations' national security interests,' develop a joint plan 'to alleviate Iraq's economical and financial problems' and 'jointly work on the stability of the gulf.'" On 29 November 1990, the Security Council passed Resolution 678 , which gave Iraq until 15 January 1991 to withdraw from Kuwait, and empowered states to use "all necessary means" to force Iraq out of Kuwait after

7011-458: The United States had little capability to defend the region. Furthermore, it was determined that a prolonged war in the region would induce much higher oil prices and threaten the fragile recovery of the world economy, which was just beginning to gain momentum. On 22 May 1984, President Reagan was briefed on the project conclusions in the Oval Office by William Flynn Martin who had served as

7134-563: The adoption of UN Security Council Resolution 661 . British prime minister Margaret Thatcher and U.S. president George H. W. Bush deployed troops and equipment into Saudi Arabia and urged other countries to send their own forces. Many countries joined the American-led coalition forming the largest military alliance since World War II . The bulk of the coalition's military power was from the United States , with Saudi Arabia ,

7257-473: The age of 5—greatly increased during the sanctions at varying degrees. On the other hand, several later surveys conducted in cooperation with the post-Saddam government during the U.S.-led occupation of Iraq "all put the U5MR in Iraq during 1995–2000 in the vicinity of 40 per 1000," suggesting that "there was no major rise in child mortality in Iraq after 1990 and during the period of the sanctions." In 1991,

7380-561: The child mortality rate in the period 1995–2000 was approximately 40 per 1000, which means that "there was no major rise in child mortality in Iraq after 1990 and during the period of the sanctions," although a "slight increase" in child mortality did occur "between 1990 and 1991." As a corollary, "there was no major improvement in child mortality" as a result of the 2003 invasion of Iraq , contrary to claims made by some of its proponents. Per Dyson and Cetorelli, "the UN unobtrusively changed its own U5MR estimates in 2009." Scholar Ramon Das, in

7503-490: The coalition launched a major ground assault into Iraqi-occupied Kuwait. The offensive was a decisive victory for the coalition, who liberated Kuwait and promptly began to advance past the Iraq–Kuwait border into Iraqi territory. A hundred hours after the beginning of the ground campaign, the coalition ceased its advance into Iraq and declared a ceasefire. Aerial and ground combat was confined to Iraq, Kuwait, and areas straddling

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7626-589: The coalition states used various names for their operations and the war's operational phases. These are sometimes incorrectly used as the conflict's overall name, especially the US Desert Storm : The US divided the conflict into three major campaigns: Throughout the Cold War , Iraq had been an ally of the Soviet Union , and there was a history of friction between Iraq and the United States. The US

7749-563: The consequences of allowing Saddam to continue his policies with no deterrence and unlimited capacity. Some commentators blame Saddam Hussein for the excess deaths reported during this period. For example, Rubin argued that the Kurdish and the Iraqi governments handled OFFP aid differently, and that therefore the Iraqi government policy, rather than the sanctions themselves, should be held responsible for any negative effects. Likewise, Cortright claimed: "The tens of thousands of excess deaths in

7872-716: The country for economic support  – opposed military intervention from non-Arab states. Separately, Sudan, also an Arab League member, aligned itself with Saddam. On 6 August, Resolution 661 placed economic sanctions on Iraq. Resolution 665 followed soon after, which authorized a naval blockade to enforce the sanctions. It said the "use of measures commensurate to the specific circumstances as may be necessary ... to halt all inward and outward maritime shipping in order to inspect and verify their cargoes and destinations and to ensure strict implementation of resolution 661." The US administration had at first been indecisive with an "undertone ... of resignation to

7995-530: The country within two days. The invasion was primarily over disputes regarding Kuwait's alleged slant drilling in Iraq's Rumaila oil field , as well as to cancel Iraq's large debt to Kuwait from the recently ended Iran-Iraq War . After Iraq briefly occupied Kuwait under a rump puppet government known as the Republic of Kuwait , it split Kuwait's sovereign territory into the Saddamiyat al-Mitla' District in

8118-472: The deadline. International sanctions against Iraq On 6 August 1990, four days after the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait , the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) placed a comprehensive embargo on Iraq . The sanctions stayed largely in force until 22 May 2003 (after Saddam Hussein 's being forced from power), and persisted in part, including reparations to Kuwait. The original stated purposes of

8241-433: The differences in results noted by authors such as Rubin may have been because the sanctions were not the same in the two parts of Iraq, due to several regional differences: in the per capita money, in war damage to infrastructure and in the relative ease with which smugglers evaded sanctions through the porous Northern borders. Spagat argued in response that "it is hard to believe that these factors could completely overwhelm

8364-465: The director of the OFFP, Benon Sevan , personally accepted $ 147,184 in bribes from Saddam's government, which Sevan denied. By the late 1990s, the Iraqi economy showed signs of modest growth, which would continue until 2003: Iraq's gross domestic product increased from US$ 10.8 billion in 1996 to US$ 30.8 billion in 2000. The OFFP was the major factor in this growth, as it led to the inflow of hard currency , which helped reduce inflation. (Another factor

8487-475: The disastrous effects the sanctions were having on the Iraqi healthcare system. In January 1991, the U.S. Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA) prepared a detailed study of Iraq’s water treatment system. Titled "Iraq Water Treatment Vulnerabilities," the DIA study noted that Iraq's water treatment system was particularly vulnerable to sanctions, noting that "it probably will take at least six months (to June 1991) before

8610-499: The end of the war with Iran, in September 1988 United States (U.S.) senators Claiborne Pell and Jesse Helms called for comprehensive economic sanctions against Iraq, including an oil embargo and severe limitations on the export of dual-use technology . Although the ensuing legislation passed in the U.S. Senate, it faced strong opposition within the House of Representatives and did not become law. Several U.S. commercial interests with ties to Iraq lobbied against sanctions, as did

8733-441: The exception of those involving dual-use technology . In later years, Iraq manipulated the OFFP to generate hard currency for illegal transactions, while some neighboring countries began to ignore the sanctions entirely, contributing to a modest economic recovery. By reducing food imports, the sanctions appear to have played a role in encouraging Iraq to become more agriculturally self-sufficient , although malnutrition among Iraqis

8856-426: The freedom to criticise the sanctions regime, saying "I don't want to administer a programme that satisfies the definition of genocide ." However, Sophie Boukhari, a UNESCO Courier journalist, reports that "some legal experts are skeptical about or even against using such terminology" and quotes Mario Bettati for the view that "People who talk like that don't know anything about law. The embargo has certainly affected

8979-492: The goals of eliminating weapons of mass destruction (WMD) and extended-range ballistic missiles , prohibiting any support for terrorism , and forcing Iraq to pay war reparations and all foreign debt. When the Oil-for-Food Programme (OFFP) allowed Iraq to resume exporting oil in 1996, the resulting revenue was held in escrow ; Iraq had to ask the "Iraq Sanctions Committee" (i.e., the fifteen members of

9102-620: The head of the NSC staff that organized the study. (The full declassified presentation can be seen here: ) The conclusions were threefold: first, oil stocks needed to be increased among members of the International Energy Agency and, if necessary, released early if the oil market was disrupted; second, the United States needed to beef up the security of friendly Arab states in the region; and third, an embargo should be placed on sales of military equipment to Iran and Iraq. The plan

9225-620: The humanitarian needs of the Iraqi people." In later iterations of the OFFP (pursuant to the December 1999 Resolution 1284 ), there were no restrictions on Iraq's oil exports and the share of revenue allocated to humanitarian relief increased to 72%; 25% of the proceeds (which were held in escrow ) were redirected to a Kuwaiti reparations fund , and 3% to UN programs related to Iraq. The first shipments of food arrived in March 1997, with medicines following in May 1997. The UN recounts that "Over

9348-501: The hundreds of thousands. Within President Ronald Reagan 's National Security Council concern was growing that the war could spread beyond the boundaries of the two belligerents. A National Security Planning Group meeting was formed, chaired by then Vice President George H. W. Bush , to review US options. It was determined that the conflict would likely spread into Saudi Arabia and other Persian Gulf states, but that

9471-481: The import of vital materials and technologies for producing WMD." Saddam told his Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) interrogator that Iraq's armaments "had been eliminated by the UN sanctions." As the humanitarian impact of the sanctions became a matter of international concern, several UN resolutions were introduced that allowed Iraq to trade its oil for approved goods such as food and medicine. The earliest of these, Resolution 706 of 15 August 1991, allowed

9594-460: The import of which was tightly regulated. In April 1991, following Iraq's defeat in the Gulf War , Resolution 687 lifted the prohibition on foodstuffs, but sanctions remained in effect with revisions, including linkage to removal of weapons of mass destruction. Despite the provisions of Resolution 706 , Resolution 712 , and Resolution 986 , the UN and the Iraqi government could not agree on

9717-404: The insertion of fictitious births and deaths into the records," which "would have been almost impossible to effect without introducing serious distortions into the pattern of birth intervals" but there is no evidence that this occurred. They thus "maintain that the ICMMS is the most reliable, indeed the only reasonably reliable source of information on mortality in Iraq in the 1990s." The Save

9840-499: The introduction of the OFFP. Most UNSC sanctions since the 1990s have been targeted rather than comprehensive, a change partially motivated by concerns that the Iraq sanctions had inflicted disproportionate civilian harm. The Reagan administration generally supported Iraq during the Iran–Iraq War , despite Iraq's extensive use of chemical weapons against post- revolutionary Iran . In response to reports of further Iraqi chemical attacks against its Kurdish minority after

9963-607: The invasion and demanding a withdrawal of Iraqi troops. On 3 August 1990, the Arab League passed its own resolution, which called for a solution to the conflict from within the league, and warned against outside intervention. Iraq and Libya were the only two Arab League states that opposed the resolution for Iraq to withdraw from Kuwait; the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) opposed it as well. The Arab states of Yemen and Jordan – a Western ally which bordered Iraq and relied on

10086-505: The invasion and even adaptation to it as a fait accompli" until the UK's prime minister Margaret Thatcher played a powerful role, reminding the President that appeasement in the 1930s had led to war, that Saddam would have the whole Gulf at his mercy along with 65 percent of the world's oil supply, and famously urging President Bush "not to go wobbly". Once persuaded, US officials insisted on

10209-444: The lasers or tapped twice to turn the lasers on until deactivated, either by pressing a third time or by turning the mode switch to off. Additionally, an extra pressure switch can be plugged into the rear of the device and then placed virtually anywhere, limited only by the length of the pressure switch's cord; typically one to two feet. This pressure switch operates the same way as the recessed button. The AN/PEQ-2A upgrade incorporates

10332-491: The life of the Programme, the Security Council expanded its initial emphasis on food and medicines to include infrastructure rehabilitation". The UN, rather than the Iraqi government, administered the OFFP in Iraq's Kurdistan Region . While the OFFP is credited with improving the conditions of the population, it was not free from controversy. The U.S. State Department criticized the Iraqi government for inadequately spending

10455-492: The listed items were reviewed separately. Enforcement of the sanctions was primarily by means of military force and legal sanctions. Following the passage of Security Council Resolution 665 , a Multinational Interception Force was organized and led by the U.S. to intercept, inspect and possibly impound vessels, cargoes and crews suspected of carrying freight to or from Iraq. The legal side of sanctions included enforcement through actions brought by individual governments. In

10578-731: The major disadvantages of the Kurdish Zone in which perhaps 20% of the population was internally displaced compared to about 0.3% in the South/Centre" and that the Iraq Family Health Survey (IFHS) suggests a higher (albeit declining) child mortality rate in the Kurdistan Region than elsewhere in Iraq during the mid-1990s. Some analysts, such as Walter Russell Mead , accepted a large estimate of casualties due to sanctions, but argued that invading Iraq

10701-444: The mid-1990s, with the controversy over the efficacy and civilian harms attributed to the Iraq sanctions playing a significant role in the change: "The sanctions imposed on Iraq in 1990 covered all goods entering or leaving the entire country, whereas those imposed today are most often directed against individuals or non-state entities, and are more limited in scope. ... The widespread view ... that 500,000 Iraqi children died as

10824-421: The money. In 2004–2005, the OFFP became the subject of major media attention over corruption , as allegations surfaced that Iraq had systematically sold oil vouchers at below-market prices in return for some of the proceeds from the resale outside the scope of the programme; investigations implicated individuals and companies from dozens of countries . In 2005, a UN investigation led by Paul Volcker found that

10947-497: The north, which was absorbed into Iraq's existing Basra Governorate , and the Kuwait Governorate in the south, which became Iraq's 19th governorate. The invasion of Kuwait was met with immediate international condemnation, including the adoption of UN Security Council Resolution 660 , which demanded Iraq's immediate withdrawal from Kuwait, and the imposition of comprehensive international sanctions against Iraq with

11070-558: The opportunity to rebuild your country. But we have no opinion on the Arab-Arab conflicts, like your border disagreement with Kuwait ... Frankly, we can only see that you have deployed massive troops in the south. Normally that would not be any of our business. But when this happens in the context of what you said on your national day, then when we read the details in the two letters of the Foreign Minister, then when we see

11193-467: The region. Iraq also accused Kuwait of exceeding its OPEC quotas for oil production. In order for the cartel to maintain its desired price of $ 18 per barrel, discipline was required. The United Arab Emirates and Kuwait were consistently overproducing; the latter at least in part to repair losses caused by Iranian attacks in the Iran–Iraq War and to pay for the losses of an economic scandal. The result

11316-518: The rest of Iraq. Several reasons have been cited for this: Kurdistan Region was subject to lesser sanctions; has borders with neighbouring countries that are more open than the rest of the country, making trade easier; and Oil-for-Food Programme aid was delivered to Kurdistan faster and at a higher per capita rate compared to the rest of Iraq. In 2005, an Independent Inquiry Committee (IIC) set up by UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan argued that, "for all [its] flaws," data found in Iraq's 1997 census "make

11439-406: The results of the 1996 survey (38 deaths per 1000 births) was less than one-fifth that of the 1995 survey (206 deaths per 1000 births), leading Zaidi to conclude that "an accurate estimate of child mortality in Iraq probably lies between the two surveys." Zaidi later told Michael Spagat: "My guess is that 'some' Iraqi surveyors recorded deaths when they did not take place or the child had died outside

11562-430: The rifle and one wide beam used for illuminating targets, like a flashlight . The beams can only be seen through night vision goggles . Each beam can be zeroed independently, and the illuminator's radius is adjustable. The two lasers are tied into one 6-mode switch, which has the following modes: Turning the mode switch does not turn on the lasers. A recessed button on top of the device is tapped once to briefly turn on

11685-505: The sale of Iraqi oil in exchange for food, which was reaffirmed by Resolution 712 in September 1991. The UN states that "The Government of Iraq declined these offers". As a result, Iraq was effectively barred from exporting oil to the world market for several years. In April 1995, an Oil-for-Food Programme (OFFP) was formally created under Security Council Resolution 986 , but the resolution could not be implemented until Iraq signed

11808-474: The sanctions diminished Iraq militarily. According to scholars George A. Lopez and David Cortright : "Sanctions compelled Iraq to accept inspections and monitoring and won concessions from Baghdad on political issues such as the border dispute with Kuwait. They also drastically reduced the revenue available to Saddam, prevented the rebuilding of Iraqi defenses after the Persian Gulf War, and blocked

11931-527: The sanctions themselves for reducing Iraq's capacity to increase food production further. Joseph Sassoon commented on Iraq's successful use of food rationing to mitigate the effects of sanctions and war, suggesting that Iraq's government was not wholly lacking in competence or efficiency despite being portrayed as such by critics. During the 1990s and 2000s, many surveys and studies concluded that excess deaths in Iraq—specifically among children under

12054-460: The sanctions were to compel Iraq to withdraw from Kuwait, to pay reparations, and to disclose and eliminate any weapons of mass destruction (WMD). The UNSC imposed stringent economic sanctions on Iraq by adopting and enforcing United Nations Security Council Resolution 661 in August 1990. Resolution 661 banned all trade and financial resources with both Iraq and occupied Kuwait except for medicine and "in humanitarian circumstances" foodstuffs,

12177-466: The situation in Kuwait." He also called for a replacement of US troops that mobilized in Saudi Arabia in response to Kuwait's invasion with "an Arab force", as long as that force did not involve Egypt. Additionally, he requested an "immediate freeze of all boycott and siege decisions" and a general normalization of relations with Iraq. From the beginning of the crisis, President Bush was strongly opposed to any "linkage" between Iraq's occupation of Kuwait and

12300-535: The south-center, compared to the similarly sanctioned but UN-administered north, are the result of Baghdad's failure to accept and properly manage the UN humanitarian relief effort." In the run-up to the Iraq War, some disputed the idea that excess mortality exceeded 500,000, because the Iraqi government had interfered with objective collection of statistics (independent experts were barred). Other Western observers, such as Matt Welch and Anthony Arnove, argue that

12423-454: The state; if the owner could not use all of the land he owned, he would lose it. However, the RCC's policy was not "all stick and no carrot". The government made it easier for farmers and landowners to receive credit. On 30 September 1990, the Ministry of Agriculture announced that it would increase loans to farmers by 100 percent, and would subsidize machinery and tools. In October 1990,

12546-518: The system is fully degraded," as supply levels of crucial water treatment chemicals such as chlorine and aluminium sulphate were "known to be critically low" and their "[i]mportation [have] been embargoed." The study thus predicted an increase in disease and even "epidemics of such diseases as cholera , hepatitis , and typhoid " if the sanctions remained in place. The percentage of Iraqis with access to clean drinking water dropped from an estimated 90 per cent in 1990 to 41 per cent in 1999. In 1993,

12669-422: The terms of an Oil-for-Food Programme (OFFP), which effectively barred Iraqi oil from the world market for several years. When a memorandum of understanding was finally reached in 1996, the resulting OFFP allowed Iraq to resume oil exports in controlled quantities, but the funds were held in escrow and the majority of Iraq's purchases had to be individually approved by the "Iraq Sanctions Committee," composed of

12792-415: The time frame but they specified the opposite." Nevertheless, epidemiologist Richard Garfield writes that the Baghdad studies "cannot be used as a national estimate [of mortality] because, as in most developing countries, mortality is likely to be higher outside the capital city," and projects that "Assuming that a quarter of all under 5s live in Baghdad, the 1996 [survey] mortality estimate would project to

12915-409: The time the ceasefire with Iran was signed in August 1988, Iraq was heavily debt-ridden and tensions within society were rising. Most of its debt was owed to Saudi Arabia and Kuwait. Iraq's debts to Kuwait amounted to $ 14 billion. Iraq pressured both nations to forgive the debts, but they refused. The Iraq–Kuwait border dispute involved Iraqi claims to Kuwaiti territory. Kuwait had been

13038-468: The very sharp surge in mortality reported by [ICMMS] somewhat implausible," even commenting that the ICMMS data "may have been 'tampered with.'" However in 2007, researchers John Blacker, Mohamed M. Ali, and Gareth Jones pointed out that the 1997 census relied on "on data obtained in a format that had elsewhere been rejected as unreliable 30 years earlier," and that the results between the independent IST survey conducted in 1991 (128.5 per 1000 births) and

13161-735: The war, by unemployed Iraqis, among them demobilized soldiers. These events drew little notice outside the Arab world because of fast-moving events directly related to the fall of Communism in Eastern Europe. However, the US did begin to condemn Iraq's human rights record, including the well-known use of torture. The UK also condemned the execution of Farzad Bazoft , a journalist working for the British newspaper The Observer . Following Saddam's declaration that "binary chemical weapons" would be used on Israel if it used military force against Iraq, Washington halted part of its funding. A UN mission to

13284-458: The war. This move was supported by the US, who believed that Iraqi ties with pro-Western Gulf states would help bring and maintain Iraq inside the US' sphere of influence. In 1989, it appeared that Saudi–Iraqi relations , strong during the war, would be maintained. A pact of non-interference and non-aggression was signed between the countries, followed by a Kuwaiti-Iraqi deal for Iraq to supply Kuwait with water for drinking and irrigation, although

13407-399: The way to you in the United States, but individual Arabs may reach you ... We do not place America among the enemies. We place it where we want our friends to be and we try to be friends. But repeated American statements last year made it apparent that America did not regard us as friends. Glaspie replied: I know you need funds. We understand that and our opinion is that you should have

13530-431: Was a slump in the oil price – as low as $ 10 per barrel ($ 63/m ) – with a resulting loss of $ 7 billion a year to Iraq, equal to its 1989 balance of payments deficit. Resulting revenues struggled to support the government's basic costs, let alone repair Iraq's damaged infrastructure. Jordan and Iraq both looked for more discipline, with little success. The Iraqi government described it as

13653-562: Was an armed conflict between Iraq and a 42-country coalition led by the United States . The coalition's efforts against Iraq were carried out in two key phases: Operation Desert Shield , which marked the military buildup from August 1990 to January 1991; and Operation Desert Storm , which began with the aerial bombing campaign against Iraq on 17 January 1991 and came to a close with the American-led liberation of Kuwait on 28 February 1991. On 2 August 1990, Iraq, governed by Saddam Hussein , invaded neighboring Kuwait and fully occupied

13776-621: Was approved by President Reagan and later affirmed by the G7 leaders headed by the United Kingdom's Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher , in the London Summit of 1984 . The plan was implemented and became the basis for US preparedness to respond to the Iraqi occupation of Kuwait in 1991. Within hours of the invasion, Kuwait and US delegations requested a meeting of the UN Security Council , which passed Resolution 660 , condemning

13899-540: Was better than continuing the sanctions regime, since "Each year of containment is a new Gulf War." On May 12, 1996, Madeleine Albright (then U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations ) appeared on a 60 Minutes segment in which Lesley Stahl (referring to the 1995 FAO study ) asked her "We have heard that half a million children have died. I mean, that's more children than died in Hiroshima. And, you know,

14022-475: Was concerned with Iraq's position on Israeli– Palestinian politics. The US also disliked Iraqi support for Palestinian militant groups, which led to Iraq's inclusion on the developing US list of State Sponsors of Terrorism in December 1979. The US remained officially neutral after Iraq's invasion of Iran in 1980, which became the Iran–Iraq War, although it provided resources, political support, and some "non-military" aircraft to Iraq. In March 1982, Iran began

14145-599: Was conducted by commandos deployed by helicopters and boats to attack the city from the sea, while other divisions seized the airports and two airbases . The Iraqis attacked the Dasman Palace , the Royal Residence of Kuwait's Emir , Jaber Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah , which was defended by the Emiri Guard supported with M-84 tanks. In the process, the Iraqis killed Fahad Al-Ahmed Al-Jaber Al-Sabah ,

14268-595: Was delivered to US National Security Advisor Brent Scowcroft by an unidentified Iraqi official. The official communicated to the White House that Iraq would "withdraw from Kuwait and allow foreigners to leave" provided that the UN lifted sanctions, allowed "guaranteed access to the Persian Gulf through the Kuwaiti islands of Bubiyan and Warbah", and allowed Iraq to "gain full control of the Rumaila oil field that extends slightly into Kuwaiti territory". The proposal also "include[d] offers to negotiate an oil agreement with

14391-405: Was illegal transactions, as many countries began to simply ignore the sanctions.) While internal and external trade was revitalized, this did not lead to a significant increase in the standard of living for the majority of the population; on the contrary, the government tried to prevent benefits from flowing to Shi'ite areas in southern Iraq to persuade more countries to oppose the sanctions. In 2000,

14514-606: Was named Umm al-Ma'arik ("mother of all battles") by Iraqi officials. After the US invasion of Iraq in 2003, the Gulf War of 1990–1991 is often known as the " First Iraq War ". The following names have been used to describe the conflict itself: Gulf War and Persian Gulf War are the most common terms for the conflict used within western countries , though it may also be called the First Gulf War (to distinguish it from

14637-444: Was nevertheless reported. During the 1990s and 2000s, many surveys and studies found child mortality more than doubled during the sanctions, with estimates ranging from 227,000 to 500,000 excess deaths among children under the age of 5. On the other hand, several later surveys conducted in cooperation with the post-Saddam government during the U.S.-led occupation of Iraq have suggested that commonly cited data were doctored by

14760-490: Was not imminent. On 26 July 1990, only a few days before the Iraqi invasion, OPEC officials said that Kuwait and the United Arab Emirates had agreed to a proposal to limit their oil output to 1.5 million barrels (240,000 m ) per day, "down from the nearly 2 million barrels a day they had each been pumping," thus potentially settling differences over oil policy between Kuwait and Iraq. The result of

14883-435: Was not widespread; prices of foodstuffs increased dramatically during this period. However, overall the sanctions failed and (indirectly) led to an unprecedented improvement in agriculture, creating a constituency of farmers in central Iraq who had a vested interest in the sanctions remaining in effect. Data from 1990 is also consistent with the observation that destruction wrought by the 1991 Gulf War may be more responsible than

15006-448: Was taken by sanctions opponents as confirmation of a high number of sanctions related casualties. The Iraq Inquiry led by Sir John Chilcot examined a February 2003 statement by then- British Prime Minister Tony Blair that "today, 135 out of every 1,000 Iraqi children die before the age of five". The inquiry found that the figure in question was provided to Blair by Secretary of State for International Development Clare Short and

15129-628: Was to help them succeed in the war against Iran." With Iraq's newfound success in the war, and the Iranian rebuff of a peace offer in July, arms sales to Iraq reached a record spike in 1982. When Iraqi President Saddam Hussein expelled Abu Nidal to Syria at the US's request in November 1983, the Reagan administration sent Donald Rumsfeld to meet Saddam as a special envoy and to cultivate ties. By

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