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99-519: Historical, social and economic factors, together with an ethnically dispersed population, have resulted in the decline of Livonian identity, with only a small group surviving in the 21st century. In 2011, there were 250 people who claimed Livonian ethnicity in Latvia. The exact date of migration of Livonians to the region has been disputed. "The Livonians claim to have inhabited their present homeland for over 5,000 years." "The Finnic tribes were pushed into

198-606: A century, but in 1795, that region also became a Russian possession as part of the Third Partition of Poland . Partly because of the recurring devastation of war and the resultant mingling of refugees, the Livonians of Livonia were eventually completely assimilated by the Latvians. The last remnant of this once vibrant nation was made up of several families living along the river Salaca (Livonian: Salatsi ), but in

297-505: A chance to escape the atrocities of war and to avoid the division of Livonia. Thus Magnus, who represented Denmark and later struck a deal with Ivan IV , proved a suitable figurehead for this faction. The Peace Party, however, had its own armed forces – scattered bands of household troops ( Hofleute ) under diverse command, which only united in action in 1565 ( Battle of Pärnu and Siege of Reval ), in 1570–1571 ( Siege of Reval ; 30 weeks), and in 1574–1576 (first on Sweden's side, then came

396-498: A clear consciousness of their ethnic identity. Before, they had always referred to themselves as rāndalist ("coast dwellers") or kalāmīed ("fishermen"). From the 1920s and 1930s on, though, they began to call themselves līvõd , līvnikad , or līvlist ("Livonians"). In 1940, Latvia, like Estonia and Lithuania, was occupied by the Soviet Union . This occupation and the subsequent German invasion of 1941 ended all progress

495-681: A joint domain administered directly by the king and grand duke. Having rejected peace proposals from its enemies, Ivan the Terrible found himself in a difficult position by 1579, when Crimean Khanate devastated Muscovian territories and burnt down Moscow (see Russo-Crimean Wars ), the drought and epidemics have fatally affected the economy, Oprichnina had thoroughly disrupted the government, while The Grand Principality of Lithuania had united with The Kingdom of Poland (1385–1569) and acquired an energetic leader, Stefan Batory , supported by Ottoman Empire (1576). Stefan Batory replied with

594-824: A new campaign. Volkwin targeted Samogitia , planning to conquer the coast of the Baltic Sea and connect with the Teutonic Knights in Prussia . The Sword-Brothers wanted to keep expanding along the Daugava River and were reluctant to march against Samogitia. In the fall of 1236, a party of crusaders from Holstein arrived in Riga and demanded to be led into a battle. Volkwin gathered a large war party, which included troops from Pskov Republic , Livonians , Latgallians , Curonians , and Estonians . Crossing

693-635: A new series of wars between the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and Sweden , which had claimed Estonia after the Livonian War, ravaged Livonia from 1592. Eventually, the Swedes were victorious. In 1629, they could finally call Livonia and the city of Riga their own. Under the 17th Century Swedish Kings Gustav II Adolf and Charles XI , general elementary education was introduced, the Bible

792-562: A series of three offensives against Muscovy, trying to cut The Kingdom of Livonia from Muscovian territories. During his first offensive in 1579, with 22,000 men, he retook Polotsk ; during the second, in 1580, with 29,000-strong army, he took Velikie Luki , and in 1581 with a 100,000-strong army he started the Siege of Pskov . Frederick II of Denmark and Norway had trouble continuing the fight against Muscovy unlike Sweden and Poland. He came to an agreement with John III in 1580, giving him

891-621: A trading post on the site of the future city of Riga , which Bishop Albrecht von Buxthoeven founded in 1201. The Livonian Chronicle of Henry from the 1220s gives a firsthand account of the Christianization of Livonia, granted as a fief by the Hohenstaufen ( de facto but not known as) the King of Germany, Philip of Swabia ( r.  1198–1208 ), to Bishop Albert of Riga (Albert of Buxhoeveden), nephew of Hartwig II ,

990-729: A verdict until April 1236, when the Sword Brothers were tasked to return Reval to the Danish king. The terms of the agreement were not finalised until the Treaty of Stensby (7 June 1238), when the Livonian Sword Brothers, crushed at Saule and now submitted to the Teutonic Order , relinquished their claims to Reval and much of northern Estonia to Denmark, and to share future territorial gains with two-thirds for

1089-622: A very important Swedish dominion, with Riga being the second largest Swedish city and Livonia paying for one third of the Swedish war costs. Sweden lost Swedish Livonia, Swedish Estonia and Ingria to the Russian Empire almost 100 years later, by the Capitulation of Estonia and Livonia in 1710 and the Treaty of Nystad in 1721. The Livonian Voivodeship ( Lithuanian : Livonijos vaivadija ; Polish : Województwo inflanckie )

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1188-621: A war between Bishop William of Riga and the Brothers in 1557. After coming to an agreement with Sigismund II Augustus and his representatives (especially Mikołaj "the Black" Radziwiłł ), the last Livonian Master, Gotthard Kettler , secularized the Order and converted to Lutheranism . In the southern part of the Brothers' lands, he set up the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia for his family. Most of

1287-631: Is no reason to speak about any strong pro-Swedish sentiments among the residents of Reval. The citizens who had fled to the Bishopric of Dorpat or had been deported to Muscovy hailed Magnus as their saviour until 1571. Analysis indicates that during the Livonian War a pro-independence wing emerged among the Livonian gentry and townspeople, forming the so-called "Peace Party". Dismissing hostilities, these forces perceived an agreement with Muscovy as

1386-466: Is prohibited for anyone to start a hotel, restaurant, or other public establishment which might adversely influence the Livonian culture or draw outsiders into the area. Today, many Latvians claim to have some Livonian ancestry. However, there are only 176 people in Latvia who identify themselves as Livonian. According to data from 1995, the Livonian language was spoken by no more than 30 people, of whom only nine were native speakers. An article published by

1485-583: Is spoken by fewer than 100 individuals as a second language, and is understood to be fast approaching extinction . The last native Livonian speaker died in June 2013. The unofficial anthem of the Livonians, " Min izāmō ", shares the melody of the Finnish and Estonian national anthems . Battle of saule Samogitian and Semigalian victory Campaign against the Latvians Campaign against

1584-679: The Archbishop of Bremen , who sailed (1200) with a convoy of ships filled with armed crusaders to carve out a Catholic territory in the east as part of the Livonian Crusade . Bishop Albert founded the military order of the Livonian Brothers of the Sword ( Latin : Fratres militiæ Christi Livoniae , German: Schwertbrüderorden ) in 1202; Pope Innocent III sanctioned the establishment in 1204. Albert did so in order to aid

1683-770: The Battle of Grunwald in 1410 and the secularization of its Prussian territories by Albert of Brandenburg in 1525, but the Livonian Order managed to maintain an independent existence. In 1418, the Archbishop of Riga , Johannes Ambundii , organised the five ecclesiastical states of the Holy Roman Empire in Medieval Livonia (Livonian Order, Courland, Ösel–Wiek, Dorpat and Riga) into the Livonian Confederation . A diet or Landtag

1782-651: The Bishopric of Riga in the conversion of the pagan Curonians , Livonians , Semigallians , and Latgalians living on the shores of the Gulf of Riga . The membership of the order comprised German "warrior monks ". Alternative names of the order include the Christ Knights, Sword Brethren, and the Militia of Christ of Livonia. From its foundation, the undisciplined Order tended to ignore its supposed vassalage to

1881-538: The Daugava River (Livonian: Vēna ), their culture was highly developed through trade with the Gotlanders , Russians and Finns , and, from the end of the first millennium AD onwards, with the Germans , Swedes and Danes . However, with the traders came missionaries from Western Europe who wanted to convert the pagan Livonians to Christianity . One of the first people to convert some Livonians to Christianity

1980-652: The Gulf of Riga to the north. In their isolated fishing villages, these Livonians kept to themselves for centuries. It was not until the 20th century that the outside world intruded on their quiet existence. At the beginning of 20th century many local Livs converted to the Russian Orthodox faith. A new Russian Orthodox church was built in Kolka along with a grammar school nearby and navy school in Mazirbe . Many graduates in later years became sea captains first in

2079-678: The Holy Roman Emperor arrived from many European countries, warning that Moscow has its eyes on much more than only a few harbors or the province of Liefland ... the East Sea (Ostsee- Baltic Sea ) and the West Sea (Atlantic) are equally in danger. Duke Barnim the Elder, 50 years duke of Pomerania, warned, that never before did he experience the fear than now, where even in his land, where people send by Moscow are everywhere . At stake

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2178-760: The Iron Curtain where no one was allowed to live. Livonian culture was repressed during the Soviet period. For example, the Livonian Society was banned and the Livonian Community Centre expropriated and given to others. Within the Latvian SSR , the Livonians were not recognized as a separate ethnic group. It was not until early the early 1970s that Livonian singers were allowed to found a choir named "Līvlist" ("The Livonians") in

2277-515: The Kingdom of Poland also began direct negotiations with Gustav, but nothing resulted because on 29 September 1560, Gustav I Vasa died. The chances for success of Magnus , (who had become Bishop of Courland and of Ösel-Wiek) in 1560 and his supporters looked particularly good in 1560 (and in 1570). In 1560 he had been recognised as their sovereign by the Bishopric of Ösel-Wiek and by the Bishopric of Courland , and as their prospective ruler by

2376-469: The Lithuanians . The lack of strength was a result of internal conflicts with the Bishopric of Riga . Besides that, the Livonian Sword Brothers had still little knowledge of the lands lying south of the order's territory. Volkwin delayed starting military actions for an entire summer, hoping to escape a risky operation into unexplored lands. However, the insistence of Pope Gregory IX forced him to lead

2475-799: The Northern Seven Years' War (1563-1570) broke out, with Sweden pitted against the Free City of Lübeck , Denmark, and Poland. While only losing land and trade, Frederick II and Magnus were not faring well. But in 1568 Erik XIV became insane and his brother Johan took his place as King John III of Sweden . Johan III, due to his friendship with Poland, began a policy against Muscovy. He would try to obtain more land in Livonia and to dominate Denmark. After all parties had been financially drained, Frederick II let his ally, King Sigismund II Augustus of Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth , know that he

2574-604: The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1569 under the Union of Lublin . Eric XIV of Sweden did not like this, and the Northern Seven Years' War between the Free City of Lübeck , Denmark, Poland, and Sweden broke out. While only losing land and trade, Frederick II of Denmark and Magnus von Lyffland of the Œsel-Wiek did not fare well. But, in 1569, Erik XIV became insane and his brother John III of Sweden took his place. After all parties had been financially drained, Frederick II let his ally, King Zygmunt II August , know that he

2673-743: The Russian Empire , and later in independent Latvia . In 1914, Russia entered the First World War by attacking the Germans and the Austrians from the east, but soon it was pushed back in a series of devastating German victories, which eventually left almost the entire Baltic region in German hands. The Livonian Coast was occupied by the Germans in 1915. At their approach, many Livonians fled their homes, often never to return. Their main destinations were Estonia and inner parts of Latvia. The rest of

2772-583: The Teutonic Order and renamed the Livonian Order in 1237, the former Knights of the Sword finally overpowered the Curonians in 1267, and subsequently the Semigallians in 1290. From then on most of Latvia remained under German control until the 16th century, with the city of Riga and several other cities existing as independent German-ruled bishoprics, and the Livonian Order ruling the rest of

2871-644: The Treaty of Nystad in 1721. Peter the Great confirmed German as the exclusive official language. Russia then added Polish Livonia in 1772 during the Partitions of Poland . In 1796, the Riga Governorate was renamed as the Governorate of Livonia (Russian: Лифляндская губе́рния / Liflyandskaya guberniya , Latvian : Vidzemes guberņa , Estonian : Liivimaa kubermang ). From 1845 to 1876,

2970-840: The University of Latvia was established in 2018. Furthermore, on February 4, 1992, the Latvian government created a cultural historic protected territory called Līvõd rānda – the Livonian Coast – which included all twelve of the Livonian villages: Lūžņa (Livonian: Lūž), Miķeļtornis (Pizā), Lielirbe (Īra), Jaunciems (Ūžkilā), Sīkrags (Sīkrõg), Mazirbe (Irē), Košrags (Kuoštrõg), Pitrags (Pitrõg), Saunags (Sǟnag), Vaide (Vaid), Kolka (Kūolka), and Melnsils (Mustānum). The Latvian government discourages settlement of ethnic Latvians and other non-Livonians in this area and prohibits alterations to historic village sites. Also, it

3069-536: The bailiff of Weißenstein (Paide) belonged to the five-member entourage of the Order's Master. Pope Gregory IX asked the Brothers to defend Finland from Novgorodian attacks in his letter of 24 November 1232; however, no known information regarding the knights' possible activities in Finland has survived. ( Sweden eventually took over Finland after the Second Swedish Crusade in 1249.) In

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3168-546: The persuasions of Kettler to the burghers. King Eric's brother and future King Johan married the Polish princess Catherine Jagiellon in 1562. Wanting to obtain his own land in Livonia, he loaned Poland money and then claimed the castles that they had pawned as his own instead of using them to pressure Poland. After Johan returned to Finland , Erik XIV forbade him to deal with any foreign countries without his consent. Shortly after that, Erik XIV quickly lost any allies that he

3267-610: The sovereignty of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (not ratified by the Sejm of Poland-Lithuania, nor recognized by Denmark). The Kingdom of Livonia was beaten back by Muscovy on all fronts. In 1578, Magnus of Livonia retired to The Bishopric of Courland , and his brother all but gave up the land in Livonia. Sweden was given roughly the same area as the former Duchy of Livonia after the 1626–1629 Polish–Swedish War . The area, usually known as Swedish Livonia , became

3366-583: The 13th century) to the State of the Teutonic Order in 1346. Livonia, as understood after the retreat of Denmark in 1346, bordered on the Gulf of Finland in the north, Lake Peipus and Russia to the east, and Lithuania to the south. As a consequence of the Livonian War (1558–1583), the territory of Livonia was reduced to the southern half of Estonia and the northern half of Latvia. The indigenous inhabitants of Livonia were various Finnic tribes in

3465-518: The Baltic governorates of Estonia , Livonia, and Courland — an area roughly corresponding to the historical medieval Livonia — were administratively subordinated to a common Governor-General . Amongst the holders of this post were Count Alexander Arkadyevich Suvorov and Count Pyotr Andreyevich Shuvalov . Livonia remained within the Russian Empire until the end of World War I , when it

3564-515: The Battle of Saule in 1236 the Lithuanians and Semigallians decimated the Order. This disaster led the surviving Brothers to become incorporated into the Order of Teutonic Knights in the following year, and from that point on they became known as the Livonian Order . They continued, however, to function in all respects ( rule , clothing and policy) as an autonomous branch of the Teutonic Order, headed by their own Master (himself de jure subject to

3663-577: The Danish king and one third for the Livonian Order. The Livonian Order was a largely autonomous branch of the Teutonic Knights (or Teutonic Order) and a member of the Livonian Confederation from 1418 to 1561. After being defeated by Lithuanian forces in the 1236 Battle of Saule , the remnants of the Livonian Brothers of the Sword were incorporated into the Teutonic Knights as the Livonian Order in 1237. Between 1237 and 1290,

3762-525: The Daugava River to give him land to build a Christian settlement. Building started in 1201. From this settlement, the city of Riga grew. When this did not immediately induce the Livonians, Estonians , and Baltic peoples in the hinterland to convert, a knightly order was formed, the Knights of the Sword , primarily consisting of Germans, to bring salvation to the pagans by force. In a campaign that

3861-583: The Daugava Valley, so that the Livonians of Livonia in the east were cut off from those living on the peninsula of Curonia in the west. Because of their defeat at the battle of Saule the Knights of the Sword eventually had to look for support to the much more powerful Teutonic Order , which up until then had been active primarily in Poland and Lithuania . Having been reorganized as a subdivision of

3960-411: The Foundation for Endangered Languages in 2007 stated that there were only 182 registered Livonians and a mere six native speakers. "The last Livonian", who had learned the Livonian language as a part of an unbroken chain of Livonian generations, was Viktors Bertholds (b. 1921). He was buried on 28 February 2009 in the Livonian village of Kolka in Courland. The Livonian Dāvis Stalts was elected into

4059-418: The German historian Friedrich Benninghoven proposed Jauniūnai village in Joniškis district , Lithuania as the battle site. The theory gained some academic support and in 2010 the Lithuanian government sponsored construction of the memorial in Jauniūnai – a 29-metre (95 ft) tall sundial , a pond, and a park of oaks. The village of Pamūšis , situated some 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) east of Janiūnai on

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4158-502: The Latvian government did not see the topic of Livonian culture as important enough. Nevertheless, the Livonian language and culture experienced a revival between the two World Wars (beginning with the term of the Latvian president Jānis Čakste through the term of the last interwar president Kārlis Ulmanis ). The clearest expression of this revival was the establishment on April 2, 1923 of the Livonian Society ( Livonian : Līvõd Īt , Latvian : Līvu savienība ), which considered itself

4257-473: The Latvian government prohibited the formation of an ethnic Livonian parish within the Lutheran Church . It did approve the introduction of the Livonian language as an optional subject in elementary schools in the villages of the Livonian Coast that same year. In the 1930s, the first Livonian language reader, poetry collections of several Livonian writers, and a monthly magazine in the Livonian language, called " Līvli " ("The Livonian") were published. Also, contact

4356-413: The Latvian parliament, the Saeima in 2011 . In 2018, after being re-elected to the Saeima, Janīna Kursīte-Pakule delivered her oath in Livonian before being asked to retake it in Latvian, which she did in the Livonian dialect of Latvian. In 2018, the Livonian Institute at the University of Latvia ( Livonian : Lețmō Iļīzskūol Līvõd institūt ) was established to promote research and awareness of

4455-432: The Latvians in the interior was exclusively land-oriented and mostly agricultural. This meant there was not a lot of interaction between the two groups. Also, the Livonian Coast was separated from the interior of Curonia by dense forests and impassable marshlands, which made regular interaction even less likely. The people of the Livonian Coast had much closer ties to the inhabitants of the Estonian island of Saaremaa , across

4554-419: The Lithuanians The Battle of Saule ( Lithuanian : Saulės mūšis / Šiaulių mūšis ; German : Schlacht von Schaulen ; Latvian : Saules kauja ) was fought on 22 September 1236, between the Livonian Brothers of the Sword and pagan troops of Samogitians and Semigallians . Between 48 and 60 knights were killed, including the Livonian Master, Volkwin . It was the earliest large-scale defeat suffered by

4653-428: The Lithuanians felled them with long spears." The exact location where the battle took place is unknown. The Chronicum Livoniae by Hermann de Wartberge mentioned that the battle was fought in terram Sauleorum . Traditionally, this was identified with Šiauliai ( German : Schaulen , Latvian : Šauļi ) in Lithuania or with the small town of Vecsaule near Bauska in what is today southern Latvia . In 1965

4752-472: The Livonian Order conquered all of Courland , Livonia, and Semigallia , but their attack on northern Russia was repelled in the Battle of Rakvere (1268). In 1346, after the St. George's Night Uprising the Order purchased the rest of Estonia from King Valdemar IV of Denmark . The Chronicle of Henry of Livonia and the Livonian Rhymed Chronicle describe conditions within the Order's territory. The Teutonic Order fell into decline following its defeat in

4851-521: The Livonian Sword Brothers, Nicholas' Bishopric of Riga, and the city of Riga. Previous generations of historians have argued that Baldwin attempted to make the whole Baltic region an ecclesiastical state, but Manfred Hellmann  [ de ] (1993) refuted this idea as "fanciful speculation". Similarly, the traditional assertion that Baldwin had extensive plans to conquer and convert eastwards into parts of Pskov and Novgorod do not stand up under scrutiny, showing that papal correspondence with Baldwin

4950-465: The Livonian language is being revived , with some 210 persons having some knowledge of the language at a A1 or A2 level. 2023 was proclaimed as Livonian Heritage Year by the UoL Livonian Institute in cooperation with the UNESCO Latvian National Commission and the Latvian National Cultural Center, with various events held by individuals and institutions. In 2023, the first of 171 approved road signs in Latvia with Latvian and Livonian text were placed on

5049-456: The Livonians had made in the preceding twenty years. All cultural expressions were prohibited and just like twenty years before, the inhabitants of the Livonian Coast were driven from their homes. Most of them spent the war years in Riga or western Latvia, but some fled across the Baltic Sea to Gotland . The Curonian Peninsula was one of the areas where the Germans held out until the general capitulation of May 9, 1945, which meant that often there

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5148-414: The Soviet era were now returned to them. For example, the old Livonian Community Centre in Mazirbe (Irē) was given back and transformed into a historical museum, called the House of the Livonian People. Also, the Livonian language was reintroduced in the elementary schools in Riga, Staicele , Ventspils , Dundaga and Kolka . The first research body dedicated to Livonian studies, the Livonian Institute at

5247-531: The Sword-Brothers at the battle of Saule: "More heathens arrived. The next day the Christians thought to ride away early, but they had to fight the pagans though they did not want to. In the swamp, they could offer but weak resistance, and they were cut down like women. I lament the deaths of so many heroes who were so easily slain. The Master and his Brothers put up a heroic defense until their horses were slain and even then fought on foot and felled many men before they were vanquished. Finally, and with great difficulty,

5346-630: The Teutonic Order's Grand Master ). The January 1229 death of Albert of Riga caused a diocesan feud in the Archbishopric of Riga , as two rival candidates were elected. Pope Gregory IX , through cardinal Otto of Tonengo , tasked Baldwin of Alna as papal legate to resolve the dispute. After securing the submission of Courland, Baldwin soon found himself in conflict with various factions in Livonia, fleeing to Dünamünde and temporarily leaving Livonia in early 1232. The pope made him bishop of Semigallia and gave him papal legation throughout much of Livonia, and Baldwin returned by 1233. He tried to take

5445-473: The Teutonic Order, gave to Magnus the portions of the Kingdom of Livonia which he had taken possession of, but they refused to give him any more land. Once Eric XIV of Sweden became king in September 1560 he took quick actions to get involved in the war. He negotiated a continued peace with Muscovy and spoke to the burghers of Reval city. He offered them goods to submit to him as well as threatening them. By 6 June 1561,they submitted to him contrary to

5544-399: The authorities of the Bishopric of Dorpat ; the Bishopric of Reval with the Harrien - Wierland gentry were on his side; the Livonian Order conditionally recognised his right of ownership of the (future) Duchy of Estonia . Then along with Archbishop Wilhelm von Brandenburg of the Archbishopric of Riga and his Coadjutor Christoph von Mecklenburg , Kettler , the last Master of

5643-581: The bishops. In 1215, Albert ordered the construction of a cathedral in Riga. In 1218, he asked King Valdemar II of Denmark for assistance, but Valdemar instead arranged a deal with the Brotherhood and conquered the north of Estonia for Denmark. The Brotherhood had its headquarters at Fellin (Viljandi) in present-day Estonia , where the walls of the Master's castle still stand. Other strongholds included Wenden (Cēsis) , Segewold (Sigulda) and Ascheraden (Aizkraukle) . The commanders of Fellin, Goldingen (Kuldīga) , Marienburg (Alūksne) , Reval (Tallinn) , and

5742-405: The border of Talsi Municipality . During the 2023 Latvian Song and Dance Festival , for the first time in the history of the event, a song with Livonan lyrics was featured. Livonia Livonia , known in earlier records as Livland , is a historical region on the eastern shores of the Baltic Sea . It is named after the Livonians , who lived on the shores of present-day Latvia . By

5841-403: The castle of Reval (modern Tallinn ) from the Sword Brothers, but in c. August–September 1233 they defeated Baldwin, who excommunicated many Sword Brothers in retaliation. At that point, Livonia was divided into two camps: Baldwin's Bishopric of Semigallia, the Bishopric of Dorpat and the late Albert of Riga's Buxhöveden family plus several monasteries, most Estonians and Curonians, versus

5940-515: The coastal regions by the Slav migrations of the sixth and seventh centuries AD." Historically, the Livonians lived in two separate areas of Latvia, one group in Livonia and another on the northern coast of Courland . The latter were referred as Curonians , together with the Balts living there. The Livonians referred to themselves as rāndalist 'coast dwellers' and supported themselves mainly by fishing, but also by agriculture and animal husbandry . Since they controlled an important trade route,

6039-414: The end of the 13th century, the name was extended to most of present-day Estonia and Latvia, which the Livonian Brothers of the Sword had conquered during the Livonian Crusade (1193–1290). Medieval Livonia, or Terra Mariana , reached its greatest extent after the Saint George's Night Uprising (1343-1345), which forced Denmark to sell the Duchy of Estonia (northern Estonia conquered by Denmark in

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6138-456: The fight, not only for Livonia, but also for everywhere due to an understanding that he made with the Rzeczpospolita . In 1578, Magnus retired to the Rzeczpospolita and his brother all but gave up the land in Livonia. During the many years of the Livonian War (1558–1582), the Livonian Order suffered a decisive defeat at the hands of troops of Muscovite Russia in the Battle of Ergeme in 1560 and continued living under great threat. Letters to

6237-424: The knights to camp for the night. The next morning, on the day of Saint Maurice , the main pagan forces, possibly led by Duke Vykintas , arrived at the camp. The Lithuanian light cavalry flung javelins at short range, which were highly effective against the unwieldy Livonian heavy cavalry. The swampy terrain was advantageous for the lightly armed pagans. The slaughter of the Christian troops, including Volkwin, sowed

6336-411: The land. In the middle of the 16th century, the Livonian Order and the independent bishoprics were in turmoil because of the growing influence of Martin Luther 's Reformation . Seeing a chance in the resulting military weakness of the Order, Czar Ivan the Terrible of Russia invaded Livonia in 1558, seeking access to the Baltic Sea. However, Sweden and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth entered

6435-438: The lands of Semigallians, which were not in the order's control, the crusaders marched southward into Samogitia, raiding and plundering local settlements. The locals had only a few days to gather troops for defense. On the knights' northward return, however, they encountered a determined group of Samogitians at a river crossing. Unwilling to risk losing their horses in the swampland, the Holsteiners refused to fight on foot, forcing

6534-476: The language. It is led by linguist and activist Valts Ernštreits. In 2020, it was reported that newborn Kuldi Medne had become the only living person who speaks Livonian as their first language. Her parents are Livonian language revival activists Jānis Mednis and Renāte Medne. In October 2022, they published Kūldaläpš. Zeltabērns ('Golden Child'), a book in Livonian and Latvian for children and parents, with plans for subsequent books and an audio version. Currently,

6633-458: The left bank of Daugava were reversed. To commemorate the battle, in 2000 the Lithuanian and Latvian parliaments declared 22 September to be the Baltic Unity Day . The Sword-Brothers were established in 1202 in Riga to conquer and convert pagan Baltic tribes to Christianity . By the 1230s under the leadership of Master Volkwin , the order was coping with strained financial resources, decreasing manpower, and an ill reputation. The order

6732-460: The north and Baltic tribes in the south. The descendants of the crusaders formed the nucleus of the new ruling class of Livonia after the Livonian Crusade, and they eventually became known as Baltic Germans . Beginning in the 12th century, Livonia became a target for economic and political expansion by Danes and Germans , particularly for the Hanseatic League and the Cistercian Order . Around 1160, Hanseatic traders from Lübeck established

6831-406: The orders in Baltic lands. The Sword-Brothers, the first Catholic military order established in the Baltic lands , was soundly defeated and its remnants accepted incorporation into the Teutonic Order in 1237. The battle inspired rebellions among the Curonians , Semigallians , Selonians and Oeselians , tribes previously conquered by the Sword-Brothers. Some thirty years' worth of conquests on

6930-410: The people were driven from their homes by the Germans and had to wait until 1919 before they were allowed to return. The Russian defeat and the subsequent abdication of Czar Nicholas II opened the door for Vladimir Lenin and the communists to make a grab for power in Russia, leading to the establishment of the Soviet government in Russia in 1917. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk the following year ended

7029-456: The region. In Curonia, the Livonian language and culture also came under heavy pressure, but here it retained a last foothold on the outermost tip of the Curonian Peninsula. Several factors made sure that in this area, known as Līvõd rānda , the Livonian Coast , Latvian culture was too weak to assimilate the Livonians. For one thing, the society of the Livonians living in this area was exclusively sea-oriented and based on fishing, while that of

7128-577: The remaining lands were seized by the Grand Duchy of Lithuania . Denmark and Sweden re-occupied the north of Estonia. In 1561, during the Livonian War , Livonia fell to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and became a dependent vassal of Lithuania. Eight years later, in 1569, when the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland formed the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth , Livonia became

7227-477: The representative of the Livonian people. Also, a Livonian language choir was founded and Livonian song festivals were held along the entire Livonian Coast. Furthermore, a Livonian flag was adopted, with the colours green (for the forests), white (for the beaches) and blue (for the sea), and a division similar to the Latvian flag (three horizontal bars with the middle one-half as wide as the outer ones). In 1923,

7326-559: The sale of Ösel–Wiek to the Danish Crown , and the loss of territory to Tsardom of Russia ). In 1575, after Muscovy attacked Danish claims in Livonia, Frederick II dropped out of the competition, as did the Holy Roman Emperor. After this Johan III held off on his pursuit for more land due to Muscovy obtaining lands that Sweden controlled. He used the next two years of truce to get in a better position. In 1578, he resumed

7425-540: The second half of the 19th century, the Livonian language and culture completely disappeared from the region known to this day as Livonia; the last known speaker of the eastern Livonian dialect died in 1864, though according to some reports, there were still some people in the early 20th century in the Polish area In the Latvian dialect spoken in Livonia, a large number of Livonian loanwords have survived, and other traces of Livonian can be found in many geographical names in

7524-477: The seeds of confusion in the Livonian ranks. The lightly armed native forces under the command of the Brothers soon fled from the battle. Almost all members of the order, including Volkwin, died in the battle. Those crusaders and knights who tried to flee to Riga were allegedly killed by the Semigallians. Only every tenth Crusader reached Riga. The Livonian Rhymed Chronicle described the pagan's defeat of

7623-528: The titles in Livonia. That war would last from 1577 to 1582. Muscovy recognized Polish–Lithuanian control of Ducatus Ultradunensis only in 1582. After Magnus von Lyffland died in 1583, Poland invaded his territories in The Duchy of Courland , and Frederick II decided to sell his rights of inheritance . Except for the island of Œsel , Denmark was out of the Baltic by 1585. As of 1598 Inflanty Voivodeship

7722-463: The war as allies of the Livonian Order, resulting in almost a quarter of a century of war. The outcome of this Livonian War (1558–1582) was a Russian defeat, but also the dissolution of the Livonian Order. Livonia and south-eastern Latvia were claimed by the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, while Curonia became an independent duchy (Courland), with Gotthard Kettler , the Livonian Order's last Grandmaster, as its first duke. After only ten years of peace,

7821-469: The war between Germany and Soviet Russia and left the Baltic region firmly in German hands. However, after the German capitulation in 1919, the Baltic peoples rose up and established the independent republics of Estonia , Latvia and Lithuania . The Livonian Coast became part of independent Latvia . Actions by the Latvian government during the interwar years towards supporting the Livonian minority has been seen as lacking or non-existent, with claims that

7920-810: The western Latvian city of Ventspils . The 1980s, Soviet Premier Mikhail Gorbachev 's policies of glasnost and perestroika opened the Iron Curtain , bringing change. In 1986, the Livonian Cultural Society was founded. It was later renamed the Livonian Union (Livonian: Līvõd Īt ). After the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, Latvia became once again an independent country. In this new nation, Livonians were finally recognised as an indigenous ethnic minority, whose language and culture must be protected and advanced. All rights and possessions which had been taken away from them during

8019-631: Was a unit of administrative division and local government in the Duchy of Livonia , part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth , since it was formed in the 1620s out of the Wenden Voivodeship till the First Partition of Poland in 1772. The Russian Empire conquered Swedish Livonia during the course of the Great Northern War and acquired the province in the Capitulation of Estonia and Livonia in 1710, confirmed by

8118-625: Was about to obtain, either in the form of Magnus or of the Archbishop of Riga . Magnus was upset that he had been tricked out of his inheritance of Holstein . After Sweden occupied Reval, Frederick II of Denmark made a treaty with Erik XIV of Sweden in August 1561. Magnus and his brother Frederick II were in great disagreement, and Frederick II negotiated a treaty with Ivan IV on 7 August 1562 to help his brother obtain more land and to stall further Swedish advances. Erik XIV did not like this, and

8217-478: Was collectivized in the Baltic states. Also, in 1955 a Soviet military base was constructed in the middle of the Livonian Coast. To accomplish this, some Livonians were forcibly relocated to villages farther from the coast. Subsequently, the western villages of the Livonian Coast had to be almost completely evacuated when the Soviet Union made its Baltic coastline (its western border) a "closed border area" of

8316-438: Was divided in lands of Daugava Livonians, Satezele, Turaida, Idumeja, Metsepole . During the Livonian Crusade , once prosperous Livonia was devastated, and whole regions were almost completely depopulated. This vacuum was filled by Latvian tribes – Curonians , Semigallians , Latgallians and Selonians – who started to move into the area around 1220, and continued to do so for at least thirty years. They settled mostly in

8415-420: Was divided onto: Based on a guarantee by Sigismund II Augustus from the 1560s, the German language retained its official status. The armies of Ivan the Terrible were initially successful, taking Polotsk (1563) and Parnawa (1575) and overrunning much of Grand Duchy of Lithuania up to some 250 km (160 mi) proximity of Vilnius . Eventually, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Kingdom of Poland formed

8514-522: Was formed in 1419. The city of Walk was chosen as the site of the diet. From the 14th to the 16th centuries, Middle Low German - as spoken in the towns of the Hanseatic League — functioned as the established language of the Livonian lands, but High German subsequently succeeded it as the official language in the course of the 16th and 17th centuries. Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor once again asked for help of Gustav I of Sweden , and

8613-648: Was greatly weakened by this and the city state of Luebeck fought its last great war. The emperor Maximilian II ( r.  1564–1576 ) diffused the greatest threat by remaining on friendly terms with Tsar Ivan IV of Russia ( r.  1533–1584 ), but not sending Ivan IV troops as requested in his struggles with the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth . In 1570, Tsar Ivan IV of Russia installed Duke Magnus as King of Livonia . The other forces opposed this appointment. The Livonian Order saw no other way than to seek protection from Sigismund II Augustus ( King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania ), who had intervened in

8712-419: Was in conflict with the papacy under Pope Gregory IX and the Holy Roman Emperor , two of its biggest supporters, over Estonia . However, on 19 February 1236, Pope Gregory IX issued a papal bull declaring a crusade against Lithuania . Volkwin was reluctant to launch offensive actions against Lithuanian lands. His reluctance was determined by understanding that the order lacked strength to wage war against

8811-687: Was made with related peoples such as the Estonians and the Finns  — spurred by the Finnish promotion of closer ties with the kindred Baltic Finns — and in 1939, the Livonian Community Centre in Mazirbe ( Livonian : Irē ) was founded with subsidies from the Estonian and Finnish governments. This cultural revival of the Interbellum years served to give the Livonian people for the first time

8910-434: Was not a house left standing when the Livonians returned home after the war. In the Soviet era, the Livonians were hard-hit by repressive measures from Moscow . For one thing, they were not allowed to sail far enough from shore to continue their fishery. For another, like the Estonians, Latvians, and Lithuanians, large numbers of them were deported to Siberia between 1945 and 1952, with a clear peak in 1949, when agriculture

9009-509: Was part of the wars known as the Livonian Crusade , these knights defeated, subdued and converted the Livonians. In 1208, Pope Innocent III declared that all Livonians had been converted to Christianity. Afterwards they were obliged to join the Knights of the Sword as infantry during the wars against the Estonians and the Latvian tribes, which continued until 1217. Before the German Conquests Livonian inhabited territory

9108-415: Was primarily concerned with ending the internal conflict in Livonia on terms favourable to Rome. Therefore, no Livonian faction was allowed to form an alliance with an external power, be they pagan or Novgorodian, to prevent the internal conflict from spilling over and threaten Livonia's external security. In 1234, the pope recalled Baldwin, and replaced him with William of Modena . The pope did not give

9207-644: Was ready for peace. On 15 December 1570, the Treaty of Stettin concluded the Northern Seven Years' War. It is, however, more difficult to estimate the scope and magnitude of the support Magnus received in Livonian cities. Compared to the Harrien-Wierland gentry, the Reval city council, and hence probably the majority of citizens, demonstrated a much more reserved attitude towards Denmark and towards King Magnus of Livonia. Nevertheless, there

9306-556: Was ready for peace. On 15 December 1570, the Treaty of Stettin was concluded. In the next phase of the conflict, in 1577, Ivan IV took advantage of the Commonwealth's internal strife (called the war against Gdańsk in Polish historiography), and during the reign of Stefan Batory in Poland, invaded Livonia, quickly taking almost the entire territory, with the exception of Riga and Reval . In 1578, Magnus of Livonia recognized

9405-736: Was split between the newly independent states of Latvia and Estonia. The United Baltic Duchy , alternately known as the "Grand Duchy of Livonia", proclaimed by the Baltic German nobility on 12 April 1918, was never recognised by any state, and dissolved at the German surrender in November 1918. Livonia had ceased to exist. From 1918 to 1920, both Soviet troops and German Freikorps fought against Latvian and Estonian troops for control over former Livonia, but their attempts were defeated. The historical land of Livonia has been split between Latvia and Estonia ever since 1918. The Livonian language

9504-399: Was taken by Berthold . Berthold tried to convert the Livonians by force, launching two raids on Livonia. The first took place in 1196, but he was forced to retreat to Germany after being ambushed near Salaspils . He tried again in 1198, but this time he was killed by the Livonian soldier Ymaut . Berthold was followed by Albert von Buxhövden , who forced the Livonian leaders at the mouth of

9603-632: Was the Narva -trade-route and practically all trade in the North, and with that all of Europe. Due to the religious upheavals of the Reformation the distant Holy Roman Empire could not send troops, which it could not afford anyway. The Duchy of Prussia was not able to help for much of the same reason, and Duke Albrecht ( r.  1525–1568 ) was under continuous ban by the Empire. The Hanseatic League

9702-537: Was the Danish archbishop Absalon , who supposedly built a church in the Livonian village today known as Kolka . In the 12th century, Germans invaded Livonia and established a base in Uexküll , known today as Ikšķile . Archbishop Hartwig II converted some Livonians in the surrounding area, including the local chieftain Caupo of Turaida , who later allied himself with the Germans. After Meinhard died in 1196, his place

9801-838: Was translated in Estonian and Latvian , and a university was founded in Tartu in southern Estonia. Although Sweden kept the Poles and the Danes at a distance, this could not be said of the Russians. In the Great Northern War (1700–1721), Czar Peter the Great utterly destroyed Sweden's pretensions to being a regional superpower. In the 1721 Treaty of Nystad , Estonia and Livonia, which had again been completely devastated after more than twenty years of war, were claimed by Russia. Curonia continued to be ruled by its dukes for another three-quarters of

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