123-411: [REDACTED] Sri Lanka portal The Anuradhapura kingdom ( Sinhala : අනුරාධපුර රාජධානිය , translit: Anurādhapura Rājadhāniya, Tamil : அனுராதபுர இராச்சியம் ), named for its capital city , was the second established kingdom in ancient Sri Lanka . According to the Mahāvaṃsa , it was founded by King Pandukabhaya in 437 BC, whose authority extended throughout the country. Buddhism played
246-653: A Sinhala language continuation of the Mahavamsa that covers the period from the end of the Culavamsa up until 1935. While not authorized or supported by any government or religious organization, this continuation of the Mahavamsa was later recognized by the government of the Sri Lankan Prime Minister J. R. Jayawardene . A commentary on the Mahavamsa , known as the Mahavamsa-tika ,
369-647: A perennial watercourse often took the place of the reservoir. Inland fishing was widespread during the Anuradhapura kingdom period because of the numerous reservoirs. Although not entirely absent, sea fishing was not common during this period mainly because of the rudimentary nature of transporting sea fish to cities which were located far inland. Women appear to have enjoyed considerable freedom and independence during this period. Dutthagamani frequently sought his mother's advice during his military campaign. Rock inscriptions show that women donated caves and temples for
492-563: A Buddhist missionary and Mahinda's role in converting the Sri Lankan king to Buddhism, in his 13th-year Rock Edicts, particularly Rock-Edict XIII. Sources outside of Sri Lanka and the Mahavamsa tradition do not mention Mahinda as Ashoka's son. There is also an inconsistency with the year in which Ashoka sent Buddhist missionaries to Sri Lanka. According to the Mahavamsa , the missionaries arrived in 255 BCE, but according to Edict 13 , it
615-662: A Dravidian origin for this word. ), dola for pig in Vedda and offering in Sinhala. Other common words are rera for wild duck, and gala for stones (in toponyms used throughout the island, although others have also suggested a Dravidian origin). There are also high frequency words denoting body parts in Sinhala, such as olluva for head, kakula for leg, bella for neck and kalava for thighs, that are derived from pre-Sinhalese languages of Sri Lanka. The oldest Sinhala grammar, Sidatsan̆garavā , written in
738-463: A German scholar of Indology who has published studies on the Buddha and translated many Pali texts, considers this story a "pure invention". V. A. Smith (Author of Ashoka and Early History of India ) also refers to this story as "a tissue of absurdities". V. A. Smith and Professor Hermann came to this conclusion due to Ashoka not mentioning the handing over of his son, Mahinda, to the temple to become
861-501: A Romanized transliteration and translation into Latin in 1826, but these garnered relatively little attention. Working from Johnston's manuscripts, Edward Upham published an English translation in 1833, but it was marked by several errors in translation and interpretation, among them suggesting that the Buddha was born in Sri Lanka and built a monastery atop Adam's Peak . The first printed edition and widely read English translation
984-451: A continuous historical record of over two millennia, and is considered one of the world's longest unbroken historical accounts. It is one of the few documents containing material relating to the Nāga and Yakkha peoples , indigenous inhabitants of Lanka before the legendary arrival of Prince Vijaya from Singha Pura of Kalinga. As it often refers to the royal dynasties of India , the Mahavamsa
1107-404: A major role in the Anuradhapura period, influencing its culture, laws, and methods of governance. The society and the culture were revolutionized when the faith was introduced during the reign of King Devanampiya Tissa ; this cultural change was further strengthened by the arrival of the tooth relic of the Buddha in Sri Lanka and the patronage extended by her rulers. During the Anuradhapura era,
1230-469: A navy was not considered important during the Anuradhapura kingdom, and one was rarely maintained. This would have been the first line of defence for the island nation and would also have been helpful in dealing with invasions from South India. The economy of the Anuradhapura kingdom was based mainly on agriculture . The main agricultural product was rice , the cultivation of which was supported by an intricate irrigation network. Rice cultivation began around
1353-478: A novice. They encountered Devanampiya Tissa at Mihintale on a Poson poya day. After this meeting, king Devanampiya Tissa embraced Buddhism and the order of monks was established in the country. The king, guided by Arahat Mahinda, took steps to firmly establish Buddhism in the country. Soon afterwards, the bhikkhuni Sanghamitta arrived from India in order to establish the Bhikkhuni sasana (order of nuns) in
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#17327655111401476-722: A period of prior bilingualism: "The earliest type of contact in Sri Lanka, not considering the aboriginal Vedda languages, was that which occurred between South Dravidian and Sinhala. It seems plausible to assume prolonged contact between these two populations as well as a high degree of bilingualism. This explains why Sinhala looks deeply South Dravidian for an Indo-Aryan language. There is corroboration in genetic findings." In addition to many Tamil loanwords , several phonetic and grammatical features also present in neighbouring Dravidian languages set modern spoken Sinhala apart from its Northern Indo-Aryan relatives. These features are evidence of close interactions with Dravidian speakers. Some of
1599-506: A result of the Mahavamsa , comparatively more is known about the history of the island of Ceylon and neighboring regions than that of most of the subcontinent. Its contents have aided in the identification and corroboration of archaeological sites and inscriptions associated with early Buddhism, the empire of Ashoka , and even the Tamil kingdoms of southern India. The Mahamvasa covers the early history of Buddhism in Sri Lanka, beginning with
1722-401: A revolt of his own Indian mercenary troops , fled to the south-eastern province of Rohana . The Mahavamsa describes the rule of Mahinda V as weak, and the country was suffering from poverty by this time. It further mentions that his army rose against him due to lack of wages. Taking advantage of this internal strife Chola Emperor Rajaraja I invaded Anuradhapura sometime in 993 AD and conquered
1845-545: A rift with the Mahavihara, and he succeeded only after a reconciliation was affected. Some rulers patronized only one sect, but this often led to unrest in the country and most rulers equally supported all sects. Despite this, religious establishments were often plundered during times of internal strife by the rulers themselves, such as during the reigns of Dathopatissa I (639–650) and Kashyapa II (650–659). Customs, traditions and moral principles based on Buddhism were used as
1968-463: Is a conspicuous example of the linguistic phenomenon known as diglossia . Sinhala ( Siṁhala ) is a Sanskrit term; the corresponding Middle Indo-Aryan ( Eḷu ) word is Sīhala . The name is a derivative of siṁha , the Sanskrit word for 'lion'. The name is sometimes glossed as 'abode of lions', and attributed to a supposed former abundance of lions on the island. According to
2091-476: Is a factual basis for many of the stories recorded in the Mahavamsa , including Ashoka's missionary work and the kings associated with founding various monasteries and stupas. The contents of the Mahavamsa beginning from the King Devanampiyatissa is considered mostly historically, apart from some bias by the writers. Wilhelm Geiger was one of the first Western scholars to suggest that it
2214-420: Is also mentioned. Buddhism while not prevalent was brought by traders from India who built places of worship. Brahmanism was prevalent among the ruling elite until the introduction of Buddhism to Sri Lanka during the reign of Devanampiya Tissa . It spread rapidly throughout the country under his patronage becoming the official religion of the kingdom. Despite this status, the tolerance of Buddhist society ensured
2337-719: Is also valuable for historians who wish to date and relate contemporary royal dynasties in the Indian subcontinent . It is very important in dating the consecration of the Maurya Emperor Ashoka , which is related to the synchronicity with the Seleucid Empire and Alexander the Great . Indian excavations in Sanchi and other locations, confirm the Mahavamsa account of the empire of Ashoka. The accounts given in
2460-599: Is an Indo-Aryan language primarily spoken by the Sinhalese people of Sri Lanka , who make up the largest ethnic group on the island, numbering about 16 million. Sinhala is also spoken as the first language by other ethnic groups in Sri Lanka, totalling about 2 million speakers as of 2001. It is written using the Sinhala script , which is a Brahmic script closely related to the Grantha script of South India. Sinhala
2583-496: Is believed to have been composed before the first additions composing the Culavamsa were written, likely sometime between 1000 CE and 1250 CE. This commentary provides explanations of ambiguous Pali terms used in the Mahavamsa , and in some cases adds additional details or clarifies differences between different versions of the Mahavamsa . Unlike the Mahavamsa itself, which is composed almost entirely of material associated with
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#17327655111402706-628: Is believed to have been the first Pali text composed entirely in Ceylon. A subsequent work sometimes known as Culavamsa extends the Mahavamsa to cover the period from the reign of Mahasena of Anuradhapura (277–304 CE) until 1815, when the entire island was surrendered to the British throne. The Culavamsa contains three sections composed by five different authors (one anonymous) belonging to successive historical periods. In 1935, Buddhist monk Yagirala Pannananda published Mahavamsa Part III ,
2829-484: Is divided into four epochs: The most important phonetic developments of Sinhala include: According to Wilhelm Geiger , an example of a possible Western feature in Sinhala is the retention of initial /v/ which developed into /b/ in the Eastern languages (e.g. Sanskrit viṁśati "twenty", Sinhala visi- , Hindi bīs ). This is disputed by Muhammad Shahidullah who says that Sinhala Prakrit branched off from
2952-468: Is not recorded in any source outside of the Mahavamsa tradition. Moreover, the genealogy of the Buddha recorded in the Mahavamsa describes him as being the product of four cross cousin marriages. Cross-cousin marriage is associated historically with the Dravidian people of southern India- both Sri Lankan Tamils and Sinhala practiced cross-cousin marriage historically- but the exogamous marriage
3075-412: Is one of the official and national languages of Sri Lanka, alongside Tamil . Along with Pali , it played a major role in the development of Theravada Buddhist literature. Early forms of the Sinhala language are attested as early as the 3rd century BCE. The language of these inscriptions, still retaining long vowels and aspirated consonants, is a Prakrit similar to Magadhi , a regional associate of
3198-427: Is practically no trace of Chola rule in Anuradhapura. When Sinhalese sovereignty was restored under Vijayabahu I, he crowned himself at Anuradhapura but continued to have his capital at Polonnaruwa for it being more central and made the task of controlling the turbulent province of Rohana much easier. The kingdom was under the rule of a king. The consecration ceremonies and rituals associated with kingship began during
3321-776: Is sculpted from dolomitic marble and is datable to the 4th century. The Toluvila statue is similar to this, and dates to the later stages of the Anuradhapura kingdom. Notable standing Buddha statues dating from the Anuradhapura period include the ones at Avukana , Maligavila and Buduruvagala . The Buduruvagala statue is the tallest in the country, standing at 50 feet (15 m). All these statues are carved out of rock. Sinhala language Sinhala ( / ˈ s ɪ n h ə l ə , ˈ s ɪ ŋ ə l ə / SIN -hə-lə, SING -ə-lə ; Sinhala: සිංහල , siṁhala , [ˈsiŋɦələ] ), sometimes called Sinhalese ( / ˌ s ɪ n ( h ) ə ˈ l iː z , ˌ s ɪ ŋ ( ɡ ) ə ˈ l iː z / SIN -(h)ə- LEEZ , SING -(g)ə- LEEZ ),
3444-484: Is the meticulously kept historical chronicle of Sri Lanka until the period of Mahasena of Anuradhapura . It was written in the style of an epic poem written in the Pali language. It relates the history of Sri Lanka from its legendary beginnings up to the reign of Mahasena of Anuradhapura covering the period between the arrival of Prince Vijaya from India in 543 BCE to his reign and later updated by different writers. It
3567-552: The Anuradhapura cross indicated a possibility of a strong Christian population during the Anuradhapura period. Nestorian Christians held some influence and power in the Anuradhapura kingdom, particularly during the reign of King Dathusena . There was also a presence of Muslim Traders from Arabia and Persia. From the 3rd century BC to the 3rd century AD, inscriptions are recorded in the Brāhmī script . This gradually developed into
3690-563: The Jetavanaramaya was built, later than the other two. However, it too was receptive to new and more liberal views regarding Buddhism. Rulers sponsored Theravada and often took steps to stop the spreading of Mahayana beliefs. Rulers such as Aggabodhi I, Kashyapa V (914–923) and Mahinda IV (956–972) promulgated disciplinary rules for the proper conduct of the Sangha. Voharika Tissa and Gothabhaya (249–262) expelled several monks from
3813-626: The Konesvaram temple had been constructed. Historical sources indicate that there were also Jains in Anuradhapura during the reign of Valagamba. A community of Christians are believed to have migrated and settled in the Kingdom likely introduced by Saint Thomas the Apostle in AD 52-72. Most Christians at that time were either St.Thomas Christians or Nestorian Christians. In 1912, the discovery of
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3936-475: The Mahavamsa are also amply supported by the numerous stone inscriptions, mostly in Sinhala, found in Sri Lanka. K. Indrapala has also upheld the historical value of the Mahavamsa . If not for the Mahavamsa , the story behind the large stupas in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka, such as Ruwanwelisaya , Jetavanaramaya , Abhayagiri vihāra and other works of ancient engineering would never have been known. Historiographical sources are rare in much of South Asia. As
4059-458: The Mahavamsa faithfully reflected an earlier tradition that had preserved the names and deeds of various royal and religious leaders, rather than being a pure work of heroic literary fiction. He regarded the early chapters of the Culavamsa as the most accurate, with the early chapters of the Mahavamsa being too remote historically and the later sections of the Culavamsa marked by excessive elaboration. Geiger's Sinhala student G. C. Mendis
4182-410: The Mahavamsa is attributed to an otherwise unknown monk called Mahānāma by the Mahavamsa-tika . Mahānāma is described as residing in a monastery belonging to general Dighasanda and affiliated with the Mahavihara, but no other reliable biographical information is known. Mahānāma introduces the Mahavamsa with a passage that claims that he intends to correct repetitions and shortcomings that afflicted
4305-516: The Mahavamsa was more specifically associated with the Mahavihara . A companion volume, the Culavamsa "Lesser Chronicle", compiled by Sinhala monks, covers the period from the 4th century to the British takeover of Sri Lanka in 1815 . The Culavamsa was compiled by several authors of different periods. The combined work sometimes referred to collectively as the Mahavamsa , provides
4428-435: The Mahavamsa , King Pandukabhaya, the founder and first ruler of Anuradhapura, fixed village boundaries in the country and established an administration system by appointing village headmen. He constructed hermitages, houses for the poor, cemeteries, and irrigation tanks. He brought a large portion of the country under the control of the Anuradhapura kingdom. However, it was not until the reign of Dutthagamani (161–137 BC) that
4551-619: The Mahavihara , the Mahavamsa-tika makes several references to commentaries and alternate versions of the chronicle associated with the Abhayagiri vihara tradition. In Southeast Asia, a Pali work referred to as the "Extended Mahavamsa " includes not only the text of the Sri Lankan Mahavamsa , but also elements of the Thupavamsa , Buddhavamsa , Mahavamsa commentaries, and quotations from various jatakas . It
4674-569: The Malvatu Oya , Deduru Oya and Mahaweli Ganga and spread throughout the country. Shifting cultivation was also done during the rainy seasons. Rice was produced in two main seasons named Yala and Maha . Due to the extensive production of rice, the country was mostly self-sufficient . Cotton was grown extensively to meet the requirements of cloth . Sugarcane and Sesame were also grown and there are frequent references in classical literature to these agricultural products. Finger millet
4797-729: The Middle Indian Prakrits that had been used during the time of the Buddha . The most closely related languages are the Vedda language (an endangered, indigenous creole still spoken by a minority of Sri Lankans, mixing Sinhala with an isolate of unknown origin and from which Old Sinhala borrowed various aspects into its main Indo-Aryan substrate), and the Maldivian language . It has two main varieties, written and spoken, and
4920-625: The Sanskrit Kavyadarsha . Dampiya Atuva Gatapadaya is another, and is a glossary for the Pali Dhammapadatthakatha , providing Sinhala words and synonyms for Pali words. The third book is Mula Sikha Ha Sikhavalanda , a set of disciplinary rules for Buddhist monks. Both these have been written during the last two centuries of the Anuradhapura period. During the reign of Valagamba, the Pali Tripitaka
5043-872: The Tamil Nationalist movement. The Mahavamsa , being a history of the Sinhala Buddhists, presented itself to the Tamil Nationalists and the Sinhala Nationalists as the hegemonic epic of the Sinhala people. This view was attacked by G. G. Ponnambalam, a representative of the Nationalist Tamils in the 1930s. He claimed that most of the Sinhala kings, including Vijaya, Kasyapa, and Parakramabahu, were Tamils. Ponnambalam's 1939 speech in Nawalapitiya, attacking
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5166-587: The UNESCO National Commission of Ceylon According to Wilhelm Geiger , Sinhala has features that set it apart from other Indo-Aryan languages. Some of the differences can be explained by the substrate influence of the parent stock of the Vedda language . Sinhala has many words that are only found in Sinhala, or shared between Sinhala and Vedda and not etymologically derivable from Middle or Old Indo-Aryan. Possible examples include kola for leaf in Sinhala and Vedda (although others suggest
5289-515: The paintings of Ajanta in India, there are significant differences in style and composition suggesting that these are examples of a distinctive Sri Lankan school of art. Paintings from a cave at Hindagala date back to the late Anuradhapura period, and may even belong to the same period as the Sigiriya paintings. The paintings of Sigiriya and Hindagala are the only surviving specimens of the art of
5412-418: The tooth relic of the Buddha to Sri Lanka because of unrest in their country. Kithsirimevan carried it in procession and placed the relic in a mansion named Datadhatughara . He ordered this procession to be held annually which is still taking place in the country. The tooth relic of the Buddha soon became one of the most sacred objects in the country and a symbol of kingship. The person who was in possession of
5535-414: The worship of gods , the worship of trees , Brahmanism , Nigaṇthas , Śaivisam , various ascetic groups such as Paribbrājakas, Ᾱjīvakas and forms of early Buddhism . Known yakśas that received royal patronage during the reign of King Pandukabhaya include Chitrarāja, Kālavēla and yakśani Valavāmukhī. Named gods to include Sumana and Upulvan while goddess named pachchimarājinī meaning “western queen”
5658-464: The 13th century CE, recognised a category of words that exclusively belonged to early Sinhala. The grammar lists naram̆ba (to see) and koḷom̆ba (fort or harbour) as belonging to an indigenous source. Koḷom̆ba is the source of the name of the commercial capital Colombo . The consistent left branching syntax and the loss of aspirated stops in Sinhala is attributed to a probable South Dravidian substratum effect. This has been explained by
5781-403: The Anuradhapura kingdom, the power of the king had deteriorated that he could not even properly organize the collection of taxes. One of the most notable events during the Anuradhapura kingdom was the introduction of Buddhism to the country. A strong alliance existed between Devanampiya Tissa (250–210 BC) and Ashoka of India, who sent a missionary of 5 monks including Arahat Mahinda , and
5904-487: The Anuradhapura kingdom. However, remnants of paintings indicate that the walls and ceilings of some buildings and the inside walls of stupas and vahalkadas were also painted. Saddhatissa had employed painters to decorate the Ruwanweli Seya when his brother Duttugemunu wanted to see it on his death bed. Statue making, most noticeably statues of the Buddha , was an art perfected by the Sri Lankan sculptors during
6027-418: The Anuradhapura kingdom. The earliest Buddha statues belonging to the Anuradhapura period date back to the 1st century AD. Standard postures such as Abhaya Mudra , Dhyana Mudra , Vitarka Mudra and Kataka Mudra were used when making these statues. The Samadhi statue in Anuradhapura, considered one of the finest examples of ancient Sri Lankan art, shows the Buddha in a seated position in deep meditation, and
6150-462: The Anuradhapura kingdom. There were a number of them in Rajarata during Elara's reign. Mahasen destroyed several Hindu temples during his reign in the 2nd century. Particularly Indian merchant communities living near ports such as Mahatittha and Gokanna were followers of Hinduism and Hindu temples were constructed in these areas. By the end of the Anuradhapura kingdom, large Hindu temples such as
6273-402: The Anuradhapura period, the second Lambakanna dynasty, started with Manavanna (684–718) seizing the throne in 684 and continued till the last ruler of Anuradhapura, Mahinda V. Royal officials were divided into three categories; officials attached to the palace, officials of central administration and officials of provincial administration. One of the most important positions was the purohita ,
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#17327655111406396-716: The Eastern Prakrits prior to this change. He cites the edicts of Ashoka , no copy of which shows this sound change. An example of an Eastern feature is the ending -e for masculine nominative singular (instead of Western -o ) in Sinhalese Prakrit. There are several cases of vocabulary doublets , one example being the words mæssā ("fly") and mækkā ("flea"), which both correspond to Sanskrit makṣikā but stem from two regionally different Prakrit words macchiā (Western Prakrits) and makkhikā (as in Eastern Prakrits like Pali ). In 1815,
6519-463: The Indian Ocean and its natural bays made it a centre of international trade transit. Ports such as Mahatittha ( Mannar ) and Gokanna ( Trincomalee ) were used as trading ports during the Anuradhapura kingdom. Currency was often used for settling judicial fines, taxes and payments for goods or services. However, remuneration for services to the king, officials and temples were often made in
6642-602: The Lambakarana clan seized power in 66 AD. His ascension to the throne saw the start of the first Lambakarana dynasty, which ruled the country for more than three centuries. A new dynasty began with Dhatusena in 455. Named the Maurya dynasty, the origins of this line are uncertain although some historians trace them to Shakya princes who accompanied the sapling of the Sri Maha Bodhi to Sri Lanka. The last dynasty of
6765-702: The Mahavamsa was listed an item of documentary heritage on the UNESCO’s Memory of the World International Register. The Buddhist monks of the Anuradhapura Maha Viharaya maintained chronicles of the island's history starting from the 3rd century BCE. These annals were then combined and compiled into a single document in the 5th century while King Dhatusena was ruling the Anuradhapura Kingdom . It
6888-653: The advanced technical and engineering skills used to create them. The famous paintings and structures at Sigiriya ; the Ruwanwelisaya , Jetavana stupas , and other large stupas ; large buildings like the Lovamahapaya ; and religious works (like the numerous Buddha statues) are landmarks demonstrating the Anuradhapura period's advancement in sculpting. According the chronicle Mahavamsa , In 543 BC, prince Vijaya (543–505 BC) arrived in Sri Lanka, having been banished from his homeland in India. He eventually brought
7011-466: The advisor of the king. The king also had a board of ministers called amati paheja . In central administration, senapati (Commander-in-Chief of the Army) was a second position only to the king and held by a member of the nobility. This position, and also the positions of yuvaraja (sub king), administrative positions in the country's provinces and major ports and provinces, were often held by relatives of
7134-531: The assistance of the Pallavas during succession disputes to secure the throne. However, the Anuradhapura kingdom appears to have had strong armies during some periods, such as when Sena II sent his armies to South India against the Pandyan king. Gajabahu I also launched an invasion against South India to rescue 12,000 captives, and brought back 12,000 prisoners as well as the freed captives. Surprisingly, however,
7257-421: The bases of law. Specific laws were eventually developed and adopted. Samantapasadika , a 5th-century commentary, gives details of complex regulations on the theft of fish. The chief judicial officer was known as viniccayamacca and there were several judicial officers under him, known as vinicchayaka . Apart from them, village headmen and provincial governors were also given the power to issue judgments. The king
7380-518: The capital of Anuradhapura was destroyed by the Cholas. Polonnaruwa , a military outpost of the Sinhalese kingdom, was renamed Jananathamangalam, after a title assumed by Rajaraja I, and became the new centre of administration for the Cholas. This was because earlier Tamil invaders had only aimed at overlordship of Rajarata in the north, but the Cholas were bent on control of the whole island. There
7503-681: The chronicle Mahāvaṃsa , written in Pali, Prince Vijaya of the Vanga Kingdom and his entourage merged in Sri Lanka with later settlers from the Pandya kingdom . In the following centuries, there was substantial immigration from Eastern India, including additional migration from the Vanga Kingdom (Bengal), as well as Kalinga and Magadha . This influx led to an admixture of features of Eastern Prakrits. The development of Sinhala
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#17327655111407626-586: The chronicle compiled by the ancients- this may refer either to the Dipavamsa or to the Sinhala Atthakatha. The contents of the Mahavamsa can be broadly divided into four categories: While much of the contents of the Mahavamsa is derived from expansions of the material found in the Dipavamsa , several passages specifically dealing with the Abhayagiri vihara are omitted, suggesting that
7749-448: The city. Anuradhapura (Anurapura) was named after the minister who first established the village. The name was also derived from the city's establishment on the auspicious asterism called Anura. Anuradhapura was the capital of all the monarchs who ruled the country in the Anuradhapura kingdom, with the exception of Kashyapa I (473–491), who chose Sigiriya to be his capital. The city is also marked on Ptolemy's world map . According to
7872-552: The claim that Sri Lanka is a Sinhalese, Buddhist nation was seen as an act against the notion of creating a Sinhalese-Buddhist only nation. The Sinhala majority responded with a mob riot, which engulfed Nawalapitiya, Passara, Maskeliya, and even in Tamil Jaffna . Early Western scholars like Otto Franke dismissed the possibility that the Mahavamsa contained reliable historical content, but subsequent evidence from inscriptions and archaeological finds have confirmed that there
7995-401: The coins of this period. The primary tax of this period was named bojakapati (grain tax) and charged for land used for cultivation. A water tax, named dakapati was also charged for the water used from reservoirs. Customs duties were also imposed in ports. Those unable to pay these taxes in cash were expected to take part in services such as repairing reservoirs. The administration of taxes
8118-476: The construction of irrigation works was a major achievement of the Anuradhapura kingdom, ensuring water supply in the dry zone and helping the country grow mostly self-sufficient. Several kings, most notably Vasabha and Mahasena , built large reservoirs and canals, which created a vast and complex irrigation network in the Rajarata area throughout the Anuradhapura period. These constructions are an indication of
8241-407: The country again under his rule. During the times of Vasabha, Mahasena (274–301) and Dhatusena, the construction of large irrigation tanks and canals was given priority. Vasabha constructed 11 tanks and 12 canals, Mahasen constructed 16 tanks and a large canal, and Dhatusena built 18 tanks. Most of the other kings have also built irrigation tanks throughout Rajarata , the area around Anuradhapura. By
8364-417: The country fell under the control of six rulers from South India . These were Pandu , Parinda , Khudda Parinda , Tiritara , Dathiya and Pithiya , who was defeated by Dhathusena who regained power in 459. More invasions and raids from South India occurred during the reigns of Sena I (833–853) and Udaya III (935–938). The final invasion during the Anuradhapura kingdom, which ended the kingdom and left
8487-587: The country for 22 years, they were defeated by Asela (215–205 BC), who was in turn overthrown by another invasion led by a Chola prince named Elara (205–161 BC). Elara ruled for 44 years before being defeated by Dutthagamani (Duttugamunu) However, the Mahavamsa records that these kings from the mainland ruled the country fairly and lawfully. The country was invaded again in 103 BC by Five Dravidian chiefs , Pulahatta , Bahiya , Panya Mara , Pilaya Mara and Dathika , who ruled until 89 BC when they were defeated by Valagamba . Another invasion occurred in 433, and
8610-438: The country under the rule of the Cholas, took place during the reign of Mahinda V. However, none of these invaders could extend their rule to Ruhuna , the southern part of the country, and Sri Lankan rulers and their heirs always organized their armies from this area and managed to regain their throne. Throughout the history of Sri Lanka, Ruhuna served as a base for resistance movements. Mahinda V (981-1017), distracted by
8733-469: The country was invaded by South Indians several times. Rulers such as Dutthagamani , Valagamba , and Dhatusena are noted for defeating South Indian invaders and unifying the country. Other rulers such as Sena II are notable for dispatching forces to the South Indian mainland, and gaining several victories such as the sacking of Madurai in 862 . The kingdom was largely based on agriculture, hence
8856-474: The country, he helped establish Buddhism on a firm and secure base and built several monasteries and shrines including the Ruwanweli Seya and Lovamahapaya . Another notable king of the Anuradhapura kingdom is Valagamba (103, 89–77 BC), also known as Vatthagamani Abhaya, who was overthrown by five invaders from South India. He regained his throne after defeating these invaders one by one and unified
8979-521: The country. Representing the Theravada teachings, it remained strictly conventional throughout the Anuradhapura kingdom. The Abhayagiri fraternity, established after Abhayagiriya was built, represented several schools of Buddhist thought. It did not restrict itself to Theravada and accepted Mahayana and Tantric ideas as well. Little evidence exists on the Jetavana fraternity which was established after
9102-486: The country. She brought along with her a sapling from the Sri Maha Bodhi , the tree under which the Buddha attained enlightenment . The king sent his cousin, Prince Aritta to Dambakolapatuna to escort the delegation back to Anuradhapura. The bo sapling was then planted at the Mahamevna Gardens in Anuradhapura and bestowed the newly planted Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi . on his kingdom. Prince Aritta along with other men
9225-600: The cow: milk, curd , buttermilk , ghee and butter. Bullocks and bullock carts were also used for transport. Metalwork was an important and well-developed craft, and metal tools such as axes, mammoties and hoes were widely used. Weapons and tools of iron and steel were produced on a large scale for the military. A good indication of the development of metalwork of this period is the Lovamahapaya , which had been roofed entirely with copper. Villages were usually concentrated around irrigation reservoirs to enable easy access to water for agriculture. Houses stood immediately below
9348-458: The early stages, the Anuradhapura kingdom did not have a strong regular army except for a small body of soldiers. These were assigned to guarding the capital and the royal palace. The King had the right to demand an able-bodied son for military service from every family in his kingdom. In times of war, a larger army was formed using this method. An army consisted of four main divisions; an elephant corps, cavalry, chariots and infantry. This combination
9471-511: The end of the Anuradhapura kingdom, a large and intricate irrigation network was available throughout Rajarata to support the agriculture of the country. Saddha Tissa (137–119 BC), Mahaculi Mahatissa (77–63 BC), Vasabha (67–111), Gajabahu I (114–136), Dhatusena (455–473), Aggabodhi I (571–604) and Aggabodhi II (604–614) were among the rulers who held sway over the entire country after Dutthagamani and Valagamba. Rulers from Kutakanna Tissa (44–22 BC) to Amandagamani (29–19 BC) also managed to keep
9594-564: The features that may be traced to Dravidian influence are: ඒක ēka it අලුත් aḷut new කියලා kiyalā having-said මම mama I දන්නවා dannavā know ඒක අලුත් කියලා මම දන්නවා ēka aḷut kiyalā mama dannavā it new having-said I know "I know that it is new." ඒක ēka it අලුත් aḷut new ද da Q කියලා kiyalā having-said මම mama I දන්නේ Mahavamsa [REDACTED] Sri Lanka portal Mahāvaṃsa (Sinhala: මහාවංශ (Mahāvansha), Pali : මහාවංස (Mahāvaṃsa) )
9717-438: The form of land revenue. The oldest coins found at Anuradhapura date up to 200 BC. These earliest coins were punch marked rectangular pieces of silver known as kahavanu . These eventually became circular in shape, which was in turn followed by die struck coins. Uncoined metals, particularly gold and silver , were used for trading as well. Patterns of elephants, horses, swastika and Dharmacakra were commonly imprinted on
9840-408: The graffiti on the mirror wall at Sigiriya. Most of these verses are describing or even addressed the female figures depicted in the frescoes of Sigiriya. The majority of these poems have been written between the 8th and 10th centuries. Only three Sinhala books survive from the Anuradhapura period. One of them, Siyabaslakara , was written in the 9th or 10th century on the art of poetry and is based on
9963-791: The imagination of the Buddhist world of the time. Unlike many texts written in antiquity, it also discusses various aspects of the lives of ordinary people, and how they joined the King's army or farmed. Thus the Mahavamsa was taken along the Silk Road to many Buddhist lands. Parts of it were translated, retold, and absorbed into other languages. An extended version of the Mahavamsa , which gives many more details, has also been found in Southeast Asia. The Mahavamsa gave rise to many other Pali chronicles, making Sri Lanka of that period probably
10086-657: The initial season of plunder. With the intention to transform Chola encampments into more permanent military enclaves, Saivite temples were constructed in Polonnaruva and in the emporium of Mahatittha. Taxation was also instituted, especially on merchants and artisans by the Cholas. In 1014 Rajaraja I died and was succeeded by his son the Rajendra Chola I, perhaps the most aggressive king of his line. Chola raids were launched southward from Rajarata into Rohana. By his fifth year, Rajendra claimed to have completely conquered
10209-550: The island of Ceylon came under British rule . During the career of Christopher Reynolds as a Sinhalese lecturer at the School of African and Oriental Studies, University of London , he extensively researched the Sinhalese language and its pre-1815 literature. The Sri Lankan government awarded him the Sri Lanka Ranjana medal for his work. He wrote the 377-page An anthology of Sinhalese literature up to 1815 , selected by
10332-501: The island under his control and established himself as king. After this, his retinue established villages and colonies throughout the country. One of these was established by Anuradha, a minister of King Vijaya, on the banks of a stream called Kolon and was named Anuradhagama after himself and the Anuradha Nakshatra . In 377 BC, King Pandukabhaya , grandson of King Panduvasudeva (437–367 BC) made it his capital and developed
10455-472: The island. The whole of Anuradhapura including the south-eastern province of Rohana was incorporated into the Chola Empire. As per the Sinhalese chronicle Mahavamsa , the conquest of Anuradhapura was completed in the 36th year of the reign of the Sinhalese monarch Mahinda V, i.e. about 1017–18. But the south of the island, which lacked large and prosperous settlements to tempt long-term Chola occupation,
10578-611: The king. The kingdom was often divided into sections or provinces and governed separately. Rajarata , the area around the capital, was under the direct administration of the king, while the Ruhuna (southern part of the country) and the Malaya Rata (hill country) were governed by officials called apa and mapa . These administrative units were further divided into smaller units called rata . Officials called ratiya or ratika were in charge of these. The smallest administrative unit
10701-411: The kingdom were defended with defensive walls and moats . Sieges , often lasting several months, were common during warfare. Single combat between the opposing kings or commanders, mounted on elephants, often decided the outcome of the battle. South Indian mercenaries were often employed in the armies of the Anuradhapura kingdom during its latter stages. Manavanna and Moggallana I (491–508) obtained
10824-408: The kings who were patrons of the Anuradhapura Maha Viharaya , it has been said to support Sinhalese nationalism. Besides being an important historical source, the Mahavamsa is the most important epic poem in the Pali language. Its stories of battles and invasions, court intrigue, and great constructions of stupas and water reservoirs, written in elegant verse suitable for memorization, caught
10947-463: The middle of the 1st century BC, the Abhayagiri sect had also begun to have a close link to the ruling of the country. By the end of the 3rd century AD, the Jetavana sect had also become close to the ruler. Estrangements between the ruler and the priesthood often weakened the government, as happened during the reign of Lanjatissa. Even Valagamba's resistance movement was initially hampered because of
11070-409: The modern Sinhala script , but this was not complete by the end of the Anuradhapura kingdom. The first reference in historical sources to any written work is about 80 BC, but both Sinhala and Pali literature existed even two centuries before this, if not earlier. The oldest Sinhala literature is found at Sigiriya . Poems written from the 6th century to the end of the Anuradhapura kingdom are found among
11193-410: The most, left Greek homelands as Alexander’s camp followers and come to Sri Lanka with or in the wake of Alexander’s troops. When their fellow Greeks showed reluctance to push further south, these Greeks apparently had done so.” By the fifth century one of Persians in addition to Tamil and Arab merchants. These foreign merchants, mainly Arabs, often acted as middlemen in these imports and exports. By
11316-544: The ninth century these Muslim traders had established themselves around the ports of the Anuradhapura kingdom, they would soon form the still extant Muslim community of the island. Luxury cloth was also imported from Eastern India and China . A stone inscription in Anuradhapura implies that the market or bazaar was an important functionality in the city. Trade was limited in villages since they were mostly self-sufficient, but essential commodities such as salt and metal had to be obtained from outside. The country's position in
11439-503: The northern part of the country and incorporated it into his kingdom as a province named "Mummudi-sola-mandalam" after himself. Rajendra Chola I son of Rajaraja I, launched a large invasion in 1017. The Culavamsa says that the capital at Anuradhapura was "utterly destroyed in every way by the Chola army. The capital was at Polonnaruwa which was renamed "Jananathamangalam". A partial consolidation of Chola power in Rajarata had succeeded
11562-477: The order for supporting such views. A change in this occurred when Mahasena embraced Mahayana teachings and acted against Theravada institutions. However, he too accommodated Theravada teachings after the population rebelled against him. As the kingdom and the authority of kings declined, Mahayana and Tantric doctrines again began to spread, however, Theravada remained the main and most widespread doctrine. Followers of Hinduism were also present to some extent during
11685-420: The origins of the Sinhala people in their travels that varied significantly from the versions recorded in the Mahavamsa - in one version, the Sinhala are descended from naga or nature spirits who traded with Indian merchants, and in another, the Sinhala progenitor is a prince exiled for patricide who then slays a wealthy merchant and adopts his 500 children. The story of the Buddha's three visits to Sri Lanka
11808-438: The reign of King Kashyapa I (ruled 477 — 495 AD). Depicting female figures carrying flowers, they are the oldest surviving paintings of the Anuradhapura period. Various theories exist as to who are shown in these paintings. Some suggest that they are apsaras (celestial nymphs), others suggest that they are the ladies of the king's court or even a representation of lightning and rain clouds. Although they bear some similarity to
11931-412: The reign of Devanampiya Tissa, under the influence of Ashoka of India. The whole country was brought under the rule of a single monarch by Dutthagamani for the first time. Before this, it had several principalities independent of the Anuradhapura kingdom. The succession of the throne was patrilineal , or if otherwise, inherited by the brother of the previous king. The king of Anuradhapura was recognized as
12054-399: The reservoir embankment, between the water and the paddy fields below. This facilitated easy control of the water supply to the fields and also supported the maintenance of domestic gardens for fruit and vegetable production. A village typically consisted of a cluster of dwellings, paddy fields, a reservoir, a grazing ground, shift crop reserves and a village forest. In areas of high rainfall,
12177-647: The residence of many foreign merchants from around the world. From very early times was a settlement of Greeks known as Yavanas. Professor Merlin Peris, former Professor of Classics at the University of Peradeniya , writes that “The Greeks whom King Pandukabhaya settled in the West Gate of Anuradhapura were not the second or third generation of Greeks who arrived in NW India but were men who, just two decades ago at
12300-459: The supreme ruler throughout the island, even at times when he did not have absolute control over it. Four dynasties have ruled the kingdom from its founding to its ending. The rulers from Vijaya to Subharaja (60–67) are generally considered as the Vijayan dynasty. Pandukabhaya was the first ruler of the Anuradhapura kingdom belonging to this dynasty. The Vijayan dynasty existed until Vasabha of
12423-415: The survival of Hinduism with only a minor loss of influence. After this, the rulers were expected to be the protectors of Buddhism in the country and it became a legitimizing factor of royal authority. Three fraternities of Buddhism had come into existence by the end of the Anuradhapura kingdom; Mahavihara, Abhayagiri and Jetavana. Mahavihara was established immediately after the introduction of Buddhism to
12546-513: The time of Siddhartha Gautama , the founder of Buddhism. It also briefly recounts the history of Buddhism in India , from the date of the Buddha's death to the 3rd Buddhist council where the Dharma was reviewed. Every chapter of the Mahavamsa ends by stating that it is written for the "serene joy of the pious". From the emphasis of its point-of-view, and being compiled to record the good deeds of
12669-461: The tooth relic was identified to be the rightful ruler of the country. Therefore, it was often enshrined within the royal palace itself. Several invasions have been made against the Anuradhapura kingdom, all of which were launched from South India . The first invasion recorded in the history of the country is during the reign of Suratissa (247–237 BC), where he was overthrown by two horse dealers from South India named Sena and Guththika. After ruling
12792-520: The use of the sangha. However, there are no records of women holding any administrative posts. It is not clear if women were given equal footing with men, but they did have complete freedom in religious matters. Before the adoption of Buddhism by the royalty, there was no single organized religion or proper state religion but a wide variety of different belief systems were practiced some of which received royal patronage. These include worship of yakśas and yakśanis (female yakśas), Nāgās , ancestor worship ,
12915-781: The village level was the responsibility of village assemblies, which usually consisted of the elders of the village. However, towards the end of the Anuradhapura kingdom a group of ten villages, known as dasagam , was responsible for upholding justice in that area. The laws and legal measures to be followed by them were proclaimed by the king. Several rock inscriptions that record these proclamations have been found in archaeological excavations. Punishments differed from ruler to ruler. Some kings, such as Sanghabodhi (247–249) and Voharika Tissa (209–231) were lenient in this aspect, while rulers like Ilanaga (33–43) and Jettha Tissa I (263–273) were harsher. However, crimes such as treason, murder, and slaughter of cattle were generally punishable by death. During
13038-410: The whole country under the rule of the Anuradhapura kingdom. Other rulers could not maintain their rule over the whole island, and independent regions often existed in Ruhuna and Malayarata (hill country) for limited periods. During the final years of the Anuradhapura kingdom, rebellions sprang up and the authority of the kings gradually declined. By the time of Mahinda V (982–1017), the last king of
13161-421: The whole country was unified under the Anuradhapura kingdom. He defeated 32 rulers in different parts of the country before he defeated the South Indian invader Elara at the battle at Vijithapura , and ascended to the throne. The chronicle Mahavamsa describes his reign with much praise, and devotes 11 chapters out of 37 for his reign. He is described as both a warrior king and a devout Buddhist. After unifying
13284-414: The world's leading center in Pali literature. The Mahavamsa has, especially in modern Sri Lanka, acquired significance as a document with a political message. The Sinhalese majority often use Mahavamsa as proof of their claim that Sri Lanka is a Sinhalese nation since historical time. The British historian Jane Russell has recounted how a process of " Mahavamsa bashing" began in the 1930s, from within
13407-400: Was called Chaturangani Sena (fourfold army). However, the majority of the army was infantry composed of swordsmen, spearmen and archers. When such an army was prepared, it was commanded by several generals. The Commander-in-Chief of the army was usually a member of the nobility. The King and his generals led the army from the front during battles, mounted on elephants . The major cities of
13530-545: Was first composed by a Buddhist monk named Mahanama at the Mahavihara temple in Anuradhapura in the 5th or 6th-century CE. The Mahavamsa first came to the attention of Western researchers around 1809 CE, when Sir Alexander Johnston , Chief Justice of the British Ceylon , sent manuscripts of it and other Sri Lankan chronicles (written in mainly Sinhala language being the main language of Sri Lanka) to Europe for translation and publication. Eugène Burnouf produced
13653-416: Was five years earlier in 260 BCE. The Mahavamsa is believed to have originated from an earlier chronicle known as the Dipavamsa (4th century CE; lit. ' Island Chronicles ' ). The Dipavamsa is much simpler and contains less information than the Mahavamsa and probably served as the nucleus of an oral tradition that was eventually incorporated into the written Mahavamsa . The Dipavamsa
13776-413: Was grown as a substitute for rice, particularly in the dry zone of the country. Surpluses of these products, mainly rice, were exported. The primary goods exported during the Anuradhapura period are gemstones , spices , pearls and elephants , while ceramic ware , silks , perfumes and wines were imported from other countries. The city of Anuradhapura itself became an important commercial centre as
13899-494: Was more openly skeptical about certain portions of the text, specifically citing the story of the Sinhala ancestor Vijaya as being too remote historically from its source and too similar to an epic poem or other literary creation to be seriously regarded as history. The date of Vijaya's arrival is thought to have been artificially fixed to coincide with the date for the death of Gautama Buddha around 543 BCE. The Chinese pilgrims Fa Hsien and Hsuan Tsang both recorded myths of
14022-519: Was never really consolidated by the Chola. Thus, under Rajendra, Chola expansion in Ceylon began to reach a point of diminishing returns. According to the Culavamsa and Karandai plates, Rajendra Chola led a large army into Anuradhapura and captured Mahinda's crown, queen, daughter, a vast amount of wealth and the king himself whom he took as a prisoner to India, where he eventually died in exile in 1029. The Chola conquest had one permanent result in that
14145-403: Was ordained by Arahat Madinda, thus establishing the order of the monks in Sri Lanka. Similarly Lady Anula, a member of the royal family was ordained along with 400 other women. This was the origin of the order of the nuns. Subsequently Buddhism was established as the main religion of Sri Lanka. During the reign of Kithsirimevan (301–328), Sudatta, the sub king of Kalinga , and Hemamala brought
14268-503: Was possible to separate useful historical information from the mythic and poetic elaborations of the chronicle. While other scholars had assumed that the Mahavamsa had been assembled from borrowed material from Indian Pali sources, Geiger hypothesized that the Mahavamsa had been based on earlier Sinhala sources that originated on the island of Ceylon. While Geiger did not believe that the details provided with every story and name were reliable, he broke from earlier scholars in believing that
14391-490: Was published in 1837 by George Turnour , a historian and officer of the Ceylon Civil Service who translated 38 chapters. Mudaliyar L. C. Wijesinghe completed the remaining 62 chapters and reviewed Turnour's work, publishing in 1889. A German translation of Mahavamsa was completed by Wilhelm Geiger in 1912. This was then translated into English by Mabel Haynes Bode, and revised by Geiger. In 2023,
14514-463: Was the gama (village), under a village chief known as gamika or gamladda . A close link existed between the ruler and the Sangha (Buddhist priesthood) since the introduction of Buddhism to the country. This relationship was further strengthened during Dutthagamani's reign. The monks often advised and even guided the king on decisions. This association was initially with the Mahavihara sect, but by
14637-656: Was the duty of Badagarika , the king's treasurer. Culture in the Anuradhapura kingdom was largely based on Buddhism with the slaughter of animals for food considered low and unclean. As a result, animal husbandry, except for the rearing of buffalo and cattle, was uncommon. Elephants and horses were prestige symbols, and could only be afforded by the nobility. The skills needed to train and care for these animals were highly regarded . Cattle and buffalo were used for ploughing and preparing paddy fields . Dairy products formed an important part of people's diets while Pali and Sinhala literature often refer to five products obtained from
14760-429: Was the final judge in legal disputes, and all cases against members of the royal family and high dignitaries of the state were judged by him. However, the king had to exercise this power with care and after consulting with his advisers. Udaya I recorded judgments that were regarded as important precedents in the royal library in order to maintain uniformity in judicial decisions. Initially, the administration of justice at
14883-419: Was the norm in the regions of northern India associated with the life of the Buddha. No mention of cross-cousin marriage is found in earlier Buddhist sources, and scholars suspect that this genealogy was created to fit the Buddha into conventional Sri Lankan social structures for noble families. The historical accuracy of Mahinda converting the Sri Lankan king to Buddhism is also debated. Hermann Oldenberg ,
15006-574: Was written based on prior ancient compilations known as the Atthakatha (sometimes Sinhalaatthakatha ), which were commentaries written in Sinhala. An earlier document known as the Dipavamsa (4th century CE) "Chronicles of the Island" is much simpler and contains less information than the Mahavamsa and was probably compiled using the Atthakatha on the Mahavamsa as well. Authorship of
15129-401: Was written in palm leaves. Several commentaries on Buddhism, known as Atthakatha have also been written during the reign of Mahanama (406–428). Pali chronicles such as Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa have been written during the Anuradhapura kingdom, and are still useful as resources for studying the history of the country. The Sigiriya Frescoes found at Sigiriya , Sri Lanka were painted during
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