President of Serbia and Yugoslavia
62-526: Elections Family The anti-bureaucratic revolution ( Serbian : Антибирократска револуција , romanized : Antibirokratska revolucija ) was a campaign of street protests by supporters of Serbian leader Slobodan Milošević that ran between 1988 and 1989 in Yugoslavia . The protests overthrew the government of the Socialist Republic of Montenegro as well as the governments of
124-496: A "crisis situation in Kosovo" and all republics were requested to send their police troops to Kosovo. The Yugoslav leadership was shocked by the extent of the violence used by the demonstrators and the relatively large participation in the demonstrations. The aftermath of the 1981 protests in Kosovo resulted in resentment by Serbs in Kosovo to the political situation in Kosovo. Serbs suspected that deliberate Albanianization of Kosovo
186-421: A Hungarian, am not afraid of Serbia?". The provincial leadership, led by Milovan Šogorov , Boško Krunić and Živan Berisavljević , were caught by surprise. Before the event, they tried to compromise and negotiate with Milošević, expressing cautious support for the constitutional changes while trying to keep their and Vojvodina's position intact. However, the avalanche of media campaign orchestrated from Belgrade
248-523: A crisis in the 1981 protests in Kosovo by Albanians who were heard shouting slogans such as "We are Albanians, not Yugoslavs", "Kosova Republic", "Unity with Albania" and "Long live Marxism-Leninism, Down with Revisionism". The presence of ethnic and ideological dimensions to the protestors' demands led Yugoslav authorities to decide to forcibly stop the protests. The president of the Pristina League of Communists, Aslan Fazlia (an Albanian) said that
310-1018: A resolution of the problematic situation on Kosovo. These were relatively small, with 100–5,000 participants, and were mostly reactions to individual inter-ethnic incidents. The largest such protest was held in Kosovo Polje in April 1987, gathering around 20,000 people. However, the outburst of protests began in the latter half of 1988. In June, the protest of workers of the Zmaj factory gathered 5,000 protestors; in July, meetings were held in seven towns with tens of thousands protesters, and in August in ten towns with 80,000 people. By September they spread to 39 towns with over 400,000 people. On 5 October 1988, around 150,000 people gathered in Novi Sad to protest against
372-434: A roadblock and then Albanian demonstrators took hostages from thirty-four houses of Serbs and Montenegrins, demanding that these police forces leave Kosovo in exchange for the release of the hostages. Only after additional police forces from Priština arrived were the hostages released. The protests led to vandalism throughout Kosovo including smashed windows of cars, shops, and state institutions. The Yugoslav leadership declared
434-516: A significant political role. The new younger cadre led by Momir Bulatović , Milo Đukanović and Svetozar Marović , became the new leadership, strongly allied with Milošević in the years to come. The League of Communists of Montenegro was subsequently transformed by the "triumvirate" who had full control over the (Socialist) Republic of Montenegro into the Democratic Party of Socialists of Montenegro , which stayed in power until 2020 when it
496-587: A year of street protests and changes of party leaderships in Yugoslavia's provinces who were replaced by Milošević loyalists. Serbia's Borisav Jović (at the time the President of the Presidency), Montenegro's Nenad Bućin, Vojvodina's Jugoslav Kostić and Kosovo's Riza Sapunxhiu , started to form a four-member voting bloc in the eight-seat presidency. The reduction of provincial autonomy of Kosovo - but not
558-436: Is Torlakian in southeastern Serbia, which is transitional to Macedonian and Bulgarian . Serbian is practically the only European standard language whose speakers are fully functionally digraphic , using both Cyrillic and Latin alphabets. The Serbian Cyrillic alphabet was devised in 1814 by Serbian linguist Vuk Karadžić , who created it based on phonemic principles. The Latin alphabet used for Serbian ( latinica )
620-527: Is based on the most widespread dialect of Serbo-Croatian, Shtokavian (more specifically on the dialects of Šumadija-Vojvodina and Eastern Herzegovina ), which is also the basis of standard Croatian , Bosnian , and Montenegrin varieties and therefore the Declaration on the Common Language of Croats, Bosniaks, Serbs, and Montenegrins was issued in 2017. The other dialect spoken by Serbs
682-591: Is closer to the Kajkavian and Chakavian dialects of Serbo-Croatian ). Speakers by country: Serbian was the official language of Montenegro until October 2007, when the new Constitution of Montenegro replaced the Constitution of 1992. Amid opposition from pro-Serbian parties, Montenegrin was made the sole official language of the country, and Serbian was given the status of a language in official use along with Bosnian , Albanian , and Croatian . In
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#1732766145543744-530: Is shows that it was in accord with its time; for example, the Serbian Alexandride , a book about Alexander the Great , and a translation of Tristan and Iseult into Serbian. Although not belonging to the literature proper, the corpus of Serbian literacy in the 14th and 15th centuries contains numerous legal, commercial and administrative texts with marked presence of Serbian vernacular juxtaposed on
806-645: Is the standardized variety of the Serbo-Croatian language mainly used by Serbs . It is the official and national language of Serbia , one of the three official languages of Bosnia and Herzegovina and co-official in Montenegro and Kosovo . It is a recognized minority language in Croatia , North Macedonia , Romania , Hungary , Slovakia , and the Czech Republic . Standard Serbian
868-435: Is the only general historical dictionary of Serbo-Croatian. Its first editor was Đuro Daničić , followed by Pero Budmani and the famous Vukovian Tomislav Maretić . The sources of this dictionary are, especially in the first volumes, mainly Štokavian . There are older, pre-standard dictionaries, such as the 1791 German–Serbian dictionary or 15th century Arabic-Persian-Greek-Serbian Conversation Textbook . The standard and
930-849: The Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Serbian, written in the Cyrillic script : Сва људска бића рађају се слободна и једнака у достојанству и правима. Она су обдарена разумом и свешћу и треба једни према другима да поступају у духу братства. Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Serbian, written in the Latin alphabet : Sva ljudska bića rađaju se slobodna i jednaka u dostojanstvu i pravima. Ona su obdarena razumom i svešću i treba jedni prema drugima da postupaju u duhu bratstva. Article 1 of
992-589: The Communist Party of Serbia ( Serbian : Комунистичка партија Србије , romanized : Komunistička partija Srbije , abbr. KPS ) until 1952, was the ruling political party of Serbia from 1945 to 1990. It was the Serbian branch of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia , known until 1952 as the Communist Party of Yugoslavia. Under a new constitution ratified in 1974, greater power
1054-631: The Proto-Slavic language . There are many loanwords from different languages, reflecting cultural interaction throughout history. Notable loanwords were borrowed from Greek, Latin, Italian, Turkish, Hungarian, English, Russian, German, Czech and French. Serbian literature emerged in the Middle Ages , and included such works as Miroslavljevo jevanđelje ( Miroslav's Gospel ) in 1186 and Dušanov zakonik ( Dušan's Code ) in 1349. Little secular medieval literature has been preserved, but what there
1116-483: The Universal Declaration of Human Rights in English: All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood. League of Communists of Serbia The League of Communists of Serbia ( Serbian : Савез комуниста Србије , romanized : Savez komunista Srbije , abbr. SKS ), known as
1178-559: The Yugoslav People's Army to impose martial law . When Sapunxhiu 'defected' from his faction in the final vote, Jović briefly resigned and returned, Bućin was then replaced with Branko Kostić , and Sapunxhiu with Sejdo Bajramović , which effectively meant that the presidency was deadlocked. Soon after that, the country descended into escalations which led to Yugoslav Wars . Serbian language Serbian ( српски / srpski , pronounced [sr̩̂pskiː] )
1240-457: The official script of Serbia's administration by the 2006 Constitution . The Latin script continues to be used in official contexts, although the government has indicated its desire to phase out this practice due to national sentiment. The Ministry of Culture believes that Cyrillic is the "identity script" of the Serbian nation. However, the law does not regulate scripts in standard language , or standard language itself by any means, leaving
1302-488: The 2023 Montenegrin census, 43.18% declared Serbian to be their native language, while Montenegrin was declared by 34.52% of the population. Standard Serbian language uses both Cyrillic ( ћирилица , ćirilica ) and Latin script ( latinica , латиница ). Serbian is a rare example of synchronic digraphia , a situation where all literate members of a society have two interchangeable writing systems available to them. Media and publishers typically select one alphabet or
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#17327661455431364-587: The Albanian-dominated leadership of the province. The tensions were further boosted by inflammatory reports in the Serbian media. According to the 1974 Yugoslav constitution , the two autonomous provinces of Serbia (Vojvodina and Kosovo) were largely independent from the central Serbian government, with both of them holding a seat in the Yugoslav Presidency, on par with the six constituent republics of Yugoslavia. In effect, their status
1426-640: The Central Committee of SKJ , Boško Krunić, resigned and was replaced by Stanko Radmilović , while the President of the Central Committee of the SKV , Milovan Šogorov, resigned and was replaced by Bogosav Kovačević. The rally in Belgrade , at Ušće (the large field at confluence of Sava River into Danube ) was held on 19 November 1988. According to the state press, it gathered about a million people, and according to others, several hundred thousands. It
1488-881: The Latin alphabet whereas 36% favors the Cyrillic one. Latin script has become more and more popular in Serbia, as it is easier to input on phones and computers. The sort order of the ćirilica ( ћирилица ) alphabet: The sort order of the latinica ( латиница ) alphabet: Serbian is a highly inflected language , with grammatical morphology for nouns, pronouns and adjectives as well as verbs. Serbian nouns are classified into three declensional types, denoted largely by their nominative case endings as "-a" type, "-i" and "-e" type. Into each of these declensional types may fall nouns of any of three genders : masculine, feminine or neuter. Each noun may be inflected to represent
1550-410: The Latin script predominates, although both scripts are commonly seen. The Serbian government has encouraged increasing the use of Cyrillic in these contexts. Larger signs, especially those put up by the government, will often feature both alphabets; if the sign has English on it, then usually only Cyrillic is used for the Serbian text. A survey from 2014 showed that 47% of the Serbian population favors
1612-450: The Latin script tends to imply a cosmopolitan or neutral attitude, while Cyrillic appeals to a more traditional or vintage sensibility. In media, the public broadcaster, Radio Television of Serbia , predominantly uses the Cyrillic script whereas the privately run broadcasters, like RTV Pink , predominantly use the Latin script. Newspapers can be found in both scripts. In the public sphere, with logos, outdoor signage and retail packaging,
1674-524: The Serbian provinces of Vojvodina and Kosovo , and replaced them with Milošević allies, thereby creating a dominant voting bloc within the Yugoslav presidency council . The name anti-bureaucratic revolution is derived from the proclaimed goal of replacing bureaucratic and corrupt governing structures . The events were condemned by the communist governments of the western Yugoslav republics (especially Slovenia and Croatia ), who successfully resisted
1736-553: The Vojvodina provincial government. The gathering started a day earlier in the nearby town of Bačka Palanka , and, as Politika explained it, people spontaneously gathered and moved on to Novi Sad, the provincial capital. The protest in Bačka Palanka was led by Mihalj Kertes , a mid-level official of the Communist Party, an ethnic Hungarian who would later become famous for his remark "How can you Serbs be afraid of Serbia when I,
1798-654: The Yugoslav presidency with Stjepan Mesić . However, Mesić only took his seat in October 1990 because of protests from Serbia. From then on, Mesić joined Macedonia's Vasil Tupurkovski , Slovenia's Janez Drnovšek and Bosnia and Herzegovina's Bogić Bogićević in opposing the demands in March 1991 from the Milošević-backed other four members of presidency to proclaim a general state of emergency , which would have allowed
1860-491: The attempts to expand the revolt onto their territories, and turned against Milošević. The rising antagonism eventually resulted in the dissolution of the ruling League of Communists of Yugoslavia in 1990. Since the adoption of the 1974 Yugoslav Constitution , Serbian central government often encountered political deadlocks with the provincial governments in Kosovo and Vojvodina. In 1976 the Serbian government issued its first complaints of unconstitutional practice of autonomy by
1922-483: The beginning of the 13th century, the entire official correspondence of Dubrovnik with states in the hinterland was conducted in Serbian. In the mid-15th century, Serbia was conquered by the Ottoman Empire and for the next 400 years there was no opportunity for the creation of secular written literature. However, some of the greatest literary works in Serbian come from this time, in the form of oral literature,
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1984-521: The chants "We want weapons" and "Arrest Vllasi" were heard, and three days later, Vllasi was indeed placed under arrest. In early 1989, the Parliament of Serbia had proposed constitutional amendments that would have significantly reduced SAP Kosovo's autonomous status within SR Serbia. Kosovo Albanians organized large demonstrations against these moves, but in March 1989, preceding a final push for
2046-439: The choice of script as a matter of personal preference and to the free will in all aspects of life (publishing, media, trade and commerce, etc.), except in government paperwork production and in official written communication with state officials, which have to be in Cyrillic. Traffic signs and directional signs, and place names, on main or international roads are to be written with both Cyrillic and Latin script To most Serbians,
2108-576: The complete abolition of its provincial status - was seen as intentional, as Milošević needed the two "extra" provincial votes to gain influence in the federal presidency. In SR Croatia , a new constitution was proclaimed in July 1990, and in August the Log Revolution started, an insurrection of ethnic Serbs in areas with significant Serb population, which led to the Croatian Parliament replacing its representative Stipe Šuvar in
2170-480: The demonstrators up, they gave them bread and yogurt . However, thousands of yogurt packages were soon thrown at the Parliament building by angry protesters. Thus, the protests are sometimes referred to as the "Yogurt Revolution". On 6 October, the entire collective leadership of Vojvodina resigned and were soon replaced with Nedeljko Šipovac , Radovan Pankov and Radoman Božović . The Vojvodina representative in
2232-580: The early 19th century, Vuk Stefanović Karadžić promoted the spoken language of the people as a literary norm. The dialects of Serbo-Croatian , regarded Serbian (traditionally spoken in Serbia), include: Vuk Karadžić 's Srpski rječnik , first published in 1818, is the earliest dictionary of modern literary Serbian. The Rječnik hrvatskoga ili srpskoga jezika (I–XXIII), published by the Yugoslav Academy of Sciences and Arts from 1880 to 1976,
2294-489: The help of Croatian police forces, by preventing trains with Milošević supporters pass through Croatia in order to reach Slovenia. This action can be considered the first Slovenian defense action against the attacks of the supporters of Milošević, which later lead to Slovenia's independence. Events of the anti-bureaucratic revolution drastically changed the balance of power in the Presidency of Yugoslavia in little over
2356-570: The major 'levels' of language shows that BCS is clearly a single language with a single grammatical system." It has lower intelligibility with the Eastern South Slavic languages Bulgarian and Macedonian , than with Slovene (Slovene is part of the Western South Slavic subgroup, but there are still significant differences in vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation to the standardized forms of Serbo-Croatian, although it
2418-605: The matrix of Serbian Church Slavonic . By the beginning of the 14th century the Serbo-Croatian language, which was so rigorously proscribed by earlier local laws, becomes the dominant language of the Republic of Ragusa . However, despite her wealthy citizens speaking the Serbo-Croatian dialect of Dubrovnik in their family circles, they sent their children to Florentine schools to become perfectly fluent in Italian. Since
2480-407: The most notable form being epic poetry . The epic poems were mainly written down in the 19th century, and preserved in oral tradition up to the 1950s, a few centuries or even a millennium longer than by most other "epic folks". Goethe and Jacob Grimm learned Serbian in order to read Serbian epic poetry in the original. By the end of the 18th century, the written literature had become estranged from
2542-676: The motion to meet the required two-thirds majority, it was declared to have passed. On 28 March the Serbian parliament approved the constitutional changes. The largest rally of all was held at Gazimestan on 28 June 1989, gathering two million according to Politika . When a "Rally of Truth" ( Slovene : Miting resnice ) was announced to be held in Ljubljana , SR Slovenia on 1 December 1989, thousands of Milošević supporters who attended street protests around Yugoslavia were planned to arrive to Slovenia's capital. However, in an operation named Action North Slovene police forces prevented it with
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2604-415: The noun they modify, but must agree in number, gender and case with the modified noun. Serbian verbs are conjugated in four past forms— perfect , aorist , imperfect , and pluperfect —of which the last two have a very limited use (imperfect is still used in some dialects, but the majority of native Serbian speakers consider it archaic), one future tense (also known as the first future tense, as opposed to
2666-517: The noun's grammatical case , of which Serbian has seven: Nouns are further inflected to represent the noun's number , singular or plural. Pronouns, when used, are inflected along the same case and number morphology as nouns. Serbian is a pro-drop language , meaning that pronouns may be omitted from a sentence when their meaning is easily inferred from the text. In cases where pronouns may be dropped, they may also be used to add emphasis. For example: Adjectives in Serbian may be placed before or after
2728-682: The only completed etymological dictionary of Serbian is the " Skok ", written by the Croatian linguist Petar Skok : Etimologijski rječnik hrvatskoga ili srpskoga jezika ("Etymological Dictionary of Croatian or Serbian"). I-IV. Zagreb 1971–1974. There is also a new monumental Etimološki rečnik srpskog jezika (Etymological Dictionary of Serbian). So far, two volumes have been published: I (with words on A-), and II (Ba-Bd). There are specialized etymological dictionaries for German, Italian, Croatian, Turkish, Greek, Hungarian, Russian, English and other loanwords (cf. chapter word origin ). Article 1 of
2790-400: The other. In general, the alphabets are used interchangeably; except in the legal sphere, where Cyrillic is required, there is no context where one alphabet or another predominates. Although Serbian language authorities have recognized the official status of both scripts in contemporary Standard Serbian for more than half of a century now, due to historical reasons, the Cyrillic script was made
2852-516: The protests were nationalistic and counterrevolutionary and announced tough police action against the demonstrators. This action failed to quell the protests that instead grew in response with protests by Albanians sweeping across Kosovo. The President of the League of Communists of Kosovo Mahmut Bakalli decided in response to ask the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) to bring tanks onto the streets. Police reinforcements from Central Serbia were stopped by
2914-411: The provinces to Tito and Edvard Kardelj and issued a subsequent complaint in 1984 on the matter, attempting to resolve the problems within the 1974 Constitution. It was reported that the provinces had repeatedly denied the Serbian government the ability to enact policies in their territories, such as regulation of citizenship policy, common defense law, and social plans . The situation in Kosovo became
2976-461: The ratification of constitutional changes in the Assembly of Kosovo, the Yugoslav police rounded up around 240 prominent Kosovo Albanians, apparently selected based on their anti-ratification sentiment, and detained them with complete disregard for due process . Albanian representatives in the Parliament of Kosovo boycotted the vote on the matter on 23 March 1989, but regardless of the failure of
3038-413: The second conditional (without use in the spoken language—it should be used for impossible conditional clauses). Serbian has active and passive voice . As for the non-finite verb forms, Serbian has one infinitive , two adjectival participles (the active and the passive), and two adverbial participles (the present and the past). Most Serbian words are of native Slavic lexical stock, tracing back to
3100-433: The second future tense or the future exact, which is considered a tense of the conditional mood by some contemporary linguists), and one present tense . These are the tenses of the indicative mood. Apart from the indicative mood, there is also the imperative mood . The conditional mood has two more tenses: the first conditional (commonly used in conditional clauses, both for possible and impossible conditional clauses) and
3162-670: The situation the leadership proclaimed the state of emergency . The state of emergency did not last long, as it was taken as an act of hostility towards Serbia by media outlets controlled by Milošević as well as Milošević's supporters in Montenegro. The second act started with joint rallies consisting of workers from Radoje Dakić, a state-owned factory, and Veljko Vlahović University students. On 10 January 1989, over 10,000 protesters gathered in Titograd . The old leadership, confused and disorganised, soon gave in; none of them later played
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#17327661455433224-466: The spoken language. In the second half of the 18th century, the new language appeared, called Slavonic-Serbian . This artificial idiom superseded the works of poets and historians like Gavrilo Stefanović Venclović , who wrote in essentially modern Serbian in the 1720s. These vernacular compositions have remained cloistered from the general public and received due attention only with the advent of modern literary historians and writers like Milorad Pavić . In
3286-550: The uniting of our enemies from abroad and those in the country. And that this nation will win the battle for freedom, is a fact well-known even to the Turkish and German conquerors. Rallies and media were also similarly used in Montenegro with the first rally in support of Kosovo Serbs and Kosovo Montenegrins taking place in Titograd on 20 August 1988. The leadership of the Montenegrin Communist League
3348-469: Was devolved to the various republic-level branches. In 1987 , the party was taken over by the populist faction led by Slobodan Milošević . Milošević appeased nationalists in Serbia by promising to reduce the level of autonomy within the autonomous provinces of Kosovo and Vojvodina. This policy increased ethnic tensions with the other republics and nationalities and led to the Yugoslav Wars . During
3410-409: Was about to overwhelm them; they were labelled as power-hungry "armchairers" (фотељаши/ foteljaši ) and "autonomists" (аутономаши / autonomaši ). The Vojvodina government then cut off power and water supply to protesters, a move which enraged them further still, and caused even more people from Novi Sad and its vicinity to join. When power was restored, they tried a different tactic: in order to cheer
3472-500: Was almost equivalent to the republics', which enabled provincial leaderships of Kosovo and Vojvodina to lead independent policies. In late 1987 and 1988, a populist campaign started in Serbia against this situation, which it described as untenable. Provincial leaderships were being accused of bureaucratic inefficiency and alienation from the people. Popular slogans like "Oh Serbia in three parts, you will be whole again" ( oj Srbijo iz tri dela ponovo ćeš biti cela ) caught on. The atmosphere
3534-488: Was conceived as a "mother of all rallies", and a huge crowd of people come from all parts of Serbia by public and factory buses taken just for this opportunity. Milošević reaffirmed his and Serbia's commitment to the principles of liberty and Serbian equality within Yugoslavia: We will win the battle for Kosovo regardless of the obstacles placed in front of us in the country and abroad. So, we will win regardless of
3596-591: Was defeated for the first time in 2020 parliamentary election . Azem Vllasi and Kaqusha Jashari , the two top-ranked Kosovo politicians, were replaced in November 1988. The Albanian population of Kosovo grew restless, and in February 1989 they engaged in a general strike, particularly manifesting itself in the 1989 Kosovo miners' strike . Meanwhile, on February 28, another major rally was held in Belgrade, where
3658-699: Was demonstrated by statistics showing that the population of Serbs in Kosovo had significantly decreased from 23.5% in 1961 to 13.2% in 1981, as well as making claims that they were being persecuted by Albanians, including Serb women being systematically raped by Albanians. Many of these claims were not backed up by evidence but built up as rumours. Milošević took control of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia 's Serbian branch in September 1987, when his faction won over its opposition, led by Ivan Stambolić . His rise to power coincided with Serbo-Albanian tensions in Kosovo, as Kosovo Serbs felt oppressed by Albanians and
3720-571: Was designed by the Croatian linguist Ljudevit Gaj in the 1830s based on the Czech system with a one-to-one grapheme-phoneme correlation between the Cyrillic and Latin orthographies, resulting in a parallel system. Serbian is a standardized variety of Serbo-Croatian , a Slavic language ( Indo-European ), of the South Slavic subgroup. Other standardized forms of Serbo-Croatian are Bosnian , Croatian , and Montenegrin . "An examination of all
3782-434: Was further stirred up by numerous articles and readers' letters in Serbian press, the most notorious being Politika ' s rubric "Odjeci i reagovanja" ( Echoes and reactions ), a letters to the editor column which was used as a type of astroturfing . The main points of the campaign were the following: The mass protests started in February 1986, with several meetings of Kosovo Serbs in Belgrade and in Kosovo, pleading for
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#17327661455433844-460: Was on the defense at the time, claiming that it was protecting Kosovo, but their restraint in direct support for Milošević was deemed not good enough by the protesters. What eventually proved to be the revolution's first act occurred on 7 October 1988 when Montenegrin police intervened against protesters in Žuta Greda demanding resignations from the Montenegrin leadership. In order to deal with
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