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54-552: The region has been populated since the end of the last glacial era, about 10,000 BC. The earliest traces of human settlement in Estonia are connected with Kunda culture . The oldest known settlement in Estonia is the Pulli settlement , which was located on the banks of the river Pärnu , near the town of Sindi , in southwestern Estonia. It has been dated to the beginning of the 9th millennium BC . The Kunda Culture received its name from

108-539: A battle against the men of Estland who had come down with a great army. After the battle, King Ingvar was buried close to the seashore in Estonia and the Swedes returned home. According to Heimskringla sagas, in the year 967 the Norwegian Queen Astrid escaped with her son, in future king of Norway Olaf Tryggvason from her homeland to Novgorod , where her brother Sigurd held an honoured position at

162-513: A dramatic change in the flora and fauna. In Scandinavia, this period is often called the "Findless Age", due to the lack of archaeological finds. While the archaeological record from Scandinavia is consistent with an initial decline in population, the southern part of the culture, the Jastorf culture , was in expansion southwards. It consequently appears that climate change played an important role in this southward expansion into continental Europe. It

216-467: A local development from Bronze Age culture. Another Iron Age nucleus considered to represent a local development is the Wessenstedt culture (800–600 BC). The bearers of this northern Iron Age culture were likely speakers of Germanic languages. The stage of development of this Germanic is not known, although Proto-Germanic has been proposed. The late phase of this period sees the beginnings of

270-584: Is a part of the Iron Age . The name comes from the hold that the Roman Empire had begun to exert on the Germanic tribes of Northern Europe . In Scandinavia, there was a great import of goods, such as coins , vessels , bronze images, glass beakers, enameled buckles , weapons, etc. Moreover, the style of metal objects and clay vessels was markedly Roman. Objects such as shears and pawns appear for

324-537: Is a refined listing of Northern European archaeological periods, expanded from the basic three-age system with finer subdivisions and extension into the modern historical period. During the 6th millennium BC , the climate of Scandinavia was generally warmer and more humid than today. The bearers of the Nøstvet and Lihult cultures and the Kongemose culture were mesolithic hunter-gatherers. The Kongemose culture

378-708: Is associated with the area of the Uralic languages. During the 4th millennium BC , the Funnelbeaker culture expanded into Sweden up to Uppland . The Nøstvet and Lihult cultures were succeeded by the Pitted Ware culture Early Indo-European presence likely dates to the early 3rd millennium BC, introducing branches of the Corded Ware culture (such as the Battle Axe Culture ), later be followed by

432-793: Is dated to approximately 1800 BC. The development of the borders between the Baltic Finns and the Balts was under way. The first fortified settlements, Asva and Ridala on the island of Saaremaa and Iru in the Northern Estonia began to be built. The development of shipbuilding facilitated the spread of bronze. Changes took place in burial customs, a new type of burial ground spread from Germanic to Estonian areas, stone cist graves and cremation burials became increasingly common aside small number of boat-shaped stone graves. The Pre-Roman Iron Age began in Estonia about 500 BC and lasted until

486-588: Is debated why cultural innovation spread geographically during this time: whether the new material culture reflects a possibly warlike movement of Germanic peoples (" demic diffusion ") southwards or whether innovations found at the Pre-Roman Iron Age sites represent a more peaceful trans-cultural diffusion . The current view in the Netherlands is that Iron Age innovations, starting with Hallstatt (800 BC), did not involve intrusions and featured

540-611: Is described in Njál's saga as occurring in 972 AD. About 1008, Olaf the Holy , later king of Norway , landed on Saaremaa . The Oesilians, taken by surprise, had at first agreed to pay the demands made by Olaf, but then gathered an army during the negotiations and attacked the Norwegians. Olaf (who would have been only 13 years old) claimed to have won the battle. Olaf was the subject of several biographies, both hagiographies and sagas, in

594-627: The Hallstatt culture in Central Europe. Archaeologists first decided to divide the Iron Age of Northern Europe into distinct pre-Roman and Roman Iron Ages after Emil Vedel unearthed a number of Iron Age artifacts in 1866 on the island of Bornholm . They did not exhibit the same permeating Roman influence seen in most other artifacts from the early centuries AD, indicating that parts of northern Europe had not yet come into contact with

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648-568: The Lammasmäe settlement site in northern Estonia, which dates from earlier than 8500. Bone and stone artifacts similar to those found at Kunda have been discovered elsewhere in Estonia, as well as in Latvia , Russia , northern Lithuania and southern Finland . Among minerals, flint and quartz were used the most for making cutting tools. The beginning of the Neolithic period is marked by

702-769: The Late Bronze Age collapse , the Pre-Roman Iron Age of Northern Europe covered the 5th/4th to the 1st centuries BC. The Iron Age in northern Europe is markedly distinct from the Celtic La Tène culture south of it. The old long-range trading networks south–north between the Mediterranean cultures and Northern Europe had broken down at the end of the Nordic Bronze Age and caused a rapid and deep cultural change in Scandinavia. Bronze, which

756-790: The Migration Period , starting with the invasions of the Teutons and the Cimbri until their defeat at the Battle of Aquae Sextiae in 102 BC, presaging the more turbulent Roman Iron Age and Migration Period. Fortified settlements from this period include Tönsberg , Erdenburg and Grotenburg in Germany, Borremose in Denmark and Atuatuca in Belgium. The Roman Iron Age (1–400 AD)

810-625: The Netherlands and Belgium . The region entered the Mesolithic around the 7th millennium BC. The transition to the Neolithic is characterized by the Funnelbeaker culture in the 4th millennium BC. The Chalcolithic is marked by the arrival of the Corded Ware culture , possibly the first influence in the region of Indo-European expansion . The Nordic Bronze Age proper began roughly one millennium later, around 1500 BC. The end of

864-544: The Nordic Bronze Age . The tripartite division of the Nordic Iron Age into "Pre-Roman Iron Age", "Roman Iron Age" and "Germanic Iron Age" is due to Swedish archaeologist Oscar Montelius . The Pre-Roman Iron Age (5th/4th–1st centuries BC) was the earliest part of the Iron Age in Scandinavia and the North European Plain . Succeeding the Nordic Bronze Age , the Iron Age developed in contact with

918-646: The Rus' state in 9th century. According to Nestor Yaroslav I the Wise invaded the country of the Chuds in 1030 and laid the foundations of Yuriev , (the historical Russian name of Tartu , Estonia ). According to the Novgorod Chronicle , Varyag Ulf (Uleb) from Novgorod was crushed in battle at Iron Gate , which is usually located in northern Russia, but according to one hypothesis took place on sea close to

972-642: The Swiderian culture , comprised Mesolithic hunter-gatherer communities of the Baltic forest zone extending eastwards through Latvia into northern Russia , dating to the period 8500–5000 BC according to calibrated radiocarbon dating . It is named after the Estonian town of Kunda , about 110 kilometres (70 mi) east of Tallinn along the Gulf of Finland , near where the first extensively studied settlement

1026-516: The Tallinn Bay in 1032. In the 1st centuries AD political and administrative subdivisions began to emerge in Estonia. Two larger subdivisions appeared: the parish ( kihelkond ) and the county ( maakond ). The parish consisted of several villages. Nearly all parishes had at least one fortress. The defense of the local area was directed by the highest official, the parish elder. The county was composed of several parishes, also headed by an elder. By

1080-836: The Vikings from the eastern shores of the Baltic Sea. With the rise of Christianity , centralized authority in Scandinavia and Germany eventually lead to Baltic crusades . The east Baltic world was transformed by military conquest: First the Livs , Letts and Estonians , then the Prussians and the Finns underwent defeat, baptism , military occupation and sometimes extermination by groups of Germans , Danes and Swedes . Kunda culture Epipalaeolithic Near East Caucasus Zagros The Kunda culture , which originated from

1134-603: The Wends of Pomerania . It is notable that other Baltic tribes — i.e., the Letts and Lithuanians — are not mentioned by Saxo as participating in the fight. Snorri Sturluson relates in his Ynglinga saga how the Swedish king Ingvar Harra (7th century), the son of Östen and a great warrior, who was forced to patrol the shores of his kingdom fighting Estonian pirates. The saga speaks of his invasion of Estonia where he fell in

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1188-558: The 13th century the following major counties had developed in Estonia: Saaremaa (Osilia), Läänemaa (Rotalia or Maritima), Harjumaa (Harria), Rävala (Revalia), Virumaa (Vironia), Järvamaa (Jervia), Sakala (Saccala), and Ugandi (Ugaunia). Estonia constitutes one of the richest territories in the Baltic for hoards from the 11th and the 12th centuries. The earliest coin hoards found in Estonia are Arabic Dirhams from

1242-702: The 3rd century onwards. Through the 5th and 6th centuries, gold and silver become more and more common. This time saw the ransack of the Roman Empire by Germanic tribes, from which many Scandinavians returned with gold and silver. A new Iron Age had begun in Northern Europe, the Germanic Iron Age. The Germanic Iron Age is divided into the Early Germanic Iron Age (EGIA) and the late Germanic Iron Age (LGIA). In Sweden ,

1296-619: The 4th century in Nydam Mose in southern Denmark. The Gudme Hall complex, a ruling elite residence and cult site, was built in Denmark in the 3rd century. At Uppåkra in Sweden, the largest Iron Age settlement in Scandinavia developed from c. 200 AD onwards. A wooden temple was built at Uppåkra in the 3rd century and continued to be used and rebuilt over 600 years, into the early Viking Age. Gamla Uppsala in Sweden developed into an important religious, economic and political centre from

1350-560: The 8th century. The largest Viking Age hoards found in Estonia have been at Maidla and Kose . Out of the 1500 coins published in catalogues, 1000 are Anglo-Saxon . Varbola Stronghold ( Latin : Castrum Warbole ) was one of the largest circular rampart fortress and trading center built in Estonia , Harju County ( Latin : Harria ) at the time. In the 11th century the Scandinavians are frequently chronicled as combating

1404-629: The Baltic. Matthieson et al. (2018) analyzed a large number of individuals buried at the Zvejnieki burial ground , most of whom were affiliated with the Kunda culture and the succeeding Narva culture. The mtDNA belonged to haplotypes U5 , U4 and U2 , the vast majority of the Y-DNA samples belonged to R1b1a1a and I2a1 . The results affirmed that the Kunda and Narva cultures were about 70% WHG and 30% EHG. The nearby contemporary Pit–Comb Ware culture

1458-540: The Bronze Age is characterized by cultural contact with the Central European La Tène culture ( Celts ), contributing to the development of the Iron Age by the 4th century BC, presumably the locus of Common Germanic culture. Northern Europe enters the protohistorical period in the early centuries AD, with the adoption of writing and ethnographic accounts by Roman authors. The following

1512-801: The LGIA (550–800) is usually called the Vendel era ; in Norway and Finland, the Merovinger ( Merovingian ) Age. The Germanic Iron Age begins with the fall of the Roman Empire and the rise of the Germanic kingdoms in Western Europe. It is followed, in Northern Europe and Scandinavia , by the Viking Age . During the decline of the Roman Empire , an abundance of gold flowed into Scandinavia; there are excellent works in gold from this period. Gold

1566-584: The Middle Ages, and many of the historical facts concerning his adventures are disputed. The Chudes as mentioned in Old East Slavic chronicles are in early context usually considered as Baltic Finns in north-western Rus or even as all non-Slavic people in north-eastern Europe, but since 11th century mainly as Estonians . According to Primary Chronicle the Chudes where one of the founders of

1620-697: The Romans at the beginning of the Iron Age. Out of the Late Bronze Age Urnfield culture of the 12th century BC developed the Early Iron Age Hallstatt culture of Central Europe from the 8th to 6th centuries BC, which was followed by the La Tène culture of Central Europe (450 BC to 1st century BC). Although the metal iron came into wider use by metalsmiths in the Mediterranean as far back as c. 1300 BC due to

1674-726: The Scandinavians as experts in wind-magic, as were the Sámi (known at the time as Finns) in the North. The name Estonia was first mentioned by Cassiodorus in his book V. Letters 1–2 dating from the 6th century. Saxo Grammaticus describes the Curonians and Estonians as participating in the Battle of Bråvalla on the side of the Swedes against the Danes , who were aided by the Livonians and

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1728-552: The Swiderians were the first to settle Estonia when it became habitable. Other post-Swiderian groups extended as far east as the Ural Mountains . Jones et al. (2017) determined, based on one sample (6467-6250 BC) from the Kunda culture and another one from the succeeding Narva culture , closer genetic affinity with Western Hunter-Gatherers (WHGs) than Eastern Hunter-Gatherers (EHGs). Mittnik et al. (2018) analyzed

1782-463: The appearance of Comb Ceramic culture artifacts was associated with the arrival of Baltic Finns (ancestors of the Estonians , Finns , and Livonians ) on the shores of the Baltic Sea . However, such a linking of archaeologically defined cultural entities with ethno-linguistic ones is no longer assumed to be a given. An alternative hypothesis is that the increase of settlement finds in the period may have been associated with an economic boom related to

1836-420: The artifacts of the Kunda culture. Artifacts identified as belonging to the " Comb Ceramic Culture " have been found at sites from Northern Finland and Russia to Eastern Prussia . Burials associated with the culture often include figures of animals, birds, snakes and humans carved from bone and amber beginning from the middle of the 4th millennium BC . Until the early 1980s, the scholarly consensus held that

1890-402: The ceramics of the Narva culture , which appears in Estonia at the beginning of the 5th millennium BC . The oldest finds date from around 4900 BC. The first pottery was made of thick clay mixed with pebbles, shells or plants. The Narva type ceramics are found throughout almost the entire Estonian coastal region and on the islands. The stone and bone tools of the era have a notable similarity with

1944-483: The clear beginning of social stratification. The Roman Iron Age in Estonia is roughly dated to between 50 and 450 AD, the era that was affected by the influence of the Roman Empire . In material culture this is reflected by few Roman coins, some jewellery and artefacts. The abundance of iron artifacts in Southern Estonia speaks of closer mainland ties with southern areas while the islands of western and northern Estonia communicated with their neighbors mainly by sea. By

1998-450: The coast seal hunting is represented. Pike and other fish were taken from the rivers. There is a rich bone and antler industry, especially in relation to fishing gear. Tools were decorated with simple geometric designs, lacking the complexity of the contemporary Maglemosian Culture communities to the southwest. The Kunda culture appears to have undergone a transition from the Palaeolithic Swiderian culture located previously over much of

2052-416: The court of Prince Vladimir . On their journey, "Eistland" (Oeselian?) Vikings raided the ship, killing some of the crew and taking others into slavery. Six years later, when Sigurd Eirikson traveled to "Eistland" to collect taxes on behalf of "Valdemar" (Vladimir), he spotted Olaf in a market in an unmentioned city and paid for his freedom. A battle between Oeselian and Icelandic Vikings off Saaremaa

2106-432: The end of the period three clearly defined tribal dialectical areas: Northern Estonia, Southern Estonia, and Western Estonia (including the islands) had emerged, the population of each having formed its own understanding of identity. The name of Estonia occurs first in a form of Aestii in the 1st century AD by Tacitus . However, at this stage it probably indicated Baltic tribes living in the area of Western Lithuania and

2160-497: The first time. In the 3rd and 4th centuries, some elements are imported from Germanic tribes that had settled north of the Black Sea , such as the runes . There are also many bog bodies from this time in Denmark , Schleswig and southern Sweden. Together with the bodies, there are weapons, household wares and clothes of wool . The prime burial tradition was cremation, but the third century and thereafter saw an increase in inhumation. Great ships made for rowing have been found from

2214-628: The middle of the 1st century BC. The oldest iron items were imported, although since the 1st century iron was smelted from local marsh and lake ore. Settlement sites were located mostly in places that offered natural protection. Fortresses were built, although used temporarily. The appearance of square Celtic fields surrounded by enclosures in Estonia date from the Pre-Roman Iron Age. The majority of stones with man-made indents, which presumably were connected with magic designed to increase crop fertility, date from this period. A new type of grave, quadrangular burial mounds began to develop. Burial traditions show

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2268-423: The present-day Kaliningrad . In the Norse sagas (13th century) the term apparently was used to indicate the Estonians. According to one interpretation, Ptolemy in his Geography III in the middle of the 2nd century AD mentions the Osilians among other dwellers on the Baltic shore. The extent of Estonian territory in early medieval times is disputed but the nature of their religion is not. They were known to

2322-474: The remains of a male and female ascribed to the Kunda culture. They found the male to be carrying paternal haplogroup I and maternal haplogroup U5b2c1 , while the female carried U4a2 . They were found to have "a very close affinity" with WHGs, although with "a significant contribution" from Ancient North Eurasians (ANE). Their ANE ancestry was lower than that of Scandinavian Hunter-Gatherers , indicating that ANE ancestry entered Scandinavia without traversing

2376-410: The same range. One such transition settlement, Pasieniai 1C in Lithuania , features stone tools of both Late Swiderian and early Kunda. One shape manufactured in both cultures is the retouched tanged point. The final Swiderian is dated 7800–7600 BC by calibrated radiocarbon dating, which is in the Preboreal period, at the end of which time with no gap the early Kunda begins. Evidently the descendants of

2430-419: The styles of which were continuous from the Bronze Age. Some of the most prominent finds from the pre-Roman Iron Age in northern Europe are the Gundestrup cauldron and the Dejbjerg wagons , two four-wheeled wagons of wood with bronze parts. The cultural change that ended the Nordic Bronze Age was influenced by the expansion of Hallstatt culture from the south and accompanied by a changing climate, which caused

2484-413: The wall of a corded-ware vessel found in Iru settlement. Osteological analysis show an attempt was made to domesticate the wild boar . Specific burial customs were characterized by the dead being laid on their sides with their knees pressed against their breast, one hand under the head. Objects placed into the graves were made of bones of domesticated animals. The beginning of the Bronze Age in Estonia

2538-437: The warming of climate. Some researchers have even argued that a Uralic language may have been spoken in Estonia and Finland since the end of the last glaciation. The beginning of the Late Neolithic Period about 2200 BC is characterized by the appearance of the Corded Ware culture , pottery with corded decoration and well-polished stone axes (s.c. boat-shape axes). Evidence of agriculture is provided by charred grain of wheat on

2592-432: Was an imported alloy, suddenly became very scarce; and iron, which was a local natural resource, slowly became more abundant, as the techniques for extracting, smelting and smithing it were acquired from their Central European Celtic neighbours. Iron was extracted from bog iron in peat bogs, and the first iron objects to be fabricated were needles and edged tools such as swords and sickles. The rise of iron use in Scandinavia

2646-439: Was discovered on Lammasmäe Hill and in the surrounding peat bog . The oldest known settlement of the Kunda culture in Estonia is Pulli . The Kunda culture was succeeded by the Narva culture , who used pottery and showed some traces of food production. Most Kunda settlements are located near the edge of the forests beside rivers, lakes, or marshes. Elk were extensively hunted, perhaps helped by trained domestic hunting-dogs. On

2700-630: Was now much scarcer and mostly used for decoration. Funerary practices continued the Bronze Age tradition of burning corpses and placing the remains in urns , a characteristic of the Urnfield culture. During the previous centuries, influences from the Central European La Tène culture had spread to Scandinavia from north-western Germany, and there are finds from this period from all the provinces of southern Scandinavia. Archaeologists have found swords, shield bosses, spearheads, scissors, sickles, pincers, knives, needles, buckles, kettles, etc. from this time. Bronze continued to be used for torcs and kettles,

2754-468: Was on the contrary found to be about 65% EHG. Around 3700/3600 BC there was a complete turnover to now y-hg R1a1a1, from 900/800 onward mainly in Estonia with increasing impact of y-hg N-M231 (N1a1). Roman Iron Age The archaeology of Northern Europe studies the prehistory of Scandinavia and the adjacent North European Plain , roughly corresponding to the territories of modern Sweden , Norway , Denmark , northern Germany , Poland ,

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2808-530: Was replaced by the Ertebølle culture , adapting to the climatic changes and gradually adopting the Neolithic Revolution , transitioning to the megalithic Funnelbeaker culture . The Pezmog 4 archaeological site along the Vychegda River ( Komi Republic ) was discovered in 1994. Pottery of early comb ware type appears there already at the beginning of the 6th millennium BC. Pit–Comb Ware culture appeared in northern Europe as early 4200 BC, and continued until c.  2000 BC . Some scholars argue that it

2862-426: Was slow: bog ore was only abundant in southwestern Jutland and it was not until 200–100 BC that iron-working techniques were generally mastered and a productive smithing industry had evolved in the larger settlements. Iron products were also known in Scandinavia during the Bronze Age, but they were a scarce imported material. Similarly, imported bronze continued to be used during the Iron Age in Scandinavia, but it

2916-478: Was used to make scabbard mountings and bracteates . After the Western Roman Empire fell, gold became scarce and Scandinavians began to make objects of gilded bronze, with decorative figures of interlacing animals . During the EGIA, decorations tended to be representational; the animal figures were drawn in more basic forms. In the LGIA, artistic styles became more abstract, symbolic, and intricate, including figures with interlaced shapes and limbs. The LGIA in

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