93-807: The National Pacification Army ( NPA ), also known as the Anguojun or Ankuochun ( Chinese : 安國軍 ), was a warlord coalition led by Fengtian clique General Zhang Zuolin , and was the military arm of the Beiyang government of the Republic of China during its existence. The army was formed in November 1926 after the Fengtian victory in the Anti-Fengtian War , the NPA was tasked with countering
186-641: A "good warlord", and his remains were buried with honors in 1953 at the sacred Mount Tai in Shandong . His tomb is located immediately to the east of Tianwai Village square ( 36°12′25.86″N 117°6′7.95″E / 36.2071833°N 117.1022083°E / 36.2071833; 117.1022083 ). His widow Li Dequan served as Minister of Health of the People's Republic of China . Many of Feng Yuxiang's former subordinates joined or merged into Kuomintang National Revolutionary Army and fought with distinction in
279-509: A certain extent in South Korea , remain virtually identical to traditional characters, with variations between the two forms largely stylistic. There has historically been a debate on traditional and simplified Chinese characters . Because the simplifications are fairly systematic, it is possible to convert computer-encoded characters between the two sets, with the main issue being ambiguities in simplified representations resulting from
372-560: A decision to negotiate with KMT leaders in Nanjing for recognition. Nanjing decided, however, that the NPA would be fully disbanded, leading to the Northeast Flag Replacement . In its place, local warlords began to dominate Manchuria; the people of the northeastern provinces suffered from increasing societal disorder, and Chinese authority collapsed in the region, paving the way for the 1931 Japanese invasion following
465-796: A few victories in mid-1927 in Jiangsu and extensive victories in Shanxi , the NPA could not defeat the Kuomintang forces and soon retreated north and east of Tianjin . Following Zhang Zuolin's assassination by the Japanese Kwantung Army in the Huanggutun Incident on 4 June 1928, he was succeeded by his son, Zhang Xueliang , who disbanded the National Pacification Army and swore allegiance to
558-578: A message to Shanxi warlord Yan Xishan , asking him to establish peace between the NRA and the NPA and "take over northern China". With Japanese support guaranteed, Yan moved to join the KMT. Zhang Zuolin declared himself Generalissimo on the 18th as Fengtian–KMT negotiations deteriorated, forming a new military government . The Guominjun were also involved in the battle in Henan. Its leader, Feng Yuxiang , had joined
651-526: A new conflict between the Fengtian and Zhili cliques, called the Second Zhili–Fengtian War . The decisive moment of the conflict came on 30 October 1924, when warlord Feng Yuxiang broke from the Zhili clique, declared the establishment of the independent Guominjun , and aligned with the Fengtian in his Beijing Coup . This led to an overwhelming Fengtian victory, the removal of the Zhili clique from
744-530: A new offensive by the anti-Chiang Kai-shek Wuhan KMT government led by Tang Shengzhi . During May, 100,000 of the Wuhan government's troops were wounded, while Feng's casualties numbered 400. As Yan and Feng swore allegiance to Chiang's newly formed alternative to the Wuhan government, the Nanjing KMT government , the NPA was forced to abandon the two provinces of Henan and Jiangsu, and the broader NPA strategy
837-599: A portion of it to help out other soldiers in need, especially those deputy soldiers (Fu Bing, 副兵), like he had once been, and so he was popular among his comrades-in-arms. Feng was hard-working and motivated, and in 1902 he was reassigned to Yuan Shikai 's newly established Beiyang Army . During the Xinhai Revolution of 1911 Feng joined the Luanzhou Uprising against the Qing Court and supported
930-613: A standard set of Chinese character forms used to write Chinese languages . In Taiwan , the set of traditional characters is regulated by the Ministry of Education and standardized in the Standard Form of National Characters . These forms were predominant in written Chinese until the middle of the 20th century, when various countries that use Chinese characters began standardizing simplified sets of characters, often with characters that existed before as well-known variants of
1023-869: Is 産 (also the accepted form in Japan and Korea), while in Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan the accepted form is 產 (also the accepted form in Vietnamese chữ Nôm ). The PRC tends to print material intended for people in Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan, and overseas Chinese in traditional characters. For example, versions of the People's Daily are printed in traditional characters, and both People's Daily and Xinhua have traditional character versions of their website available, using Big5 encoding. Mainland companies selling products in Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan use traditional characters in order to communicate with consumers;
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#17327722240451116-493: The Chinese Commercial News , World News , and United Daily News all use traditional characters, as do some Hong Kong–based magazines such as Yazhou Zhoukan . The Philippine Chinese Daily uses simplified characters. DVDs are usually subtitled using traditional characters, influenced by media from Taiwan as well as by the two countries sharing the same DVD region , 3. With most having immigrated to
1209-631: The Beijing Coup , which knocked the Zhili out of power, and re-organised his troops as the Guominjun . He brought Sun Yat-sen to Beijing for negotiations on re-unification, but this was not realized. In 1926, Feng was defeated by the Zhili and Fengtian cliques in the Anti-Fengtian War , and he retreated to the northwest. In 1926, Feng joined the Kuomintang 's successful Northern Expedition . He later resisted Chiang's consolidation of power in
1302-677: The Beijing–Hankou railway , forcing the NPA to split their defense. In April, the Shandong front collapsed as Zhang Zongchang was fully defeated. As NRA forces reached Beijing, Zhang directed 200,000 men to hold the southern front. Feng was pushed back from Baoding to Dingzhou , where Feng was unable to advance from. However, Feng defeated the NPA on the eastern front and immediately attempted to sever NPA communications through cutting them off from rail lines. Finally, on 3 June, Zhang decided to move his headquarters back to Manchuria. Having observed
1395-693: The Central Plains War and was forced to retire, but in 1933 organized a new army which successfully drove the Japanese Army out of Chahar . In the 1930s, Feng held positions in the Nationalist government , including brief army commands at the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937. He spent his later years supporting the anti-Chiang Revolutionary Committee of the Kuomintang before his death in 1948. Feng
1488-716: The Central Plains War . Chiang then incited anti-Yan Xishan and Feng Yuxiang sentiments among the Chinese Muslims and Mongols, encouraging them to topple their rule. Stripped of his military power, Feng spent the early 1930s criticizing Chiang Kai-shek's failure to resist Japanese aggression. On 26 May 1933, Feng Yuxiang became commander-in-chief of the Chahar People's Anti-Japanese Army Alliance, with Ji Hongchang and Fang Zhenwu as frontline commanders. Ji Hongchang's army, numbering over 100,000 men according to Feng, pushed against Duolun , and by July 1933 drove
1581-684: The Imperial Japanese Army Academy and allowing Zhang to take full control over the affairs of the Fengtian clique and the NPA. Zhang sent a telegram to Nanjing, justifying his execution of Yang and Chang. Zhang Xueliang decided to cut down the Fengtian Army and funding to the Mukden Arsenal to fix the financial situation of Manchuria. It was here that he completely disbanded the National Pacification Army, with only Yu Xuezhong 's army turning to Fengtian, while
1674-620: The Kensiu language . Feng Yuxiang Feng Yuxiang ( simplified Chinese : 冯玉祥 ; traditional Chinese : 馮玉祥 ; pinyin : Féng Yùxiáng ; IPA: [fə́ŋ ỳɕi̯ɑ́ŋ] ; 6 November 1882 – 1 September 1948), courtesy name Huanzhang (焕章), was a Chinese warlord and later general in the National Revolutionary Army . He served as Vice Premier of the Republic of China from 1928 to 1930. At
1767-501: The Kuomintang government in Nanjing . China fragmented into various warlord factions as part of the tumultuous Warlord Era during the 1910s which started from the Xinhai Revolution . Many provinces became autonomous under their ruling generals. Following the National Protection War against Beiyang Army general-turned-emperor Yuan Shikai , China became balkanized into a collection of regional power networks,
1860-660: The Mukden Incident . The Military Academy of the Eastern Three Provinces trained 7,971 officers from 1919 to 1930. These new officers formed the backbone of the lower levels of the NPA military command structure. At the top were graduates of Baoding Military Academy , who also served as instructors at the Military Academy of the Eastern Three Provinces. The command of the Fengtian clique was dominated by people such as Yang Yuting , who held
1953-772: The Second Sino-Japanese War began in 1937 he briefly served as Commander-in-Chief of the 3rd War Area. In this capacity Feng led Chinese forces early in the defense of Shanghai , but he was quickly relieved in favor of Zhang Zhizhong and later Chiang himself. After World War II he traveled to the United States, where he was an outspoken critic of the Chiang regime and of the Truman administration's support for it. While there, he went to Gen. Joseph Stilwell 's house in California, as he admired Stilwell. Barbara Tuchman tells
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#17327722240452046-546: The Second Sino-Japanese War . They include Song Zheyuan , Tong Linge , Zhao Dengyu , Sun Lianzhong , Liu Ruming , Feng Zhi'an , Yang Hucheng , Ji Hongchang and Zhang Zizhong . Notable exceptions were Sun Liangcheng and Qin Dechun , who collaborated with the Japanese. Other generals, after serving a lengthy term in the warlord era, retired to live a life of pleasure. Sir Richard Evans , author of Deng Xiaoping and
2139-640: The Shanghainese -language character U+20C8E 𠲎 CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-20C8E —a composition of 伐 with the ⼝ 'MOUTH' radical—used instead of the Standard Chinese 嗎 ; 吗 . Typefaces often use the initialism TC to signify the use of traditional Chinese characters, as well as SC for simplified Chinese characters . In addition, the Noto, Italy family of typefaces, for example, also provides separate fonts for
2232-648: The Three Principles of the People . Zhang Xueliang was often portrayed in a western-style suit to show his sophistication. He was also portrayed as the successor to Sun Yat-sen. As for the Ankuochun generals, propaganda portrayed them as honorable and legitimate men; their honor and legitimacy stemming from their association with important figures, their diverse backgrounds, their skills, and their willingness to expel foreign influence. Traditional Chinese characters Traditional Chinese characters are
2325-820: The Anti-Yuan National Protection Army, but secretly communicated with revolution leader Cai E . In April 1917 he was stripped of his military rank but still led his old troops in the campaign against Zhang Xun and was restored to his rank. In February 1918 he was ordered to suppress the Constitutional Protection Movement , but proclaimed his support for peace talks in Hubei and was stripped of titles but permitted to stay in command of his forces. The capture of Changde in June earned him back his titles. By August 1921 he
2418-710: The Fengtian and Wu Peifu -led Zhili cliques banded together. This coalition expelled the Anhui clique from Beijing in the Zhili–Anhui War , pushing them southwards and allowing the Fengtian and Zhili cliques to jointly control the capital. However, this order fell, with the Zhili and Fengtian cliques going to war in the First Zhili–Fengtian War . Zhili won, pushing Fengtian back to Manchuria. In 1924, Zhili-aligned Jiangsu governor Qi Xieyuan declared war on Fengtian-allied Zhejiang governor Lu Yongxiang , sparking
2511-572: The Five Provinces ( Chinese : 五省聯軍 ). The fragile peace following the Second Zhili–Fengtian War did not last long, as Feng Yuxiang and Zhang Zuolin quickly turned against each other. Both had been seeking an alliance with the Zhili clique, but Wu Peifu, in an attempt at revenge, sided with Zhang in the Anti-Fengtian War . In October 1925, Sun Chuanfang began the invasion of Jiangsu, and Feng began his invasion of Shandong, which
2604-709: The Japanese and Manchukuoan troops out of Chahar Province . By late July Feng and Ji Hongchang established, at Zhangjiakou , the "Committee for Recovering the Four Provinces of the Northeast". Chiang Kai-shek, fearing that Communists had taken control of the Anti-Japanese Allied Army, launched a concerted siege of the army with 60,000 men. Surrounded by Chiang Kai-shek and the Japanese, Feng Yuxiang resigned his post and retired to Tai'an in Shandong. Between 1935 and 1945 Feng Yuxiang supported
2697-491: The Japanese to death if he ever became a soldier. Every year on the anniversary of Japan's 21 Demands in 1915 he and his officers wore belts on which was written "In Memory of the National Humiliation of May 7th". By early 1929 Feng grew dissatisfied with Chiang Kai-shek's Nationalist government in Nanjing. He joined Yan Xishan and Li Zongren to challenge Chiang's supremacy, but was defeated by Chiang in
2790-610: The KMT and held various positions in the Nationalist army and government. In October 1935 Chiang invited him to Nanjing to serve as the vice-president of the Military Affairs Commission . He held the nominal position until 1938 and remained a member of the council until 1945. During the Xi'an Incident , when Chiang Kai-Shek was held prisoner by rebellious warlords, Feng immediately called for Chiang's release. After
2883-645: The Kuomintang in November 1926, and was contesting NPA forces in Henan by December as the commander of the Central Route Army of the Northern Expedition, with 100,000 men fighting in western Henan. The Fengtian clique declared that Zhang Zuolin would be elected president of the Beiyang government once the provinces north of the Yangtze River were secured. This brought Zhang to launch a new offensive in Henan in spring 1927, mirroring
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2976-585: The NPA were forced to retreat to Shandong and dig in. At the beginning of 1928, the now severely weakened National Pacification Army was being pushed back. The coalition between Chiang, Feng, Yan, and Li Zongren surrounded it to the south, with troops in Shanxi, Henan, and southern Shandong. Yan's forces had flanked the west of the Beijing–Tianjin railway in early 1928. The NPA still planned to retake Henan, but they were in no position to do so. In mid-April, Yan
3069-474: The NRA back. Xuzhou came under siege, but Zhang and Sun responded by sending 60,000 and 10,000 soldiers (respectively) onto the railroad from Xuzhou and launching an offensive on the rail line on 12 December. Although the NPA had air support from White Russian , Japanese, and European pilots, they could not succeed, and were pushed back within two days. On 16 December 1927, the NPA were pushed out of Xuzhou. Sun's Long-Hai railroad front subsequently disintegrated and
3162-562: The NRA launched an offensive, taking Mingguang , Fengyang , and then Bengbu , the capital of Anhui. Sun Chuanfang tried to retake Pengpu by cutting the NRA forces in the city off from its connection with the other KMT forces, but he was forced to retreat to the Huai River valley. The NRA advanced even further, taking Guzhen and pushing Sun to northern Jiangsu. Ignoring his differences and disagreements with Zhang Zongchang and his 150,000 men in Shandong, Sun joined him in attempting to push
3255-501: The NRA. During his defense at the Yangtze, Sun had 70,000 troops, split up into 11 divisions and 6 mixed brigades. Access to equipment was so limited that some soldiers were armed with spears instead of guns. The battle at Longtan, near Nanjing, caused 30,000 casualties for Sun, with 35,000 rifles and 30 field guns taken by the NRA. By the end of the battle, Sun was left with only 10,000 men. The Zhili–Shandong Army (consisting of men from
3348-862: The Nankou Pass, and with the collapse of Wu Peifu's army in the wake of the NRA advance in Hunan and Hubei provinces in late 1926, the Fengtian clique cemented its position both as leader of the Beiyang government and as the main military clique in northern China. Following the period of chaos in the aftermath of the Anti-Fengtian War, and the disintegration of Guominjun and Zhili power in Beijing, Zhang Zuolin brought together his Fengtian Army commanders and other, non-affiliated warlords such as Sun Chuanfang and Yan Xishan in November 1926 to discuss
3441-630: The Northwest Army. In April 1926 Sun Yat-sen's successor, Chiang Kai-shek , launched the Northern Expedition from Guangzhou against the northern warlords. Feng threw his support behind the Nationalists in the Northern Expedition and merged his Guominjun with the National Revolutionary Army . The Nationalists vanquished the Zhili faction in the south and Feng asserted control over much of north-central China. Zhang Zuolin
3534-502: The People's Republic of China, traditional Chinese characters are standardised according to the Table of Comparison between Standard, Traditional and Variant Chinese Characters . Dictionaries published in mainland China generally show both simplified and their traditional counterparts. There are differences between the accepted traditional forms in mainland China and elsewhere, for example the accepted traditional form of 产 in mainland China
3627-799: The Republican government and reunify the country. Despite being severely ill already, Sun came to Beijing and died there in April 1925. Feng renamed his army the Guominjun or the National People's Army. To counter pressure from the Zhili and Fengtian factions, he invited Duan Qirui to take on the presidency. Nevertheless, Feng was defeated by a Zhili–Fengtian alliance in the Anti-Fengtian War in January 1926. He lost control of Beijing and retreated to Zhangjiakou , where his army became known as
3720-416: The Staff College Clique. By 1927, the Fengtian Army was estimated to have 8 gun regiments. US intelligence reported that they also had seven 77mm field gun regiments with 420 guns (36 per regiment, 12 per battalion) as well as a regiment of twenty-four 150mm guns. The Fengtian Army consisted of 220,000 men in 1928. Sun Chuanfang's army consisted of 200,000 men by 1927, despite two of his divisions defecting to
3813-419: The United States during the second half of the 19th century, Chinese Americans have long used traditional characters. When not providing both, US public notices and signs in Chinese are generally written in traditional characters, more often than in simplified characters. In the past, traditional Chinese was most often encoded on computers using the Big5 standard, which favored traditional characters. However,
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3906-575: The abandonment of Beijing, his train was blown up by officers of the Kwantung Army on 4 June 1928 in what was called the Huanggutun incident . Following the death of Zhang Zuolin, his son, Zhang Xueliang, took power. Yang Yuting became fully responsible for the military strategy of the NPA, which had now been severely reduced, assuming the role of Commander-in-Chief of the Eastern Three Provinces Defense Headquarters in July 1928. Although he seemed to support siding with Nanjing, he believed that Fengtian–KMT unity would not last. He advised Zhang Xueliang to hold
3999-431: The advance of the Kuomintang (KMT)-aligned National Revolutionary Army (NRA) of Chiang Kai-shek , who had launched the Northern Expedition in June 1926. In addition to its Fengtian Army core, the NPA also included Zhili clique generals, such as Sun Chuanfang . The NPA suffered a series of serious military defeats inflicted by Chiang and his warlord allies, including Feng Yuxiang , Li Zongren and Yan Xishan . On
4092-410: The allegiance of non-Fengtian-affiliated warlord armies in northern China. Decisions were made by the NPA leaders in conferences at the NPA headquarters in Beijing, with Zhang Zuolin, Zhang Xueliang , Yang Yuting , Yu Guohan , Zhang Zuoxiang , Wu Junsheng , Wang Yongjiang , Sun Chuanfang , and Zhang Zongchang frequently attending. The leadership of the NPA was, in essence, a military council under
4185-406: The bringers of peace and order to China, against the forces of the Kuomintang , and their Soviet and communist backers. Additionally, Ankuochun propaganda portrayed Zhang Zuolin's son, Zhang Xueliang , the "Light in the North", as a young and patriotic "son of China". They tried to reconcile the ideals of Zhang Zuolin and Zhang Xueliang with those of Sun Yat-sen by saying that the Zhangs endorsed
4278-402: The capital and Cao Kun from the presidency of the Republic of China, and placed Zhang Zuolin in control of the Beiyang government. Fengtian thus took control of Zhili and Shandong provinces, with the Zhili clique routed southwards, where warlord Sun Chuanfang established control of the provinces of Zhejiang, Jiangsu, Anhui, Fujian, and Jiangxi. The army he created he named the Allied Army of
4371-452: The capital in the Beijing Coup on 23 October 1924. This turnabout prompted Shandong warlord Zhang Zongchang to join the Fengtian and led to a decisive defeat of the Zhili forces. Hence, Feng's coup brought far-reaching political changes in China. Feng imprisoned Zhili-leader and president Cao Kun, installed the more liberal Huang Fu , evicted the last Emperor Puyi from the Forbidden City and invited Sun Yat-sen to Beijing to resurrect
4464-439: The collapse of the Yuan Shikai government in 1916. Feng, however, distinguished himself from other regional militarists by governing his domains with a mixture of paternalistic Christian socialism and military discipline. He forbade prostitution, gambling and the sale of opium and morphia. From 1919 he was known as the "Christian General". In 1923 British Protestant Christian missionary Marshall B. Broomhall said of him: He
4557-399: The dire state of affairs of the NPA in Beijing, feeling alarmed at the potential fate of Japanese interests in Manchuria should the Kuomintang be victorious, and believing that Zhang was too uncooperative, officers of the Japanese Kwantung Army threatened that they would block Zhang Zuolin from returning to Mukden if he made an agreement with the KMT. As he was returning to Manchuria following
4650-405: The early 1920s Feng rose to prominence in the Zhili clique of warlords, named so because their base of power was centred around Zhili Province . This Zhili clique defeated the Fengtian clique , headed by Zhang Zuolin , father of Zhang Xueliang , in the First Zhili–Fengtian War in 1922. It was at this time that Feng also began to move closer to the Soviet Union . Within the Zhili clique Feng
4743-507: The establishment of the NPA in November 1926, Zhang Zuolin had two main allies. The first was Zhang Zongchang , a Fengtian commander and Governor of Shandong province, who commanded the de facto independent Zhili–Shandong Army. This force was a merger of Zhang's "Shandong Army" and the Zhili Army of his lieutenant, Chu Yupu . Although Zhang Zongchang's army was powerful and separate from the Fengtian army itself, Zhang Zongchang still saw himself as subordinate to Zhang Zuolin. His second ally
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#17327722240454836-530: The fence, taking a neutral stance militarily, although favoring the KMT (Shanxi formally joined the KMT in April). However, in late August 1927, Zhang attacked Yan's soldiers in Shijiazhuang , who were forced to retreat to Shanxi. This tipped the balance, and Yan began an offensive along the Beijing-Suiyuan Railroad in October, opening up a new front of fighting between the KMT and the Anguojun. Zhang Zuolin's military government had almost attained international recognition—British minister to China Sir Miles Lampson
4929-415: The feud between different factions intensified, and warlordism was born. The Fengtian clique had been formed under Zhang Zuolin, who was the local hegemon in Manchuria . Zhang's Fengtian Army was the backbone of his influence and allowed him to make mutually-beneficial alliances with local elites. In response to the growing dominance of China by the Anhui clique , an opposing warlord group consisting of
5022-412: The front line had moved to southern Jiangsu, with the NRA being pushed to Nanjing, leading Yan Xishan to revert to neutrality. However, in late August, Sun Chuanfang was being pushed back, and he lost 50,000 men throughout September. Jiangsu was where Feng Yuxiang's force was mainly concentrated. Towards the north, Zhang Zuolin was fighting Yan Xishan on a different front. Previously, Yan had been straddling
5115-493: The inverse is equally true as well. In digital media, many cultural phenomena imported from Hong Kong and Taiwan into mainland China, such as music videos, karaoke videos, subtitled movies, and subtitled dramas, use traditional Chinese characters. In Hong Kong and Macau , traditional characters were retained during the colonial period, while the mainland adopted simplified characters. Simplified characters are contemporaneously used to accommodate immigrants and tourists, often from
5208-456: The leadership of Zhang Zuolin, who had to plan his military activities based on those of his allies and the opinions of subordinates such as Yang Yuting. Even so, when Zhang was strongly convinced about some matter, he had ability to ignore the opinions of his generals. In early 1927, the forces of the NPA and the National Revolutionary Army were facing off in Henan and Jiangsu. In May 1927, the Japanese, represented by Colonel Doihara Kenji , sent
5301-449: The line east of Shanhaiguan and Rehe Province , as well as asking for him to take control of the remnants of Sun Chuanfang's and Zhang Zongchang's armies, each consisting of over 50,000 men, who were now situated between Tangshan and Shanhaiguan. Yang wanted to capitalize on KMT disagreements and infighting in order to prepare for a comeback of the NPA. As Yang grew more and more powerful, Zhang Xueliang became more suspicious of him. He
5394-725: The mainland. The increasing use of simplified characters has led to concern among residents regarding protecting what they see as their local heritage. Taiwan has never adopted simplified characters. The use of simplified characters in government documents and educational settings is discouraged by the government of Taiwan. Nevertheless, with sufficient context simplified characters are likely to be successfully read by those used to traditional characters, especially given some previous exposure. Many simplified characters were previously variants that had long been in some use, with systematic stroke simplifications used in folk handwriting since antiquity. Traditional characters were recognized as
5487-682: The majority of Chinese text in mainland China are simplified characters , there is no legislation prohibiting the use of traditional Chinese characters, and often traditional Chinese characters remain in use for stylistic and commercial purposes, such as in shopfront displays and advertising. Traditional Chinese characters remain ubiquitous on buildings that predate the promulgation of the current simplification scheme, such as former government buildings, religious buildings, educational institutions, and historical monuments. Traditional Chinese characters continue to be used for ceremonial, cultural, scholarly/academic research, and artistic/decorative purposes. In
5580-916: The merging of previously distinct character forms. Many Chinese online newspapers allow users to switch between these character sets. Traditional characters are known by different names throughout the Chinese-speaking world. The government of Taiwan officially refers to traditional Chinese characters as 正體字 ; 正体字 ; zhèngtǐzì ; 'orthodox characters'. This term is also used outside Taiwan to distinguish standard characters, including both simplified, and traditional, from other variants and idiomatic characters . Users of traditional characters elsewhere, as well as those using simplified characters, call traditional characters 繁體字 ; 繁体字 ; fántǐzì ; 'complex characters', 老字 ; lǎozì ; 'old characters', or 全體字 ; 全体字 ; quántǐzì ; 'full characters' to distinguish them from simplified characters. Some argue that since traditional characters are often
5673-448: The name "National Pacification Army" is rooted in "engaging in war to achieve peace", a traditional idea in China's long history of dynastic leaders fighting to reunite the country. At the time of the NPA's establishment, Zhang Zuolin vowed to save China from the "red menace", an attack on the Kuomintang's United Front with the Chinese communists, and their Soviet and Comintern backers. The NPA at this time consisted of 500,000 men. At
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#17327722240455766-556: The official script in Singapore until 1969, when the government officially adopted Simplified characters. Traditional characters still are widely used in contexts such as in baby and corporation names, advertisements, decorations, official documents and in newspapers. The Chinese Filipino community continues to be one of the most conservative in Southeast Asia regarding simplification. Although major public universities teach in simplified characters, many well-established Chinese schools still use traditional characters. Publications such as
5859-700: The original standard forms, they should not be called 'complex'. Conversely, there is a common objection to the description of traditional characters as 'standard', due to them not being used by a large population of Chinese speakers. Additionally, as the process of Chinese character creation often made many characters more elaborate over time, there is sometimes a hesitation to characterize them as 'traditional'. Some people refer to traditional characters as 'proper characters' ( 正字 ; zhèngzì or 正寫 ; zhèngxiě ) and to simplified characters as 簡筆字 ; 简笔字 ; jiǎnbǐzì ; 'simplified-stroke characters' or 減筆字 ; 减笔字 ; jiǎnbǐzì ; 'reduced-stroke characters', as
5952-419: The political power, styled himself as Generalissimo, rather than President as Sun Yat-Sen had done, from the start of the military government in 1927. He thus appeared in military uniform rather than in civilian clothes. Popular pro-Ankuochun slogans included: "May the Chinese Republic live thousands of years", "Eliminate violence at home", and "Counter foreign aggression". The Ankuochun made themselves look like
6045-435: The positions of Chief of Staff and head of the Mukden Arsenal , known as the Shikan clique as they had all studied at the Imperial Japanese Army Academy . This faction had the upper hand over the Staff College Clique , who studied at the Staff College of Beijing . This faction was led by Guo Songling . Guo had rebelled in 1925, severely decreasing the influence of the Staff College Clique. With Guo dead, Zhang Zuolin headed
6138-729: The predominant forms. Simplified characters as codified by the People's Republic of China are predominantly used in mainland China , Malaysia, and Singapore. "Traditional" as such is a retronym applied to non-simplified character sets in the wake of widespread use of simplified characters. Traditional characters are commonly used in Taiwan , Hong Kong , and Macau , as well as in most overseas Chinese communities outside of Southeast Asia. As for non-Chinese languages written using Chinese characters, Japanese kanji include many simplified characters known as shinjitai standardized after World War II, sometimes distinct from their simplified Chinese counterparts . Korean hanja , still used to
6231-443: The provinces of Zhili and Shandong) consisted of 150,000 men and 165 pieces of artillery by 1927. There were also 4,000 White Russian mercenaries serving in the army, and 2,000 boys (ages averaging around 10) led by one of Zhang Zongchang's sons. These boys were given special short rifles. The Zhili–Shandong Army was reported to have 160 pieces of field artillery, of which 40 were in disrepair. Zhang Zuolin, as he saw himself as lacking
6324-462: The rest of the former NPA armies were absorbed by NRA or Shanxi forces. Many of the former NPA forces east of Tianjin were cleared up in September 1928. Towards the end of the Northern Expedition, the KMT government in Nanjing began to be recognized by foreign powers as the legitimate government of China. However, this led to a weakening of the Chinese military presence and position in Manchuria. Zhang Xueliang , succeeding his father, Zhang Zuolin, made
6417-426: The revolutionaries in the South. The uprising was suppressed by the Beiyang Army and Feng was imprisoned by Yuan Shikai . In 1914 he regained military rank and spent the next four years defending Yuan's regime. In July 1914, as a brigade commander, he participated in the suppression of the Bailang Peasant Uprising in Henan and Shaanxi . During the National Protection War of 1915–16 he was sent to Sichuan to fight
6510-441: The rival Kuomintang government , based in the southern city of Guangzhou , launched the Northern Expedition . This posed a serious threat to the northern cliques, and countering the Kuomintang advance would be the raison d'être of the National Pacification Army. Zhang was also pressured by a destabilization of the government in Beijing as well as Japanese and Soviet influence. With Zhang having pushed Feng away from Beijing, beyond
6603-404: The situation. Zhang declared the establishment of the National Pacification Army, a unified military of which he was to be the commander-in-chief. He was officially elected to that post at a conference in December 1926. Sun and Zhang Zhongchang were appointed deputy commanders of the new force, and its headquarters was established in the Pukou – Nanjing area. According to historian Donald Jordan ,
6696-435: The southern front, the NPA was pushed back from Jiangsu and Henan after fierce fighting against the Guominjun and the NRA. On the western front, they fought Shanxi forces under Yan Xishan. Following these setbacks, a conference of NPA leaders in June 1927 established a military government and proclaimed Zhang Zuolin as Generalissimo , whereupon all military and civilian power was placed in his hands. Despite having achieved
6789-588: The start of the 1911 Revolution , Feng was an officer in the ranks of Yuan Shikai 's Beiyang Army . He initially joined forces with the revolutionaries, but came to support Yuan's regime . In 1914, he converted to Christianity, earning him the nickname the "Christian General". He became a warlord in Northwest China, based in Shaanxi , and rose to a high rank within the Zhili clique . In 1924, Feng launched
6882-653: The story: "a few days after her husband's death, Mrs. Stilwell was upstairs at her home in Carmel, California when a visitor was announced with some confusion as 'the Christian.' Mystified, she went down to find in the hall the huge figure and cannonball head of [Feng Yuxiang], who said, 'I have come to mourn with you for Shih Ti-wei , my friend. ' " Feng Yuxiang also visited and lived for several months in Berkeley, California, during his stay as visiting scholar. Although he
6975-636: The traditional character set used in Taiwan ( TC ) and the set used in Hong Kong ( HK ). Most Chinese-language webpages now use Unicode for their text. The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) recommends the use of the language tag zh-Hant to specify webpage content written with traditional characters. In the Japanese writing system , kyujitai are traditional forms, which were simplified to create shinjitai for standardized Japanese use following World War II. Kyūjitai are mostly congruent with
7068-1040: The traditional characters in Chinese, save for minor stylistic variation. Characters that are not included in the jōyō kanji list are generally recommended to be printed in their traditional forms, with a few exceptions. Additionally, there are kokuji , which are kanji wholly created in Japan, rather than originally being borrowed from China. In the Korean writing system , hanja —replaced almost entirely by hangul in South Korea and totally replaced in North Korea —are mostly identical with their traditional counterparts, save minor stylistic variations. As with Japanese, there are autochthonous hanja, known as gukja . Traditional Chinese characters are also used by non-Chinese ethnic groups. The Maniq people living in Thailand and Malaysia use Chinese characters to write
7161-518: The ubiquitous Unicode standard gives equal weight to simplified and traditional Chinese characters, and has become by far the most popular encoding for Chinese-language text. There are various input method editors (IMEs) available for the input of Chinese characters . Many characters, often dialectical variants, are encoded in Unicode but cannot be inputted using certain IMEs, with one example being
7254-587: The words for simplified and reduced are homophonous in Standard Chinese , both pronounced as jiǎn . The modern shapes of traditional Chinese characters first appeared with the emergence of the clerical script during the Han dynasty c. 200 BCE , with the sets of forms and norms more or less stable since the Southern and Northern dynasties period c. the 5th century . Although
7347-419: Was Sun Chuanfang , a Zhili warlord active in central China. After joining the NPA, Sun's army coordinated its movements with Zhang, and after Sun was driven out of Jiangsu and Zhejiang in early 1927, he was supplied by the Fengtian clique. Even though Sun was totally financially dependent on the Fengtian clique, he was still able to make his own decisions when they would benefit him. Zhili clique general Wu Peifu
7440-565: Was "friendly and sympathetic", and suggested that "many things might be possible" if the NPA managed to win the war. However, this was short-lived, as the NPA could not hold out for long enough to gain foreign recognition. Sun Chuanfang's defeat in Jiangsu and the subsequent defeat of Zhang Zongchang on the Shandong front in November turned the tides of the war, although the NPA had secured some victories in Shanxi in September. In November 1927,
7533-598: Was abandoned too. Feng continued the drive northwards, pushing against NPA forces in July 1927. Two other major Chinese battlegrounds in this period were Jiangsu, (specifically the city of Xuzhou ) and Shanxi. With NPA forces expelling the NRA from Xuzhou in August 1927, the NRA and the Guominjun cooperated to defend against NPA offensives led by Sun Chuanfang in a last-ditch attempt to retake his original territories. By August,
7626-420: Was able to expel the NPA and launch his own counteroffensive, pushing them out of Shuochou . Nearly one million soldiers participated in the battle along the railway connecting Shanxi with Beijing. In order to immobilize the railways and artillery on trains, Yan and Feng launched a joint siege of Shijiazhuang , a major railway hub, which fell on 9 May. Yan took Zhangjiakou on 25 May. Feng's forces were moving up
7719-628: Was born in Chaohu , Anhui . As the son of an officer in the Qing Imperial Army , Feng spent his youth immersed in military life. He joined the Huai Army when he was 11 as a deputy soldier (Fu Bing, 副兵), the lowest rank in the army, he received a uniform and food, but no salary, unlike regular soldiers. By the age of 16 he had proved himself and became a regular. Unlike other soldiers who gambled away their pay, Feng saved his salary and used
7812-404: Was considered a part of the NPA, but his power-base was destroyed when the KMT conquered Hubei province in late 1926. The NPA was essentially a new version of Zhang Zuolin's Eastern Three Provinces Defense Headquarters , with its main difference being that it was located in Beijing, rather than Mukden (now known as Shenyang, formerly known as Fengtian). Furthermore, the NPA made attempts to gain
7905-405: Was demoted by Wu Peifu and sent to guard the southern suburbs of Beijing. In 1923 Feng was inspired by Sun Yat-sen and secretly plotted with Hu Jingyi and Xue Yue to overthrow Wu Peifu and Cao Kun , who controlled the Beiyang government . When the Second Zhili–Fengtian War began in 1924, Feng was in charge of defending Rehe against the Fengtian clique. However, he switched sides and seized
7998-653: Was forced to withdraw the Fengtian forces back to Manchuria. In August Feng went to the Soviet Union and returned in September. In October 1928 Feng Yuxiang was appointed as Vice President of the Executive Yuan and War Minister of the Republic of China by President Chiang Kai-shek. Feng's patriotism was a basic motivation. Because of atrocities he saw Japanese soldiers commit during the Sino-Japanese War of 1895, Feng promised that he would fight
8091-411: Was murdered; others deny it. The same descendants also learned from their father that many believed Feng was murdered by political adversaries. Allegedly, those who knew details of the shipboard fire and its circumstances had reported that Feng and his daughter perished in the middle of night, with their cabin door(s) locked from the outside. The Chinese Communists under Mao Zedong classified Feng as
8184-524: Was never a Communist himself, he was close to them in his final years. According to descendants whose father was raised by Feng Yuxiang in his household, he was inspired by the elder Feng's example of service to country and countrymen to serve in the military. He died in a shipboard fire on the Black Sea while en route to the Soviet Union in 1948, along with one of his daughters. Some believe he
8277-419: Was now under the control of Fengtian general Zhang Zongchang . In November 1925, general Guo Songling turned against Zhang Zuolin, siding with Feng. In January 1926, Zhang launched an offensive, ordering his troops in Fengtian and Shandong provinces to invade Beijing and Tianjin. By mid-1926, Zhang and his Fengtian clique held the dominant stake in the Beiyang government. At around the same time, in June 1926,
8370-401: Was paranoid that Yang would use Japanese support to replace his position. Additionally, Yang often did not listen to orders or recommendations from Zhang, even though he was officially his subordinate. Zhang therefore ordered the executions of Yang and his associate, Heilongjiang governor Chang Yinhuai , thereby ending the leadership of the internal clique of Fengtian officers that had attended
8463-556: Was promoted to command a division and was based in Shaanxi. Feng, like many young officers, was involved in revolutionary activity and was nearly executed for treason. He later joined Yuan Shikai 's Beiyang Army and with the help and advice of Chinese diplomat Wang Zhengting , converted to Christianity in 1914, being baptized into the Methodist Episcopal Church . Feng's career as a warlord began soon after
8556-534: Was reputed to have liked baptizing his troops with water from a fire hose . However, no such incident is mentioned in Sheriden's detailed biography, or in Broomhall's account. Both Broomhall and Sheriden say that baptism was taken very seriously and that not all of Feng's troops were baptized. Journalist John Gunther , in his 1939 book Inside Asia , specifically denied that such mass baptisms took place. In
8649-455: Was sympathetic to the warlords as their military situation seemed to improve in mid-1927; the fighting on the Jiangsu front seemed to be favoring them. Gaining international recognition was crucial to the Beiyang government, as it would add another layer of legitimacy and help reverse the unequal treaties , which was one of the main goals of the Kuomintang movement against the warlords. When Yang Yuting asked for financial help from Lampson, Lampson
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