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131-622: AWD may refer to: Biology [ edit ] African Wild Dog ( Lycaon pictus ), a canid of sub-Saharan Africa Acute watery diarrhoea , liquid faeces Businesses and organisations [ edit ] AWD Holding , (Allgemeiner Wirtschaftsdienst), a German company AWD Trucks , a British truck manufacturer Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging , an Afrikaner nationalist, neo-Nazi political party in South Africa (1973-) Atomwaffen Division , an international neo-Nazi terrorist group based in

262-491: A 20-year period, actively managed FSC -certified forests experienced substantially lower rates of deforestation than nearby protected areas, and forest fires only affected 0.1 percent of certified land area, compared to 10.4 percent of protected areas. However, it must be duly noted that short term decisions regarding forest sector employment and harvest practices can have long-term effects on biodiversity. Planted forests become increasingly important as they supply approximately

393-539: A bridge or underpass may be enough to join two fragments. This has the potential to mitigate the problem of isolation but not the loss of interior habitat. Wildlife corridors can help animals to move and occupy new areas when food sources or other natural resources are lacking in their core habitat, and animals can find new mates in neighbouring regions so that genetic diversity can increase. Species that relocate seasonally can do so more safely and effectively when it does not interfere with human development barriers. Due to

524-471: A convergence zone of two biodiversity hotspots . This area largely consists of community lands inhabited by pastoralists. With the help of local people, a pilot study was launched confirming the presence of a population of wild dogs largely unknown to conservationists. Over the next 16 years, local ecological knowledge revealed this area to be a significant refuge for African wild dogs and an important wildlife corridor connecting Kenya's Tsavo National Parks with

655-663: A dead individual was found in June 1995 at 4,050 m (13,290 ft) on the Sanetti Plateau . A stable population comprising more than 370 individuals is present in Kruger National Park . The African wild dog have strong social bonds, stronger than those of sympatric lions and spotted hyenas; thus, solitary living and hunting are extremely rare in the species. It lives in permanent packs consisting of two to 27 adults and yearling pups. The typical pack size in

786-412: A departure, but departure becomes more likely when more individual dogs ‘sneeze’. These sneezes are characterized by a short, sharp exhale through the nostrils. When members of dominant mating pairs sneeze first, the group is much more likely to depart. If a dominant dog initiates, around three sneezes guarantee departure. When less dominant dogs sneeze first, if enough others also sneeze (about 10), then

917-522: A great loss of amphibian diversity, but simultaneously the drier climate spurred on a burst of diversity among reptiles. Habitat fragmentation is frequently caused by humans when native plants are cleared for human activities such as agriculture , rural development , urbanization and the creation of hydroelectric reservoirs. Habitats which were once continuous become divided into separate fragments. Due to human activities, many tropical and temperate habitats have already been severely fragmented, and in

1048-435: A great risk and further decreases their chances of survival. Habitat fragmentation due to anthropogenic activities has been shown to greatly affect the predator-prey dynamics of many species by altering the number of species and the members of those species. This affects the natural predator-prey relationships between animals in a given community and forces them to alter their behaviours and interactions, therefore resetting

1179-789: A habitat becomes fragmented and reduced in area, gene flow and migration are typically reduced. Fewer individuals will migrate into the remaining fragments, and small disconnected populations that may have once been part of a single large population will become reproductively isolated. Scientific evidence that gene flow is reduced due to fragmentation depends on the study species. While trees that have long-range pollination and dispersal mechanisms may not experience reduced gene flow following fragmentation, most species are at risk of reduced gene flow following habitat fragmentation. Reduced gene flow, and reproductive isolation can result in inbreeding between related individuals. Inbreeding does not always result in negative fitness consequences, but when inbreeding

1310-493: A higher proportion of males, second litters are half and half and subsequent litters biased towards females with this trend increasing as females get older. As a result, the earlier litters provide stable hunters whilst the higher ratio of dispersals amongst the females stops a pack from getting too big. Populations in the Okavango Delta have been observed ‘rallying’ before setting out to hunt. Not every rally results in

1441-627: A hunt, believing that doing so will give them the animal's boldness and agility. Nevertheless, the species does not figure prominently in San rock art , with the only notable example being a frieze in Mount Erongo showing a pack hunting two antelopes. The Ndebele have a story explaining why the African wild dog hunts in packs: in the beginning, when the first wild dog's wife was sick, the other animals were concerned. An impala went to hare , who

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1572-516: A kill, solitary hyenas approach cautiously and attempt to take off with a piece of meat unnoticed, though they may be mobbed in the attempt. When operating in groups, spotted hyenas are more successful in pirating African wild dog kills, though the latter's greater tendency to assist each other puts them at an advantage against spotted hyenas, which rarely work cooperatively. Cases of African wild dogs scavenging from spotted hyenas are rare. Although African wild dog packs can easily repel solitary hyenas, on

1703-440: A kill, sometimes up to 90%. An analysis of 1,119 chases by a pack of six Okavango wild dogs showed that most were short distance uncoordinated chases, and the individual kill rate was only 15.5 percent. Because kills are shared, each dog enjoyed an efficient benefit–cost ratio . Small prey such as rodents , hares and birds are hunted singly, with dangerous prey such as cane rats and Old World porcupines being killed with

1834-474: A larger number of males in the species means a larger variety of songs being transmitted. Fragmentation of the Dupont's Lark territory from agriculture, forestry and urbanization appears to have a large effect on their communication structures. Males only perceive territories of a certain distance to be rivals and so isolation of territory from others due to fragmentation leads to a decrease in territorial calls as

1965-421: A pursuit clocking at up to 66 km/h (41 mph) for 10–60 minutes. The average chase covers some 2 km (1.2 mi), during which the prey animal, if large, is repeatedly bitten on the legs, belly, and rump until it stops running, while smaller prey is simply pulled down and torn apart. African wild dogs adjust their hunting strategy to the particular prey species. They will rush at wildebeest to panic

2096-451: A quarter of global industrial roundwood production and are predicted to account for 50% of global output within two decades (Brown, 1998; Jaakko Poyry, 1999). Although there have been many difficulties, the implementation of forest certification has been quite prominent in being able to raise effective awareness and disseminating knowledge on a holistic concept, embracing economic, environmental and social issues, worldwide. While also providing

2227-779: A quick and well-placed bite to avoid injury. Small prey is eaten entirely, while large animals are stripped of their meat and organs, leaving the skin, head, and skeleton intact. The African wild dog is a fast eater, with a pack being able to consume a Thomson's gazelle in 15 minutes. In the wild, the species' consumption is 1.2–5.9 kg (2.6–13.0 lb) per African wild dog a day, with one pack of 17–43 individuals in East Africa having been recorded to kill three animals per day on average. Unlike most social predators, African wild dogs will regurgitate food for other adults as well as young family members. Pups old enough to eat solid food are given first priority at kills, eating even before

2358-399: A sea of pastures, fields, subdivisions, shopping malls, etc. These fragments will then begin to undergo the process of ecosystem decay . Forest fragmentation also includes less subtle forms of discontinuities such as utility right-of-ways (ROWs). Utility ROWs are of ecological interest because they have become pervasive in many forest communities, spanning areas as large as 5 million acres in

2489-603: A ship class of the Royal Australian Navy All-wheel drive , a power-train configuration for vehicles, most commonly four-wheel and six-wheel drive Other uses [ edit ] Afghan War Diary , a collection of thousands of US military documents that were leaked to the public via Wikileaks in July, 2010 Americans with disabilities Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with

2620-406: A single large patch of equivalent size. Land sharing strategies could therefore have more positive impacts on species than land sparing strategies. Although the negative effects of habitat loss are generally viewed to be much larger than that of habitat fragmentation, the two events are heavily connected and observations are not usually independent of one another. Area is the primary determinant of

2751-517: A smaller pool of fitness-maintaining alleles to survive in the face of environmental change. However, in some scenarios, where subsets of genetic diversity are partitioned among multiple habitat fragments, almost all original genetic diversity can be maintained despite each individual fragment displaying a reduced subset of diversity. Gene flow occurs when individuals of the same species exchange genetic information through reproduction. Populations can maintain genetic diversity through migration . When

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2882-561: A source of immigrants by some barrier are less likely to be repopulated than adjoining fragments. Even small species such as the Columbia spotted frog are reliant on the rescue effect . Studies showed 25% of juveniles travel a distance over 200m compared to 4% of adults. Of these, 95% remain in their new locale, demonstrating that this journey is necessary for survival. Additionally, habitat fragmentation leads to edge effects . Microclimatic changes in light, temperature, and wind can alter

3013-456: A specimen from the coast of Mozambique . He named the animal Hyaena picta , erroneously classifying it as a species of hyena. It was later recognised as a canid by Joshua Brookes in 1827 and renamed Lycaon tricolor . The root word of Lycaon is the Greek λυκαίος ( lykaios ), meaning ‘wolf-like’. The specific epithet pictus ( Latin for ‘painted’), which derived from the original picta ,

3144-591: A study found that there is no increase in nest predation on fragmented forests - thus not supporting the edge effect hypothesis. Habitat fragmentation has profound effects on ecosystem services , impacting nutrient retention, species richness, and local biophysical conditions. Fragmentation-mediated processes cause generalizable responses at the population , community , and ecosystem levels, resulting in decreased nutrient retention. Furthermore, habitat fragmentation alters relationships between biodiversity and ecosystem functioning across multiple scales, affecting both

3275-405: A substantial impact on endogenous processes by fundamentally altering species behavior. Habitat subdivision or isolation can lead to changes in dispersal or movement of species including changes to seasonal migration. These changes can lead to a decrease in a density of species, increased competition or even increased predation. One of the major ways that habitat fragmentation affects biodiversity

3406-472: A tool for a range of other applications than assessment of sustainability , such as e.g. verifying carbon sinks. Two approaches are typically used to understand habitat fragmentation and its ecological impacts. The species-oriented approach focuses specifically on individual species and how they each respond to their environment and habitat changes with in it. This approach can be limited because it does only focus on individual species and does not allow for

3537-488: A university based newspaper statement stating that 70% of the world's remaining forest stands within one kilometre of a forest edge putting biodiversity at an immense risk based on research conducted by international scientists. Reduced fragment area, increased isolation, and increased edge initiate changes that percolate through all ecosystems. Habitat fragmentation is able to formulate persistent outcomes which can also become unexpected such as an abundance of some species and

3668-413: Is a form of habitat fragmentation where forests are reduced (either naturally or man-made) to relatively small, isolated patches of forest known as forest fragments or forest remnants. The intervening matrix that separates the remaining woodland patches can be natural open areas, farmland , or developed areas. Following the principles of island biogeography , remnant woodlands act like islands of forest in

3799-474: Is a stronger evolutionary force than genetic drift. Recent studies on the impacts of habitat fragmentation on adaptation in some plant species have suggested that organisms in fragmented landscapes may be able to adapt to fragmentation. However, there are also many cases where fragmentation reduces adaptation capacity because of small population size. Some species that have experienced genetic consequences due to habitat fragmentation are listed below: Although

3930-402: Is an important cause of species extinction. Population dynamics of subdivided populations tend to vary asynchronously . In an unfragmented landscape a declining population can be "rescued" by immigration from a nearby expanding population. In fragmented landscapes, the distance between fragments may prevent this from happening. Additionally, unoccupied fragments of habitat that are separated from

4061-494: Is associated with fitness reduction it is called inbreeding depression . Inbreeding becomes of increasing concern as the level of homozygosity increases, facilitating the expression of deleterious alleles that reduce the fitness. Habitat fragmentation can lead to inbreeding depression for many species due to reduced gene flow. Inbreeding depression is associated with conservation risks, like local extinction. Small populations are more susceptible to genetic drift . Genetic drift

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4192-563: Is by reducing the amount of suitable habitat available for organisms. Habitat fragmentation often involves both habitat destruction and the subdivision of previously continuous habitat. Plants and other sessile organisms are disproportionately affected by some types of habitat fragmentation because they cannot respond quickly to the altered spatial configuration of the habitat. Habitat fragmentation consistently reduces biodiversity by 13 to 75% and impairs key ecosystem functions by decreasing biomass and altering nutrient cycles . This underscores

4323-434: Is considered as an invasive threat to biodiversity , due to its implications of affecting large number of species than biological invasions , overexploitation , or pollution . Additionally, the effects of habitat fragmentation damage the ability for species, such as native plants , to be able to effectively adapt to their changing environments. Ultimately, this prevents gene flow from one generation of population to

4454-549: Is found in the fossil record. Studies have demonstrated the impacts of individual species at the landscape level For example, From research the results show that the impact of deer herbivory on forest plant communities can be observed at the landscape level at the Rondeau Provincial park for the period of 1955-1978 and also, habitat fragmentation of tropical rainforests in Euramerica 300 million years ago led to

4585-584: Is known to have possessed a unique genotype , but these genotypes may be extinct. The African wild dog is the bulkiest and most solidly built of African canids. The species stands 60 to 75 cm (24 to 30 in) at the shoulders, measures 71 to 112 cm (28 to 44 in) in head-and-body length and has a tail length of 29 to 41 cm (11 to 16 in). Adults have a weight range of 18 to 36 kg (40 to 79 lb). On average, dogs from East Africa weigh around 20–25 kg (44–55 lb). By body mass, they are only outsized amongst other extant canids by

4716-465: Is occasionally sighted in other parts of Senegal , Guinea and Mali . Its distribution is patchy in East Africa. It inhabits mostly savannas and arid zones, generally avoiding forested areas. This preference is likely linked to its hunting habits, which require open areas that do not obstruct vision or impede pursuit. It travels through scrubland , woodland and montane areas in pursuit of prey. A forest-dwelling population has been identified in

4847-425: Is often a cause of species becoming threatened or endangered . The existence of viable habitat is critical to the survival of any species, and in many cases, the fragmentation of any remaining habitat can lead to difficult decisions for conservation biologists. Given a limited amount of resources available for conservation is it preferable to protect the existing isolated patches of habitat or to buy back land to get

4978-445: Is often more expensive and could require significant time and effort to restore. The best solution is generally dependent on the particular species or ecosystem that is being considered. More mobile species, like most birds, do not need connected habitat while some smaller animals, like rodents, may be more exposed to predation in open land. These questions generally fall under the headings of metapopulations island biogeography . As

5109-452: Is often referred to as SLOSS (Single Large or Several Small). Habitat loss in a biodiversity hotspot can result in a localized extinction crisis, generally speaking habitat loss in a hotspot location can be a good indicator or predictor of the number of threatened and extinct endemic species. One solution to the problem of habitat fragmentation is to link the fragments by preserving or planting corridors of native vegetation. In some cases,

5240-406: Is one of the greatest threats to biodiversity in forests, especially in the tropics. The problem of habitat destruction that caused the fragmentation in the first place is compounded by: The effect of fragmentation on the flora and fauna of a forest patch depends on a) the size of the patch, and b) its degree of isolation. Isolation depends on the distance to the nearest similar patch, and

5371-473: Is random changes to the genetic makeup of populations and leads to reductions in genetic diversity. The smaller the population is, the more likely genetic drift will be a driving force of evolution rather than natural selection. Because genetic drift is a random process, it does not allow species to become more adapted to their environment. Habitat fragmentation is associated with increases to genetic drift in small populations which can have negative consequences for

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5502-407: Is seen in coat colour, with northeastern African specimens tending to be predominantly black with small white and yellow patches, while southern African ones are more brightly coloured, sporting a mix of brown, black and white coats. Much of the species' coat patterning occurs on the trunk and legs. Little variation in facial markings occurs, with the muzzle being black, gradually shading into brown on

5633-427: Is strictly limited to the dominant female, which may kill the pups of subordinates. After giving birth, the mother stays close to the pups in the den, while the rest of the pack hunts. She typically drives away pack members approaching the pups until the latter are old enough to eat solid food at three to four weeks of age. The pups leave the den around the age of three weeks and are suckled outside. The pups are weaned at

5764-440: Is to apply and practice sustainable forest management to risk further loss. There is a high industrial demand for wood , pulp , paper , and other resources which the forest can provide with, thus businesses which will want more access to the cutting of forests to gain those resources. The rainforest alliance has efficiently been able to put into place an approach to sustainable forest management, and they established this in

5895-545: The Harenna Forest , a wet montane forest up to an elevation of 2,400 m (7,900 ft) in the Bale Mountains of Ethiopia . At least one record exists of a pack being sighted on the summit of Mount Kilimanjaro . In Zimbabwe, it has been recorded at the elevation of 1,800 m (5,900 ft). In Ethiopia, several packs were sighted at elevations of 1,900 to 2,800 m (6,200 to 9,200 ft), and

6026-433: The gray wolf species complex . Females are usually 3–7% smaller than males. Compared to members of the genus Canis , the African wild dog is comparatively lean and tall, with outsized ears and lacking dewclaws . The middle two toepads are usually fused. Its dentition differs from that of Canis by the degeneration of the last lower molar , the narrowness of the canines and proportionately large premolars , which are

6157-473: The martial eagle , when they venture out of their dens. The African wild dog is primarily threatened by habitat fragmentation , which results from human–wildlife conflict , transmission of infectious diseases and high mortality rates; it has been exterminated in large parts of North and West Africa, and its population has greatly reduced in Central Africa, Uganda and much of Kenya . Surveys in

6288-677: The microbiota of an environment. Increased fragmentation has been linked to reduced populations and diversity of fungi responsible for decomposition, as well as the insects they are host to. This has been linked to simplified food webs in highly fragmented areas compared to old growth forests. Furthermore, edge effects have been shown to result in significantly varied microenvironments compared to interior forest due to variations in light availability, presence of wind, changes in precipitation, and overall moisture content of leaf litter. These microenvironments are often not conducive to overall forest health as they enable generalist species to thrive at

6419-577: The painted dog or Cape hunting dog , is a wild canine native to sub-Saharan Africa . It is the largest wild canine in Africa, and the only extant member of the genus Lycaon , which is distinguished from Canis by dentition highly specialised for a hypercarnivorous diet and by a lack of dewclaws . It is estimated that there are around 6,600 adults (including 1,400 mature individuals) living in 39 subpopulations, all threatened by habitat fragmentation , human persecution and outbreaks of disease. As

6550-694: The tall grass prairie of North America has been cleared, resulting in extreme habitat fragmentation. There are two types of processes that can lead to habitat fragmentation. There are exogenous processes and endogenous processes. Endogenous is a process that develops as a part of species biology so they typically include changes in biology, behavior, and interactions within or between species. Endogenous threats can result in changes to breeding patterns or migration patterns and are often triggered by exogenous processes. Exogenous processes are independent of species biology and can include habitat degradation, habitat subdivision or habitat isolation. These processes can have

6681-558: The 1960s resulted in an increase in African wild dog sightings, only for their numbers to decline once the lions recovered. As with other large predators killed by lion prides, the dogs are usually killed and left uneaten by the lions, indicating the competitive rather than predatory nature of the lions' dominance. However, a few cases have been reported of old and wounded lions falling prey to African wild dogs. On occasion, packs of wild dogs have been observed defending pack members attacked by single lions, sometimes successfully. One pack in

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6812-410: The African wild dog differs significantly from that of other canids, consisting entirely of stiff bristle-hairs with no underfur. Adults gradually lose their fur as it ages, with older individuals being almost naked. Colour variation is extreme, and may serve in visual identification, as African wild dogs can recognise each other at distances of 50–100 m (160–330 ft). Some geographic variation

6943-763: The African wild dog's less hierarchical social structure. Furthermore, while elaborate facial expressions are important for wolves in re-establishing bonds after long periods of separation from their family groups, they are not as necessary to African wild dogs, which remain together for much longer periods. The species does have an extensive vocal repertoire consisting of twittering, whining, yelping, squealing, whispering, barking , growling , gurling, rumbling, moaning and hooing. African wild dog populations in East Africa appear to have no fixed breeding season , whereas those in Southern Africa usually breed during

7074-513: The African wild dog, as the Hunters Palette shows them wearing the animals' tails on their belts. By the dynastic period , African wild dog illustrations became much less represented, and the animal's symbolic role was largely taken over by the wolf. According to Enno Littmann , the people of Ethiopia 's Tigray Region believed that injuring a wild dog with a spear would result in the animal dipping its tail in its wounds and flicking

7205-414: The African wild dog, including African hunting dog, Cape hunting dog, painted hunting dog, painted dog, painted wolf, and painted lycaon. Though the name African wild dog is widely used, 'wild dog' is thought by conservation groups to have negative connotations that could be detrimental to its image; one organisation promotes the name 'painted wolf', whilst the name 'painted dog' has been found to be

7336-524: The April–July period. During estrus , the female is closely accompanied by a single male, which keeps other members of the same sex at bay. The estrus period can last as long as 20 days. The copulatory tie characteristic of mating in most canids has been reported to be absent or very brief (less than one minute) in African wild dog, possibly an adaptation to the prevalence of larger predators in its environment. The gestation period lasts 69–73 days, with

7467-510: The Central African Republic's Chinko area revealed that the African wild dog population decreased from 160 individuals in 2012 to 26 individuals in 2017. At the same time, transhumant pastoralists from the border area with Sudan moved in the area with their livestock. The non-governmental organization African Wild Dog Conservancy began working in 2003 to conserve the African wild dog in northeastern and coastal Kenya,

7598-578: The Horn of Africa in an increasingly human-dominated landscape. This project has been identified as a wild dog conservation priority by the IUCN/SSC Canid Specialist Group. Depictions of African wild dogs are prominent on cosmetic palettes and other objects from Egypt 's predynastic period , likely symbolising order over chaos and the transition between the wild and the domestic dog. Predynastic hunters may have identified with

7729-585: The Kruger National Park and the Maasai Mara is four or five adults, while packs in Moremi and Selous Game Reserves contain eight or nine. However, larger packs have been observed and temporary aggregations of hundreds of individuals may have gathered in response to the seasonal migration of vast springbok herds in Southern Africa. Males and females have separate dominance hierarchies, with

7860-805: The Okavango in March 2016 was photographed by safari guides waging "an incredible fight" against a lioness that attacked a subadult dog at an impala kill, which forced the lioness to retreat, although the subadult dog died. A pack of four wild dogs was observed furiously defending an old adult male dog from a male lion that attacked it at a kill; the dog survived and rejoined the pack. African wild dogs commonly lose their kills to larger predators. Spotted hyenas are important kleptoparasites and follow packs of African wild dogs to appropriate their kills. They typically inspect areas where wild dogs have rested and eat any food remains they find. When approaching wild dogs at

7991-555: The United States of America (2013-) Computing [ edit ] Adaptive web design , the progressive enhancement of a website Artweaver document, the default file extension used by the freeware raster graphics editor developed by Boris Eyrich Microsoft Fax Microsoft at Work Document (file extension) Laws [ edit ] Agency Worker Directive (2008/104/EC) Americans with Disabilities Act Vehicles [ edit ] Air Warfare Destroyer ,

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8122-544: The United States. Utility ROWs include electricity transmission ROWs, gas pipeline and telecommunication ROWs. Electricity transmission ROWs are created to prevent vegetation interference with transmission lines. Some studies have shown that electricity transmission ROWs harbor more plant species than adjoining forest areas, due to alterations in the microclimate in and around the corridor. Discontinuities in forest areas associated with utility right-of-ways can serve as biodiversity havens for native bees and grassland species, as

8253-514: The age of five weeks, when they are fed regurgitated meat by the other pack members. By seven weeks, the pups begin to take on an adult appearance, with noticeable lengthening in the legs, muzzle, and ears. Once the pups reach the age of eight to 10 weeks, the pack abandons the den and the young follow the adults during hunts. The youngest pack members are permitted to eat first on kills, a privilege which ends once they become yearlings. African wild dogs have an average lifespan of about 10 to 11 years in

8384-447: The aid of polarized light to guide them, however, due to ecosystem modifications caused by humans they are led onto artificial structures which emit artificial light which are induced by dry asphalt dry roads for an example. While habitat fragmentation is often associated with its effects on large plant and animal populations and biodiversity, due to the interconnectedness of ecosystems there are also significant effects that it has on

8515-458: The amount of habitat but by creating small, isolated patches it also changes the properties of the remaining habitat" (van den Berg et al. 2001) . Habitat fragmentation is the landscape level of the phenomenon, and patch level process. Thus meaning, it covers; the patch areas, edge effects, and patch shape complexity. In scientific literature, there is some debate whether the term "habitat fragmentation" applies in cases of habitat loss , or whether

8646-421: The area by dividing large populations into smaller ones. In turn, smaller populations are more inclined to be affected by genetic drift and population performance, as well as experience increases in inbreeding activities. Moreover, fragmentation can affect the relationship present between animals and plants, such as the relationships regarding seed-dispersal or pollinator-plant relationship. Forest fragmentation

8777-460: The behaviours of species and the dynamics between differing species. Behaviours affected can be within a species such as reproduction, mating, foraging, species dispersal, communication and movement patterns or can be behaviours between species such as predator-prey relationships. In addition, when animals happen to venture into unknown areas in between fragmented forests or landscapes, they can supposedly come into contact with humans which puts them at

8908-423: The blood at its assailant, causing instant death. For this reason, Tigrean shepherds used to repel wild dog attacks with pebbles rather than with edged weapons. The African wild dog also plays a prominent role in the mythology of Southern Africa's San people . In one story, the wild dog is indirectly linked to the origin of death , as the hare is cursed by the moon to be forever hunted by African wild dogs after

9039-412: The boreal woodland caribous of British Columbia, the effects of fragmentation are demonstrated. The species refuge area is peatland bog which has been interrupted by linear features such as roads and pipelines. These features have allowed their natural predators, the wolf, and the black bear to more efficiently travel over landscapes and between patches of land. Since their predators can more easily access

9170-451: The caribous' refuge, the females of the species attempt to avoid the area, affecting their reproductive behaviours and offspring produced. Fragmentation affecting the communication behaviours of birds has been well studied in Dupont's Lark. The Larks primarily reside in regions of Spain and are a small passerine bird which uses songs as a means of cultural transmission between members of the species. The Larks have two distinct vocalizations,

9301-461: The case of larger species such as kudu and wildebeest, calves are largely but not exclusively targeted. However, certain packs in the Serengeti specialized in hunting adult plains zebras weighing up to 240 kg (530 lb) quite frequently. Another study claimed that some prey taken by wild dogs could weigh up to 289 kg (637 lb). This includes African buffalo juveniles during

9432-413: The cheeks and forehead. A black line extends up the forehead, turning blackish-brown on the back of the ears. A few specimens sport a brown teardrop-shaped mark below the eyes. The back of the head and neck are either brown or yellow. A white patch occasionally occurs behind the fore legs, with some specimens having completely white fore legs, chests and throats. The tail is usually white at the tip, black in

9563-422: The continuous expansion of urban landscapes, current research is looking at green roofs being possible vectors of habitat corridors. A recent study has found that green roofs are beneficial in connecting the habitats of arthropods, specifically bees and weevils. Another mitigation measure is the enlargement of small remnants to increase the amount of interior habitat. This may be impractical since developed land

9694-634: The contrast with the surrounding areas. For example, if a cleared area is reforested or allowed to regenerate , the increasing structural diversity of the vegetation will lessen the isolation of the forest fragments. However, when formerly forested lands are converted permanently to pastures, agricultural fields, or human-inhabited developed areas, the remaining forest fragments, and the biota within them, are often highly isolated. Forest patches that are smaller or more isolated will lose species faster than those that are larger or less isolated. A large number of small forest "islands" typically cannot support

9825-440: The counteracting immigration debts may never fully be paid. Indeed, the experiments here reveal ongoing losses of biodiversity and ecosystem functioning two decades or longer after fragmentation occurred. Understanding the relationship between transient and long-term dynamics is a substantial challenge that ecologists must tackle, and fragmentation experiments will be central for relating observation to theory. Habitat fragmentation

9956-581: The development of urban expansion such as roads interfering with habitat loss . Aquatic species’ habitats have been fragmented by dams and water diversions . These fragments of habitat may not be large or connected enough to support species that need a large territory where they can find mates and food. The loss and fragmentation of habitats makes it difficult for migratory species to find places to rest and feed along their migration routes. The effects of current fragmentation will continue to emerge for decades. Extinction debts are likely to come due, although

10087-580: The dhole having existed in the Middle East or North Africa. As of 2005 , five subspecies are recognised by MSW3 : Although the species is genetically diverse, these subspecific designations are not universally accepted. East African and Southern African wild dog populations were once thought to be genetically distinct, based on a small number of samples. More recent studies with a larger number of samples showed that extensive intermixing has occurred between East African and Southern African populations in

10218-481: The dominant pair; subordinate adult dogs help feed and protect the pups. Lions dominate African wild dogs and are a major source of mortality for both adults and pups. Population densities are usually low in areas where lions are more abundant. One pack reintroduced into Etosha National Park was wiped out by lions. A population crash in lions in the Ngorongoro Conservation Area during

10349-683: The dry season when herds are small and calves less protected. Footage from Lower Zambezi National Park taken in 2021 showed a large pack of wild dogs hunting an adult, healthy buffalo, though this is apparently extremely rare. One pack was recorded to occasionally prey on bat-eared foxes , rolling on the carcasses before eating them. African wild dogs rarely scavenge, but have on occasion been observed to appropriate carcasses from spotted hyenas, leopards, cheetahs, lions, and animals caught in snares . Hunting success varies with prey type, vegetation cover and pack size, but African wild dogs tend to be very successful: often more than 60% of their chases end in

10480-449: The ecology around the fragment, and in the interior and exterior portions of the fragment. Fires become more likely in the area as humidity drops and temperature and wind levels rise. Exotic and pest species may establish themselves easily in such disturbed environments, and the proximity of domestic animals often upsets the natural ecology. Also, habitat along the edge of a fragment has a different climate and favours different species from

10611-573: The expense of specialists that depend on specific environments. A metadata analysis has found that habitat fragmentation greatly affects mutualistic relationships while affecting antagonistic relationships, such as predation and herbivory , to a less degree. For example, the mutualistic relationship between Mesogyne insignis and Megachile . A study has found greater pollination and increased fruit production of M. insignis in unfragmented forests verses fragmented forests. As for an example of an antagonistic relationship of nest predation,

10742-490: The extinct Canis subgenus Xenocyon as ancestral to both the genus Lycaon and the genus Cuon , which lived throughout Eurasia and Africa from the Early Pleistocene to the early Middle Pleistocene . Others propose that Xenocyon should be reclassified as Lycaon . The species Canis ( Xenocyon ) falconeri shared the African wild dog's absent first metacarpal ( dewclaw ), though its dentition

10873-886: The favour of prey, increasing prey refuge and subsequently decreasing predation rates. Fragmentation may also increase predator abundance or predator efficiency and therefore increase predation rates in this manner. Several other factors can also increase or decrease the extent to which the shifting predator-prey dynamics affect certain species, including how diverse a predators diet is and how flexible habitat requirements are for predators and prey. Depending on which species are affected and these other factors, fragmentation and its effects on predator-prey dynamics may contribute to species extinction. In response to these new environmental pressures, new adaptive behaviours may be developed. Prey species may adapt to increased risk of predation with strategies such as altering mating tactics or changing behaviours and activities related to food and foraging. In

11004-919: The genetic diversity of the populations. However, research suggests that some tree species may be resilient to the negative consequences of genetic drift until population size is as small as ten individuals or less. Habitat fragmentation decreases the size and increases plant populations' spatial isolation. With genetic variation and increased methods of inter-population genetic divergence due to increased effects of random genetic drift , elevating inbreeding and reducing gene flow within plant species. While genetic variation may decrease with remnant population size, not all fragmentation events lead to genetic losses and different types of genetic variation. Rarely, fragmentation can also increase gene flow among remnant populations, breaking down local genetic structure. In order for populations to evolve in response to natural selection, they must be large enough that natural selection

11135-462: The group will go hunting. Researchers assert that wild dogs in Botswana "use a specific vocalization (the sneeze) along with a variable quorum response mechanism in the decision-making process [to go hunting at a particular moment]". Because the African wild dog largely exists in fragmented, small populations, its existence is endangered. Inbreeding avoidance by mate selection is a characteristic of

11266-527: The hare rebuffs the moon's promise to allow all living things to be reborn after death. Another story has the god Cagn taking revenge on the other gods by sending a group of men transformed into African wild dogs to attack them, though who won the battle is never revealed. The San of Botswana see the African wild dog as the ultimate hunter and traditionally believe that shamans and medicine men can transform themselves into wild dogs. Some San hunters will smear African wild dog bodily fluids on their feet before

11397-402: The herd and isolate a vulnerable individual, but pursue territorial antelope species (which defend themselves by running in wide circles) by cutting across the arc to foil their escape. Medium-sized prey is often killed in 2–5 minutes, whereas larger prey such as wildebeest may take half an hour to pull down. Male wild dogs usually perform the task of grabbing dangerous prey, such as warthogs , by

11528-399: The impact of reduced numbers of suitable unrelated mates will likely have a severe demographic impact on the future viability of small wild dog populations. The African wild dog is a specialised pack hunter of common medium-sized antelopes . It and the cheetah are the only primarily diurnal African large predators. The African wild dog hunts by approaching prey silently, then chasing it in

11659-441: The interior habitat. Small fragments are therefore unfavourable for species that require interior habitat. The percentage preservation of contiguous habitats is closely related to both genetic and species biodiversity preservation. Generally a 10% remnant contiguous habitat will result in a 50% biodiversity loss . Much of the remaining terrestrial wildlife habitat in many third world countries has experienced fragmentation through

11790-418: The interval between each pregnancy being 12–14 months typically. The African wild dog produces more pups than any other canid, with litters containing around six to 16 pups, with an average of 10, thus indicating that a single female can produce enough young to form a new pack every year. Because the amount of food necessary to feed more than two litters would be impossible to acquire by the average pack, breeding

11921-570: The landscape (referred to as fragmentation per se ), has been suggested to be small. A review of empirical studies found that, of the 381 reported significant effect of habitat fragmentation per se on species occurrences, abundances or diversity in the scientific literature, 76% were positive whereas 24% were negative. Despite these results, the scientific literature tends to emphasize negative effects more than positive effects. Positive effects of habitat fragmentation per se imply that several small patches of habitat can have higher conservation value than

12052-513: The largest possible contiguous piece of land. In rare cases, a conservation reliant species may gain some measure of disease protection by being distributed in isolated habitats, and when controlled for overall habitat loss some studies have shown a positive relationship between species richness and fragmentation; this phenomenon has been called the habitat amount hypothesis, though the validity of this claim has been disputed. The ongoing debate of what size fragments are most relevant for conservation

12183-576: The largest relative to body size of any carnivore other than hyenas. The heel of the lower carnassial M1 is crested with a single, blade-like cusp, which enhances the shearing capacity of the teeth, thus the speed at which prey can be consumed. This feature, termed "trenchant heel", is shared with two other canids: the Asian dhole and the South American bush dog . The skull is relatively shorter and broader than those of other canids. The fur of

12314-419: The largest relative to body size of any living carnivoran with the exception of the spotted hyena . On the lower carnassials (first lower molars ), the talonid has evolved to become a cutting blade for flesh-slicing, with a reduction or loss of the post-carnassial molars. This adaptation also occurs in the two other hypercarnivorous canids – the dhole and the bush dog . The African wild dog exhibits one of

12445-491: The largest subpopulation probably consists of fewer than 250 individuals, the African wild dog has been listed as endangered on the IUCN Red List since 1990. The species is a specialised diurnal hunter of terrestrial ungulates , which it captures by using its stamina and cooperative hunting to exhaust them. Its natural competitors are lions and spotted hyenas : the former will kill the dogs where possible whilst

12576-746: The late 1980s. Their conservation was deemed successful as it has saved over nearly half a billion acres of land around the world. A few approaches and measures which can be taken in order to conserve forests are methods by which erosion can be minimized, waste is properly disposed, conserve native tree species to maintain genetic diversity , and setting aside forestland (provides habitat for critical wildlife species ). Additionally, forest fires can also occur frequently and measures can also be taken to further prevent forest fires from occurring. For example, in Guatemala ’s culturally and ecologically significant Petén region, researchers were able to find over

12707-451: The latter are frequent kleptoparasites . Like other canids, the African wild dog regurgitates food for its young but also extends this action to adults as a central part of the pack's social unit. The young have the privilege of feeding first on carcasses. The African wild dog has been revered in several hunter-gatherer societies, particularly those of the San people and Prehistoric Egypt . The English language has several names for

12838-585: The latter usually being led by the oldest female. Males may be led by the oldest male, but these can be supplanted by younger specimens; thus, some packs may contain elderly male former pack leaders. The dominant pair typically monopolises breeding. The species differs from most other social carnivorans in that males remain in the natal pack, while females disperse (a pattern also found in primates such as gorillas , chimpanzees , and red colobuses ). Furthermore, males in any given pack tend to outnumber females 3:1. Dispersing females join other packs and evict some of

12969-446: The local loss of biodiversity and the local loss of function. Moreover, fragmentation can change the microclimate at both local and regional scales, influencing biodiversity through interactions with anthropogenic climate change . Overall, habitat fragmentation significantly disrupts ecosystem services by altering nutrient retention, biodiversity, and ecosystem functioning at various spatial and temporal scales. Forest fragmentation

13100-552: The males no longer have any reason to use it or have any songs to match. Humans have also brought on varying implications into ecosystems which in turn affect animal behaviour and responses generated. Although there are some species which are able to survive these kinds of harsh conditions, such as, cutting down wood in the forests for pulp and paper industries, there are animals which can survive this change but some that cannot. An example includes, varying aquatic insects are able to identify appropriate ponds to lay their eggs with

13231-703: The middle and brown at the base. Some specimens lack the white tip entirely, or may have black fur below the white tip. These coat patterns can be asymmetrical, with the left side of the body often having different markings from the right. The African wild dog occurs foremost in Southern and East Africa. It is rare in North Africa and mostly absent in West Africa, with the only potentially viable population occurring in Senegal's Niokolo-Koba National Park . It

13362-433: The most likely to counteract negative perceptions. Domestic dog [REDACTED] Gray wolf [REDACTED] Coyote [REDACTED] African wolf [REDACTED] Golden jackal [REDACTED] Ethiopian wolf [REDACTED] Dhole [REDACTED] African wild dog [REDACTED] Side-striped jackal [REDACTED] Black-backed jackal [REDACTED] The earliest written reference for

13493-415: The most varied coat colours among mammals. Individuals differ in patterns and colours, indicating a diversity of the underlying genes . The purpose of these coat patterns may be an adaptation for communication, concealment or temperature regulation. In 2019 a study indicated that the lycaon lineage diverged from Cuon and Canis 1.7 million years ago through this suite of adaptations, and these occurred at

13624-441: The near future, the degree of fragmentation will significantly rise. After intensive clearing, the separate fragments tend to be very small islands isolated from each other by cropland, pasture, pavement, or even barren land. The latter is often the result of slash and burn farming in tropical forests . In the wheat belt of central-western New South Wales , Australia , 90% of the native vegetation has been cleared and over 99% of

13755-504: The next, especially for species living in smaller population sizes. Whereas, for species of larger populations have more genetic mutations which can arise and genetic recombination impacts which can increase species survival in those environments. Overall, habitat fragmentation results in habitat disintegration and habitat loss which both tie into destructing biodiversity as a whole. Evidence of habitat destruction through natural processes such as volcanism , fire, and climate change

13886-808: The nose. A species-wide study showed that by preference, where available, five prey species were the most regularly selected, namely the greater kudu , Thomson's gazelle , impala , Cape bushbuck and blue wildebeest . More specifically, in East Africa, its most common prey is the Thomson's gazelle, while in Central and Southern Africa, it targets impala , reedbuck , kob , lechwe and springbok , and smaller prey such as common duiker , dik-dik , hares , spring hares , insects and cane rats. Staple prey sizes are usually between 15 and 200 kg (33 and 441 lb), though some local studies put upper prey sizes as variously 90 to 135 kg (198 to 298 lb). In

14017-450: The number of species in a fragment and the relative contributions of demographic and genetic processes to the risk of global population extinction depend on habitat configuration, stochastic environmental variation and species features. Minor fluctuations in climate, resources, or other factors that would be unremarkable and quickly corrected in large populations can be catastrophic in small, isolated populations. Thus fragmentation of habitat

14148-498: The past. Some unique nuclear and mitochondrial alleles are found in Southern African and northeastern African populations, with a transition zone encompassing Botswana , Zimbabwe and southeastern Tanzania between the two. The West African wild dog population may possess a unique haplotype , thus possibly constituting a truly distinct subspecies. The original Serengeti and Maasai Mara population of painted dogs

14279-937: The pattern that long temporal scales are required to discern many strong system responses. The presence of forest fragments influences the supply of various ecosystems in adjacent agricultural fields (Mitchell et al. 2014). Mitchell et al. (2014), researched on six varying ecosystem factors such as crop production, decomposition , pesticide regulation , carbon storage, soil fertility , and water quality regulation in soybean fields through separate distances by nearby forest fragments which all varied in isolation and size across an agricultural landscape in Quebec, Canada . Sustainable forest management can be achieved in several ways including by managing forests for ecosystem services (beyond simple provisioning), through government compensation schemes, and through effective regulation and legal frameworks. The only realistic method of conserving forests

14410-438: The remaining habitat patches are smaller, they tend to support smaller populations of fewer species. Small populations are at an increased risk of a variety of genetic consequences that influence their long-term survival. Remnant populations often contain only a subset of the genetic diversity found in the previously continuous habitat. In these cases, processes that act upon underlying genetic diversity, such as adaptation , have

14541-426: The resident females related to the other pack members, thus preventing inbreeding and allowing the evicted individuals to find new packs of their own and breed. Males rarely disperse, and when they do, they are invariably rejected by other packs already containing males. Although arguably the most social canid, the species lacks the elaborate facial expressions and body language found in the gray wolf, likely because of

14672-432: The right-of-ways are preserved in an early successional stage. Forest fragmentation reduces food resources and habitat sources for animals thus splitting these species apart. Thus, making these animals become much more susceptible to effects of predation and making them less likely to perform interbreeding - lowering genetic diversity. Additionally, forest fragmentation affects the native plant species present within

14803-412: The same adaptations to a hypercarnivorous diet. L. sekowei had not yet lost the first metacarpal absent in L. pictus and was more robust than the modern species, having 10% larger teeth. The African wild dog has 78 chromosomes, the same number as those of species in the genus Canis . In 2018 whole genome sequencing was used to compare the dhole ( Cuon alpinus ) with the African wild dog. There

14934-572: The same biodiversity that a single contiguous forest would hold, even if their combined area is much greater than the single forest. However, forest islands in rural landscapes greatly increase their biodiversity. In the Maulino forest of Chile fragmentation appear to not affect overall plant diversity much, and tree diversity is indeed higher in fragments than in large continuous forests. McGill University in Montreal , Quebec , Canada released

15065-474: The same time as large ungulates (its prey) diversified. The findings also suggest that the African wild dog is largely isolated from gene transfer with other canid species. The oldest African wild dog fossil dates back to 200,000 years ago and was found in HaYonim Cave , Israel. The evolution of the African wild dog is poorly understood owing to the scarcity of fossil finds. Some authors consider

15196-422: The severe and lasting ecological impacts of fragmentation, which could be highlighted in the sections discussing the consequences of fragmentation. Habitat loss, which can occur through the process of habitat fragmentation, is considered to be the greatest threat to species. But, the effect of the configuration of habitat patches within the landscape, independent of the effect of the amount of habitat within

15327-480: The so-called "behavioral space race". The way in which fragmentation changes and re-shapes these interactions can occur in many different forms. Most prey species have patches of land that are a refuge from their predators, allowing them the safety to reproduce and raise their young. Human introduced structures such as roads and pipelines alter these areas by facilitating predator activity in these refuges, increasing predator-prey overlap. The opposite could also occur in

15458-452: The song, and the territorial call. The territorial call is used by males to defend and signal territory from other male Larks and is shared between neighbouring territories when males respond to a rivals song. Occasionally it is used as a threat signal to signify an impending attack on territory. A large song repertoire can enhance a male's ability to survive and reproduce as he has a greater ability to defend his territory from other males, and

15589-426: The species and has important potential consequences for population persistence. Inbreeding is rare within natal packs. Inbreeding may have been selected against evolutionarily because it leads to the expression of recessive deleterious alleles. Computer simulations indicate that all populations continuing to avoid incestuous mating will become extinct within 100 years due to the unavailability of unrelated mates. Thus,

15720-417: The species appears to be from Oppian , who wrote of the thoa , a hybrid between the wolf and leopard, which resembles the former in shape and the latter in colour. Solinus 's Collea rerum memorabilium from the third century AD describes a multicoloured wolf-like animal with a mane native to Ethiopia . The African wild dog was scientifically described in 1820 by Coenraad Jacob Temminck after examining

15851-441: The term primarily applies to the phenomenon of habitat being cut into smaller pieces without significant reduction in habitat area. Scientists who use the stricter definition of "habitat fragmentation" per se would refer to the loss of habitat area as "habitat loss" and explicitly mention both terms if describing a situation where the habitat becomes less connected and there is less overall habitat. Furthermore, habitat fragmentation

15982-503: The three species to warrant classifying them in a single subfamily. The African wild dog possesses the most specialized adaptations among the canids for coat colour and diet and for pursuing its prey through its cursorial (running) ability. It has a graceful skeleton, and the loss of the first digit on its forefeet increases its stride and speed. This adaptation allows it to pursue prey across open terrain for long distances. The teeth are generally carnassial -shaped and its premolars are

16113-499: The title AWD . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=AWD&oldid=1224048139 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages African Wild Dog The African wild dog ( Lycaon pictus ), also known as

16244-413: The way habitat fragmentation affects the genetics and extinction rates of species has been heavily studied, fragmentation has also been shown to affect species' behaviours and cultures as well. This is important because social interactions can determine and have an effect on a species' fitness and survival. Habitat fragmentation alters the resources available and the structure of habitats, as a result, alters

16375-480: The whole, the relationship between the two species is a one-sided benefit for the hyenas, with African wild dog densities being negatively correlated with high hyena populations. Beyond piracy, cases of interspecific killing of African wild dogs by spotted hyenas are documented. African wild dogs are apex predators , only fatally losing contests to larger social carnivores. When briefly unprotected, wild dog pups may occasionally be vulnerable to large eagles , such as

16506-401: The wild. When separated from the pack, an African wild dog becomes depressed and can die as a result of broken heart syndrome . Packs of African wild dogs have a high ratio of males to females. This is a consequence of the males mostly staying with the pack whilst female offspring disperse and is supported by a changing sex-ratio in consecutive litters. Those born to maiden females contain

16637-413: Was a medicine man. Hare gave Impala a calabash of medicine, warning him not to turn back on the way to Wild Dog's den. Impala was startled by the scent of a leopard and turned back, spilling the medicine. A zebra then went to Hare, who gave him the same medicine along with the same advice. On the way, Zebra turned back when he saw a black mamba , thus breaking the gourd. A moment later a terrible howling

16768-471: Was heard: Wild Dog's wife had died. Wild Dog went outside and saw Zebra standing over the broken gourd of medicine, so Wild Dog and his family chased Zebra and tore him to shreds. To this day, African wild dogs hunt zebras and impalas as revenge for their failure to deliver the medicine that could have saved Wild Dog's wife. Habitat fragmentation The term habitat fragmentation includes five discrete phenomena: "fragmentation ... not only causes loss of

16899-507: Was later returned to it, in conformity with the International Rules on Taxonomic Nomenclature. Paleontologist George G. Simpson placed the African wild dog, the dhole and the bush dog together in the subfamily Simocyoninae on the basis of all three species having similarly trenchant carnassials . This grouping was disputed by Juliet Clutton-Brock , who argued that other than dentition too many differences exist among

17030-689: Was still relatively unspecialised. This connection was rejected by one author because C . ( X .) falconeri ' s lack of the first metacarpal is a poor indication of phylogenetic closeness to the African wild dog, and the dentition was too different to imply ancestry. Another ancestral candidate is the Plio-Pleistocene Lycaon sekowei of South Africa on the basis of distinct accessory cusps on its premolars and anterior accessory cuspids on its lower premolars. These adaptions are found only in Lycaon among living canids, which shows

17161-585: Was strong evidence of ancient genetic admixture between the two species. Today their ranges are remote from each other; however during the Pleistocene era the dhole could be found as far west as Europe. The study proposes that the dhole's distribution may have once included the Middle East , from where it may have admixed with the African wild dog in North Africa . However, there is no evidence of

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