Aṅgulimāla ( Pali ; lit. ' finger necklace ' ) is an important figure in Buddhism , particularly within the Theravāda tradition. Depicted as a ruthless brigand who completely transforms after a conversion to Buddhism, he is seen as the example par excellence of the redemptive power of the Buddha 's teaching and the Buddha's skill as a teacher. Aṅgulimāla is seen by Buddhists as the "patron saint" of childbirth and is associated with fertility in South and Southeast Asia.
165-504: Aṅgulimāla's story can be found in numerous sources in Pāli , Sanskrit, Tibetan and Chinese. Aṅgulimāla is born Ahiṃsaka. He grows up as an intelligent young man in Sāvatthī , and during his studies becomes the favorite student of his teacher. However, out of jealousy, fellow students set him up against his teacher. In an attempt to get rid of Aṅgūlimāla, the teacher sends him on a deadly mission to find
330-415: A Middle Indo-Aryan language , is different from Classical Sanskrit more with regard to its dialectal base than the time of its origin. A number of its morphological and lexical features show that it is not a direct continuation of Ṛgvedic Sanskrit. Instead it descends from one or more dialects that were, despite many similarities, different from Ṛgvedic . The Theravada commentaries refer to
495-515: A before doubled consonants: The vowels ⟨i⟩ and ⟨u⟩ are lengthened in the flexional endings including: -īhi, -ūhi and -īsu A sound called anusvāra (Skt.; Pali: niggahīta ), represented by the letter ṁ (ISO 15919) or ṃ (ALA-LC) in romanization, and by a raised dot in most traditional alphabets, originally marked the fact that the preceding vowel was nasalized. That is, aṁ , iṁ and uṁ represented [ã] , [ĩ] and [ũ] . In many traditional pronunciations, however,
660-531: A lingua franca or common language of culture among people who used differing dialects in North India, used at the time of the Buddha and employed by him. Another scholar states that at that time it was "a refined and elegant vernacular of all Aryan-speaking people". Modern scholarship has not arrived at a consensus on the issue; there are a variety of conflicting theories with supporters and detractors. After
825-402: A sacrificial thread . Thus he comes to be known as Aṅgulimāla , meaning 'necklace of fingers'. In some reliefs, he is depicted as wearing a headdress of fingers rather than a necklace. Surviving villagers migrate from the area and complain to Pasenadi , the king of Kosala . Pasenadi responds by sending an army of 500 soldiers to hunt down Aṅgulimāla. Meanwhile, Aṅgulimāla's parents hear about
990-447: A voiced retroflex lateral approximant [ɭ] or non-retroflex [l] "l" sound. Both the long ā and retroflex ḷ are seen in the ISO 15919 / ALA-LC rendering, Pāḷi ; however, to this day there is no single, standard spelling of the term, and all four possible spellings can be found in textbooks. R. C. Childers translates the word as "series" and states that the language "bears
1155-512: A Naga and several plaques of Mithuna figures (Kama, eros-scenes common in Hindu temples). Between 1986 and 1996, Japanese archaeologists led by Yoshinori Aboshi completed nine seasons of archaeological excavations in and around the Sravasti site, this time with carbon dating. They reported that the ancient city was surrounded by an earthen rampart with a circumference of about 5.2 kilometers, in
1320-514: A Vihara complex with a inscribed stone dated year 1176 in the Vikram era (early 12th-century CE). This established that Shravasti was an active Buddhist site through at least the 12th century, but also confirmed that one of the stupa here was named Jetavana vihara. Around 1908, Vogel led more thorough archaeological excavations here and this confirmed for the first time that the Sahet-Mahet site
1485-494: A compassionate King. Yes, my citizens, I have seen a new light. I have changed ... It would be easy to declare the Buddha an accomplice and not only arrest Angulimala but also to arrest the Buddha himself—accusing him of being a protector of terrorists, of aiding and abetting terrorism. That would be easy. Neither the Buddha nor Angulimala have any defenses, whereas my army is well equipped—the strongest and most powerful. Yet now I see
1650-455: A constructive way. Nevertheless, Thompson does not consider the story feminist in any way, but does argue it contains a feminine kind of ethics of care , rooted in Buddhism. Throughout Buddhist history, Aṅgulimāla's story has been depicted in many art forms, some of which can be found in museums and Buddhist heritage sites. In modern culture, Aṅgulimāla still plays an important role. In 1985,
1815-611: A continuation of a language spoken in the area of Magadha in the time of the Buddha. Nearly every word in Pāḷi has cognates in the other Middle Indo-Aryan languages, the Prakrits . The relationship to Vedic Sanskrit is less direct and more complicated; the Prakrits were descended from Old Indo-Aryan vernaculars . Historically, influence between Pali and Sanskrit has been felt in both directions. The Pali language's resemblance to Sanskrit
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#17327880484101980-556: A crescent shape (likely along the ancient river) and was spread over 160 hectares. In addition to the wider area, the Japanese team excavated much deeper layers than prior efforts. They report that the layers and items they uncovered from Sravasti are from 8th-century BCE through all of the 1st millennium CE, with large scale monastery construction after the Kushana Empire era. The 1986–1996 excavations efforts brought to light
2145-552: A degraded form of Pali, But Masefield states that further examination of a very considerable corpus of texts will probably show that this is an internally consistent Pali dialect. The reason for the changes is that some combinations of characters are difficult to write in those scripts. Masefield further states that upon the third re-introduction of Theravada Buddhism into Sri Lanka (The Siyamese Sect), records in Thailand state that large number of texts were also taken. It seems that when
2310-575: A few loan-words from local languages where Pali was used (e.g. Sri Lankans adding Sinhala words to Pali). These usages differentiate the Pali found in the Suttapiṭaka from later compositions such as the Pali commentaries on the canon and folklore (e.g., commentaries on the Jataka tales ), and comparative study (and dating) of texts on the basis of such loan-words is now a specialized field unto itself. Pali
2475-601: A follower of an early Saivite or Shakti form of tantra . Gombrich reaches this conclusion on the basis of a number of inconsistencies in the texts that indicate possible corruption, and the fairly weak explanations for Aṅgulimāla's behavior provided by the commentators. He notes that there are several other references in the early Pāli canon that seem to indicate the presence of devotees of Śaiva , Kāli , and other divinities associated with sanguinary (violent) tantric practices. The textual inconsistencies discovered could be explained through this theory. The idea that Aṅgulimāla
2640-665: A high degree of mutual intelligibility. Theravada tradition, as recorded in chronicles like the Mahavamsa , states that the Tipitaka was first committed to writing during the first century BCE. This move away from the previous tradition of oral preservation is described as being motivated by threats to the Sangha from famine, war, and the growing influence of the rival tradition of the Abhayagiri Vihara . This account
2805-411: A highly symmetric square plan architecture; for example, a later monastic complex had a square platform, with 28 vihara cells each 2.6 meter square. This structure was built from a mix of bricks and wood, and the excavation process discovered a thick layer of charcoal on top of this large platform. An analysis affirmed that this structure was burnt down, and thereafter completely abandoned by the monks as
2970-481: A living being of life. By this truth, may you be well and may your infant be well. [emphasis added] The Buddha is here drawing Angulimala's attention to his choice of having become a monk, describing this as a second birth that contrasts with his previous life as a brigand. Jāti means birth, but the word is also glossed in the Pāli commentaries as clan or lineage ( Pali : gotta ). Thus, the word jāti here also refers to
3135-498: A member of the Buddhist order. The king, astounded but also delighted, addresses Aṅgulimāla by his clan and mother's name ( Pali : Gagga Mantānīputta ) and offers to donate robe materials to Aṅgulimāla. Aṅgulimāla, however, does not accept the gift, because of an ascetic training he observes. In the end, the king chooses not to persecute Aṅgulimāla. This passage would agree with Buddhologist André Bareau 's observation that there
3300-495: A mix of several Prakrit languages from around the 3rd century BCE, combined and partially Sanskritized. There is no attested dialect of Middle Indo-Aryan with all the features of Pali. In the modern era, it has been possible to compare Pali with inscriptions known to be in Magadhi Prakrit, as well as other texts and grammars of that language. While none of the existing sources specifically document pre-Ashokan Magadhi,
3465-404: A monster, Saudāsa meets a deity that promises Saudāsa can retrieve his status as king if he sacrifices one hundred other kings. Having killed 99 kings, a king called Sutasoma changes Saudāsa's mind and makes him a religious man, and he gives up all violence. The texts identify Sutasoma with a previous incarnation of the Buddha, and Saudāsa with a previous incarnation of Aṅgulimāla. According to
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#17327880484103630-415: A number of similarities between surviving fragments and Pali morphology. Ardhamagadhi Prakrit was a Middle Indo-Aryan language and a Dramatic Prakrit thought to have been spoken in modern-day Bihar & Eastern Uttar Pradesh and used in some early Buddhist and Jain drama. It was originally thought to be a predecessor of the vernacular Magadhi Prakrit, hence the name (literally "half-Magadhi"). Ardhamāgadhī
3795-516: A past life, and his victims receive the same treatment they once subjected Aṅgulimāla with. In most texts, Aṅgulimāla is born in Sāvatthī, in the brahman (priest) caste of the Garga clan, his father Bhaggava being the chaplain of the king of Kosala , and his mother called Mantānī. According to commentarial texts , omens seen at the time of the child's birth (the flashing of weapons and the appearance of
3960-435: A previously unknown, large scale bathing tank (almost square in plan, about 25 meters on one side), another large caitya complex, four new stupas, and other monuments. It also yielded evidence that many Sravasti monuments suffered repeated damage from floods between the 1st and 10th-century, the residents of Sravasti attempted to rebuild some of the monuments several times. The later structures largely and increasingly followed
4125-465: A sort of narrative therapy and describes the ethics presented in the narrative as inspiring responsibility. The story is not about being saved, but rather saving oneself with help from others. Ethics scholar David Loy has written extensively about Aṅgulimāla's story and the implications it has for the justice system. He believes that in Buddhist ethics , the only reason offenders should be punished
4290-473: A subject of numerous historic reliefs, statues and literature in Buddhism. Sravasti is also important to Hinduism and Jainism . The earliest manuscripts of both mention it and weave some of their legends in Sravasti. Archaeological excavations of the Sravasti site have unearthed numerous artworks and monuments related to Buddhism, Hinduism and Jainism. Shravasti, as a capital, was at the junction of three major trading routes in ancient India, connecting it to
4455-469: A temple for the maternal aunt of the Buddha. Next to these, states Xuanzang, is the great stupa of Angulimala. About five li (~2 kilometers in the 7th century) south of the city, he saw the Jetavana garden with two 70 feet high pillars standing in front of a dilapidated monastery. One great pillar has a wheel carved at its top, the other a bull. Xuanzang visits and chronicles all the monuments associated with
4620-455: A thousand human fingers to complete his studies. Trying to accomplish this mission, Aṅgulimāla becomes a cruel brigand, killing many and causing entire villages to emigrate. Eventually, this causes the king to send an army to catch the killer. Meanwhile, Aṅgulimāla's mother attempts to interfere, almost causing her to be killed by her son as well. The Buddha manages to prevent this, however, and uses his power and teachings to bring Aṅgulimāla to
4785-559: A vicious killer. In addition to the discourses and verses, there are also Jātaka tales, the Milindapañhā , and parts of the monastic discipline that deal with Aṅgulimāla, as well as the later Mahāvaṃsa chronicle. Later texts from other languages that relate Aṅgulimāla's life include the Avadāna text called Sataka, as well as a later collection of tales called Discourse on the Wise and
4950-445: A visit to the Buddha and his followers at the Jetavana monastery. He explains to the Buddha his purpose, and the Buddha asks how the king will respond if he were to discover that Aṅgulimāla had given up the life of a highwayman and become a monk. The king says that he would salute him and offer to provide for him in his monastic vocation. The Buddha then reveals that Aṅgulimāla is sitting only a few feet away, his hair and beard shaven off,
5115-687: Is a classical Middle Indo-Aryan language on the Indian subcontinent . It is widely studied because it is the language of the Buddhist Pāli Canon or Tipiṭaka as well as the sacred language of Theravāda Buddhism . Pali is designated as a classical language by the Government of India . The word 'Pali' is used as a name for the language of the Theravada canon. The word seems to have its origins in commentarial traditions, wherein
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5280-786: Is a town in Shravasti district in Indian state of Uttar Pradesh . It was the capital of the ancient Indian kingdom of Kosala and the place where the Buddha lived most after his enlightenment. It is near the Rapti river in the northeastern part of Uttar Pradesh India, close to the Nepalese border. Shravasti is one of the most revered sites in Buddhism . It is believed to be where the Buddha taught many of his Suttas (sermons), converted many of his famous disciples, and performed his "Sravasti miracles" – "great miracle" and "twin miracle" –
5445-402: Is about 50 kilometres (31 mi) of Gonda railway and bus hub, and about 170 kilometres (106 mi) north-east of Lucknow airport. It is connected to India's highway network with NH-927, 730 and 330. Shravasti is also referred to as Saheth-Maheth, or sometimes just Sahet-Mahet, in archaeological and historical scholarship. These are two sites separated by less than 2 kilometers. Saheth
5610-417: Is also called Chandrapuri or Chandrikapuri, because Jain texts state that two of their Tirthankaras were born here millions of years ago, in prehistoric times – Sambhavanatha (3rd) and Chandraprabhanatha (8th of 24). Further, Sravasti is the place of the bitter arguments and meeting between Mahavira – the 24th Tirthankara, and Gosala Mankhaliputta – the founder of Ajivikas and a rival. According to
5775-476: Is another sūtra with the same name, referred to in Chinese texts, which was used to defend the Buddhist stance against alcoholic beverages. This text has not been found, however. Apart from textual evidence, early epigraphic evidence has also been found. One of the earliest reliefs that depicts Aṅgulimāla dates from approximately 3rd century BCE. The texts describe a previous incarnation before Aṅgulimāla met
5940-503: Is betrayed by an authority figure but manages to recover his eroded moral code and repair the community he has affected. Survivors of moral injury need a clinician and a community of people that face struggles together but deal with those in a safe way; similarly, Aṅgulimāla is able to recover from his moral injury due to the Buddha as his spiritual guide, and a monastic community that leads a disciplined life, tolerating hardship. Thompson has further suggested Aṅgulimāla's story might be used as
6105-399: Is both depicted as a killer and a healer with regard to childbirth. With regard to the passage when the Buddha meets Aṅgulimāla, feminist scholar Liz Wilson concludes that the story is an example of cooperation and interdependence between the sexes: both the Buddha and Aṅgulimāla's mother help to stop him. Similarly, Thompson argues that mothers play an important role in the story, also citing
6270-786: Is claimed to have been founded by a Vedic king named Sravasta (or Sravastaka), himself the son of king Srava. The ancient is extensively mentioned both in the Ramayana and the Mahabharata . Numerous later Hindu texts such as the Harsha-charita and Kathasarit-sagara , base some of their legends in Shravasti. The Chinese Pilgrim Fa-Hein travelled to India about 399 CE, and stayed for about 10 years in his quest to learn Sanskrit and obtain original Buddhist texts. He mentions Sravasti, and describes how he reached Kapilavastu from Sravasti. The hints and scenes mentioned by Faxian were one of
6435-577: Is currently relatively little known, particularly in the Thai tradition, with many manuscripts never catalogued or published. Paiśācī is a largely unattested literary language of classical India that is mentioned in Prakrit and Sanskrit grammars of antiquity. It is found grouped with the Prakrit languages, with which it shares some linguistic similarities, but was not considered a spoken language by
6600-441: Is derived from the word ahiṃsa (non-violence), because no-one is hurt at his birth, despite the bad omens. The commentary by Dhammapāla states that he is initially named Hiṃsaka ('the harmful one') by the worried king, but that the name is later changed. Having grown up, Ahiṃsaka is handsome, intelligent and well-behaved. His parents send him to Taxila to study under a well-known teacher. There he excels in his studies and becomes
6765-436: Is described as a terrorist . The book emphasizes the passage when the Buddha accepts Aṅgulimāla in the monastic order, effectively preventing King Pasenadi from punishing him. In Kumar's book, this action leads to backlash from an enraged public, who demand to imprison both Aṅgulimāla and the Buddha. Pasenadi organizes a public trial in the presence of villagers and the royal court, in which the assembly can decide what to do with
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6930-462: Is desperately seeking a thousandth. If the Buddha is to encounter Aṅgulimāla that day, the latter will become a monk and subsequently attain abhiññā . However, if Aṅgulimāla is to kill his mother instead, she will be his thousandth victim and he will be unsavable, since matricide in Buddhism is considered one of the five worst actions a person can commit . The Buddha sets off to intercept Aṅgulimāla, despite being warned by local villagers not to go. On
7095-536: Is frequently chanted in a ritual context. The secular literature of Pali historical chronicles, medical texts, and inscriptions is also of great historical importance. The great centres of Pali learning remain in Sri Lanka and other Theravada nations of Southeast Asia: Myanmar , Thailand , Laos and Cambodia . Since the 19th century, various societies for the revival of Pali studies in India have promoted awareness of
7260-502: Is generally accepted by scholars, though there are indications that Pali had already begun to be recorded in writing by this date. By this point in its history, scholars consider it likely that Pali had already undergone some initial assimilation with Sanskrit , such as the conversion of the Middle-Indic bahmana to the more familiar Sanskrit brāhmana that contemporary brahmans used to identify themselves. In Sri Lanka, Pali
7425-466: Is highly likely. However, Brancaccio argues that the headdress was essentially an Indian symbol, used by artists to indicate Aṅgulimāla belonged to a forest tribe, feared by the early Buddhists who were mostly urban. A bandit I used to be, renowned as Aṅgulimāla. Swept along by a great flood, I went to the Buddha as refuge... This has come well & not gone away, it was not badly thought through for me. The three knowledges have been attained;
7590-449: Is implausible and likely a gross exaggeration based on the Buddhist oral traditions. Yet, it also reflects a community memory of Shravasti as a prosperous large capital. In Ajivika and Jaina literature, the same Kosala capital is called Saravana, Kunalnagari and Chandrikapuri. As Saravana, this site is considered the birthplace of Gosala Mankhaliputta. The ancient Shravasti is found in the literature of all major Indian religions. Of these,
7755-697: Is located the stupa where the Buddha performed the Twin Miracle ( Pali : Yamaka-pātihāriya ). At the current complex, managed by ASI, many monuments can be seen including the Angulimala 's stupa , Anathapindika 's stupa, and the Shobhanatha temple. There is an old temple dedicated to a Jain Tirthankara Sambhavanatha , which Jains believe is the site where he was born in pre-historic times. The site of Jetavana monastery
7920-476: Is mentioned in numerous Hindu texts. The Buddhist and Jain texts corroborate the presence of numerous Brahmanas (scholars) and Vedic teachers in Shravasti. They are presented as debating ideas, with Buddhist sources showing the ideas of the Buddha to be superior, while Jaina sources showing the ideas of the Tirthankaras as superior, both mocking all the other sides. In Hindu texts such as their epics, Sravasti
8085-677: Is often exaggerated by comparing it to later Sanskrit compositions—which were written centuries after Sanskrit ceased to be a living language, and are influenced by developments in Middle Indic , including the direct borrowing of a portion of the Middle Indic lexicon; whereas, a good deal of later Pali technical terminology has been borrowed from the vocabulary of equivalent disciplines in Sanskrit, either directly or with certain phonological adaptations. Post-canonical Pali also possesses
8250-620: Is one of the protagonists in Karl Gjellerup's novel Der Pilger Kamanita ( The Pilgrim Kamanita , 1906) where he recounts the story of his conversion to Vasitthi who joins the Buddhist order the following day after a profuse alms-giving and after attending the exposition of the Buddhist teaching in the Siṃsapa Grove in the city of Kosambī . Savatthi Shravasti ( Sanskrit : श्रावस्ती , IAST : Śrāvasti ); Pali : 𑀲𑀸𑀯𑀢𑁆𑀣𑀻 , romanized: Sāvatthī )
8415-570: Is over six thousand li in circuit with a capital city that is desolate, though some residents still live here. He mentions it has over hundred monasteries, many dilapidated. In these monasteries, Buddhist monks study Hinayana Buddhism (now called Theravada, Xuanzang belonged to the Mahayana Buddhism tradition). He saw the decaying remains of Prasenajit's palace, then to its east the Great Dhamma Hall stupa, another stupa and
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#17327880484108580-463: Is referred to in scholarly discussions of justice and rehabilitation , and is seen by theologian John Thompson as a good example of coping with moral injury and an ethics of care . Aṅgulimāla has been the subject of movies and literature, with a Thai movie of the same name choosing to depict him following the earliest sources, and the book The Buddha and the Terrorist by Satish Kumar adapting
8745-401: Is running as fast as he can, he cannot catch up with the Buddha who is walking calmly. The Buddha is using some supernatural accomplishment ( Pali : iddhi ; Sanskrit : ṛddhi ) that affects Aṅgulimāla: one text states the Buddha through these powers contracts and expands the earth on which they stand, thus keeping a distance of Aṅgulimāla. This bewilders Aṅgulimāla so much that he calls to
8910-652: Is said: Whoever answers without [being in agreement with] the Dharma , and whoever asks without [being in agreement with] the Dharma, either occurs: one dies or one attracts animosity. Indologist Friedrich Wilhelm maintains that similar phrases already occur in the Book of Manu (II,111) and in the Institutes of Vishnu . By taking leave of their teacher and promising to do whatever their teacher asks of them, brings, according to
9075-409: Is smaller and contains the Jetavana monuments. Maheth refers to the walled complex within a much damaged ancient mud fort. The site is most known for its Buddhist monuments, though significant important ruins of old Hindu and Jain temples along with artwork have also been found here. Adjacent to Maheth, to its northwest, are also medieval era Islamic tombs. The word Shravasti is rooted in Sanskrit and
9240-436: Is sometimes substituted with tanti , meaning a string or lineage. This name seems to have emerged in Sri Lanka early in the second millennium CE during a resurgence in the use of Pali as a courtly and literary language. As such, the name of the language has caused some debate among scholars of all ages; the spelling of the name also varies, being found with both long "ā" [ɑː] and short "a" [a] , and also with either
9405-427: Is spiritual power in such stillness, as the Buddha is depicted as outrunning the violent Aṅgulimāla. Though this is explained as being the result of the Buddha's supernatural accomplishment, the deeper meaning is that "... 'the spiritually still person' can move faster than the 'conventionally active' person". In other words, spiritual achievement is only possible through non-violence. Furthermore, this stillness refers to
9570-936: Is that literature in Paiśācī is fragmentary and extremely rare but may once have been common. The 13th-century Tibetan historian Buton Rinchen Drub wrote that the early Buddhist schools were separated by choice of sacred language : the Mahāsāṃghikas used Prakrit, the Sarvāstivādins used Sanskrit, the Sthaviravādins used Paiśācī, and the Saṃmitīya used Apabhraṃśa . This observation has led some scholars to theorize connections between Pali and Paiśācī; Sten Konow concluded that it may have been an Indo-Aryan language spoken by Dravidian people in South India, and Alfred Master noted
9735-630: Is the main pilgrim destination, with meditation and chanting mainly done at the Gandhakuti (Buddha's hut) and the Anandabodhi tree. Buddhist monasteries from the following countries have been constructed at Shravasti: Thailand, South Korea, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Tibet, and China. The site is the basis of the "Miracle of Sravasti" artwork found in numerous Buddhist sites and literature, all over Asia. Pali language Pāli ( / ˈ p ɑː l i / ), also known as Pali-Magadhi ,
9900-640: Is the reason why King Pasenadi does not persecute Aṅgulimāla. In Sri Lankan pre-birth rituals, when the Aṅgulimāla Sutta is chanted for a pregnant woman, it is custom to surround her with objects symbolizing fertility and reproduction, such as parts of the coconut tree and earthen pots. Scholars have pointed out that in Southeast Asian mythology, there are links between bloodthirsty figures and fertility motifs. The shedding of blood can be found in both violence and childbirth, which explains why Aṅgulimāla
10065-461: Is thought to have entered into a period of decline ending around the 4th or 5th century (as Sanskrit rose in prominence, and simultaneously, as Buddhism's adherents became a smaller portion of the subcontinent), but ultimately survived. The work of Buddhaghosa was largely responsible for its reemergence as an important scholarly language in Buddhist thought. The Visuddhimagga , and the other commentaries that Buddhaghosa compiled, codified and condensed
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#173278804841010230-411: Is to reform their character. If an offender, like Aṅgulimāla, has already reformed himself, there is no reason to punish him, even as a deterrent. Furthermore, Loy argues that the story of Aṅgulimāla does not include any form of restorative or transformative justice , and therefore considers the story "flawed" as an example of justice. Former politician and community health scholar Mathura Shrestha , on
10395-506: Is to the south of Rapti river. It is surrounded with ruined massive walls about 60 feet high, built about the 3rd-century BCE. These walls become visible from far as one approaches the site. Approaching from Lucknow, after the walls, a right turn takes one to the Maheth site, while the Saheth site with Jetavana monastery is further ahead about half a kilometer away. Further ahead, to the north is
10560-785: Is usually divided into canonical and non-canonical or extra-canonical texts. Canonical texts include the whole of the Pali Canon or Tipitaka . With the exception of three books placed in the Khuddaka Nikaya by only the Burmese tradition, these texts (consisting of the five Nikayas of the Sutta Pitaka , the Vinaya Pitaka , and the books of the Abhidhamma Pitaka ) are traditionally accepted as containing
10725-422: Is widely seen by devotees as the "patron saint" of childbirth. Changing from a murderer to a person seen to ensure safe childbirth has been a huge transformation. This event helps Aṅgulimāla to find peace. After performing the act of truth, he is seen to "bring life rather than death to the townspeople" and people start to approach him and provide him with almsfood . However, a resentful few cannot forget that he
10890-480: The Pāli (in the sense of the line of original text quoted) was distinguished from the commentary or vernacular translation that followed it in the manuscript. K. R. Norman suggests that its emergence was based on a misunderstanding of the compound pāli-bhāsa , with pāli being interpreted as the name of a particular language. The name Pali does not appear in the canonical literature, and in commentary literature
11055-471: The Buddha Gautama . In this life, he was born as a man-eating king turned yaksha ( Pali : yakkha , a sort of demon; Sanskrit : yakṣa ), in some texts called Saudāsa . Saudāsa develops an interest in consuming human flesh when he is served the flesh of a dead baby. When he asks for more, his subjects start to fear for their children's safety and he is driven from his own kingdom. Growing into
11220-732: The Mahāsāṃghika branch became influential in Central and East India . Akira Hirakawa and Paul Groner also associate Pali with Western India and the Sthavira nikāya, citing the Saurashtran inscriptions, which are linguistically closest to the Pali language. Although Sanskrit was said in the Brahmanical tradition to be the unchanging language spoken by the gods in which each word had an inherent significance, such views for any language
11385-783: The Milindapanha ) may have been composed in India before being transmitted to Sri Lanka, but the surviving versions of the texts are those preserved by the Mahavihara in Ceylon and shared with monasteries in Theravada Southeast Asia. The earliest inscriptions in Pali found in mainland Southeast Asia are from the first millennium CE, some possibly dating to as early as the 4th century. Inscriptions are found in what are now Burma, Laos, Thailand and Cambodia and may have spread from southern India rather than Sri Lanka. By
11550-625: The Pali Canon and non-canonical texts, and include several examples of the Ye dhamma hetu verse. The oldest surviving Pali manuscript was discovered in Nepal dating to the 9th century. It is in the form of four palm-leaf folios, using a transitional script deriving from the Gupta script to scribe a fragment of the Cullavagga . The oldest known manuscripts from Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia date to
11715-401: The "constellation of thieves" in the sky) indicate that the child is destined to become a brigand. As the father is interpreting the omens for the king, the king asks whether the child will be a lone brigand or a band leader. When Bhaggava replies that he will be a lone brigand, the king lets him live. Buddhaghosa relates that the father names the child Ahiṃsaka, meaning 'the harmless one'. This
11880-490: The 11th century, a so-called "Pali renaissance" began in the vicinity of Pagan , gradually spreading to the rest of mainland Southeast Asia as royal dynasties sponsored monastic lineages derived from the Mahavihara of Anuradhapura . This era was also characterized by the adoption of Sanskrit conventions and poetic forms (such as kavya ) that had not been features of earlier Pali literature. This process began as early as
12045-804: The 13th–15th century, with few surviving examples. Very few manuscripts older than 400 years have survived, and complete manuscripts of the four Nikayas are only available in examples from the 17th century and later. Pali was first mentioned in Western literature in Simon de la Loubère 's descriptions of his travels in the kingdom of Siam. An early grammar and dictionary was published by Methodist missionary Benjamin Clough in 1824, and an initial study published by Eugène Burnouf and Christian Lassen in 1826 ( Essai sur le Pali, ou Langue sacrée de la presqu'île au-delà du Gange ). The first modern Pali-English dictionary
12210-627: The 5th century, but intensified early in the second millennium as Pali texts on poetics and composition modeled on Sanskrit forms began to grow in popularity. One milestone of this period was the publication of the Subodhalankara during the 14th century, a work attributed to Sangharakkhita Mahāsāmi and modeled on the Sanskrit Kavyadarsa . Peter Masefield devoted considerable research to a form of Pali known as Indochinese Pali or 'Kham Pali'. Up until now, this has been considered
12375-605: The British-born Theravāda monk Ajahn Khemadhammo founded Angulimala, a Buddhist Prison Chaplaincy organization in the UK. It has been recognized by the British government as the official representative of the Buddhist religion in all matters concerning the British prison system, and provides chaplains, counselling services, and instruction in Buddhism and meditation to prisoners throughout England, Wales, and Scotland. The name of
12540-492: The Buddha says that a good monk should control his desires. Aṅgulimāla is impressed by the Buddha's courage, and struck with guilt about what he has done. After listening to the Buddha, Aṅgulimāla reverently declares himself converted, vows to cease his life as a brigand and joins the Buddhist monastic order . He is admitted in the Jetavana monastery. Meanwhile, King Pasenadi sets out to kill Aṅgulimāla. He stops first to pay
12705-399: The Buddha spent twenty-five varshas in Shravasti. Scholars such as Rhys Davids state that this could mean two things. Either the Buddha primarily lived in Shravasti after his enlightenment, or that the oral tradition in early Buddhism was "systematized in Shravasti". Malalasekera, a historian of Buddhism, considers the former more likely. Either way, Shravasti is the key site where almost all
12870-421: The Buddha to stop. The Buddha then says that he himself has already stopped, and that it is Aṅgulimāla who should stop: I, Angulimala, am standing still ( Pali : ṭhita ), having for all beings laid aside the rod ( Pali : daṇḍa ); but you are unrestrained ( Pali : asaññato ) regarding creatures; therefore, I am standing still, you are not standing still. Aṅgulimāla asks for further explanation, after which
13035-523: The Buddha used during his life. In the 19th century, the British Orientalist Robert Caesar Childers argued that the true or geographical name of the Pali language was Magadhi Prakrit , and that because pāḷi means "line, row, series", the early Buddhists extended the meaning of the term to mean "a series of books", so pāḷibhāsā means "language of the texts". However, modern scholarship has regarded Pali as
13200-516: The Buddha's bidding, done. transl. Thanissaro Bhikkhu, quoted in Thompson Among Buddhists, Aṅgulimāla is one of the most well-known stories. Not only in modern times: in ancient times, two important Chinese pilgrims travelling to India reported about the story, and reported about the places they visited that were associated with Aṅgulimāla's life. From a Buddhist perspective, Aṅgulimāla's story serves as an example that even
13365-401: The Buddha. Aṅgulimāla's conversion is cited as a testimony to the Buddha's capabilities as a teacher, and as an example of the healing qualities of the teaching of the Buddha ( Dharma ). Through his reply, the Buddha connects the notion of 'refraining from harming' ( Pali : avihiṃsa ) with stillness , which is the cause and effect of not harming. Furthermore, the story illustrates that there
13530-523: The Buddhist notion of liberation from karma: as long as one cannot escape from the endless law of karmic retribution, one can at least lessen one's karma by practicing non-violence. The texts describe this as form of stillness, as opposed to the continuous movement of karmic retribution. The story of Aṅgulimāla illustrates how criminals are affected by their psycho-social and physical environment. Jungian analyst Dale Mathers theorizes that Ahiṃsaka started to kill because his meaning system had broken down. He
13695-411: The Buddhist sources are most extensive. It is also described in more historical records such as those left by the Chinese pilgrims to India. Shravasti is the location where the Buddha gave most of his talks, later remembered by his followers and centuries later written down as Suttas . According to Woodward, 871 suttas in the four Nikayas of Buddhist canons, are based in Shravasti. These texts add that
13860-599: The Buddhist tradition, the Buddha is remembered for having performed miracles, of which two are particularly popular in reliefs found in its stupas, artwork and literature. The Buddha is believed to have performed the Mahapratiharya or the "great miracle", and the Yamakapratiharya or the " twin miracle " in Shravasti. These are called the "Sravasti miracles". Sravasti is oft mentioned in Jaina sources. It
14025-593: The Chinese pilgrim's records. Yet, all of these monuments and items found during the excavations were from 1st-century CE or after. In 1959, Sinha led another series of excavations at Shravasti, particularly near the fort walls of Sahet-Mahet. This yielded evidence that the walls were built and repaired in three periods, ranging between the 3rd-century BCE to about 1st-century CE. The deeper layers also yielded wares with graffiti, jewelry, short sections inscribed in Brahmi script, as well as terracotta figures of mother goddess,
14190-559: The Chinese translation of the Damamūkhāvadāna by Hui-chiao , as well as in archaeological findings, Aṅgulimāla is identified with the mythological Hindu king Kalmashapada or Saudāsa, known since Vedic times. Ancient texts often describe Saudāsa's life as Aṅgulimāla's previous life, and both characters deal with the problem of being a good brahman . Studying art depictions in the Gandhāra region, Archeologist Maurizio Taddei theorizes that
14355-518: The Ekottara Agāma, however, in a previous incarnation Aṅgulimāla is a crown prince, whose goodness and virtue irritate his enemies. When his enemies kill him, he takes a vow just before his death that he may avenge his death, and attain Nirvana in a future life under the guidance of a master. In this version, the killings by Aṅgulimāla's are therefore justified as a response to the evil done to him in
14520-698: The Fool , which exists in Tibetan and Chinese. There are also travel accounts of Chinese pilgrims that mention Aṅgulimāla briefly. In addition to descriptions of the life of Aṅgulimāla, there is a Mahāyāna discourse called the Aṅgulimālīya Sūtra , which Gautama Buddha addresses to Aṅgulimāla. This is one of the Tathāgatagarbha Sūtras , a group of discourses that deal with the Buddha Nature . There
14685-515: The Hindu tradition. As per Bhagavata Purana this city was built by a king called Shravasta who descended from Vaivasvata Manu .In Pali and Buddhist literature, it is called Savatthi. Early Buddhist literature paint Savatthi as a mega-urban center in the time of the Buddha. The 5th-century Buddhist commentator and philosopher Buddhaghosa , living some 900 years after the death of the Buddha, states that there were 5.7 million residents in Savatthi. This
14850-527: The Jain texts, the Mahavira visited Shravasti many times and spent one varsha monsoon season here. He was hosted by a wealthy merchant named Nandinipriya. Ancient Jain scholars such as Kapila , Maghavan and Keshi studied in Shravasti. The king of Kosala who patronized the Buddhism, Jainism and Ajivikas in his kingdom, performed Vedic rituals. He sponsored many Vedic schools. In these and others ways, Shravasti
15015-512: The Pali language as " Magadhan " or the "language of Magadha". This identification first appears in the commentaries, and may have been an attempt by Buddhists to associate themselves more closely with the Maurya Empire . However, only some of the Buddha's teachings were delivered in the historical territory of Magadha kingdom . Scholars consider it likely that he taught in several closely related dialects of Middle Indo-Aryan, which had
15180-445: The Prakrits." According to K. R. Norman , differences between different texts within the canon suggest that it contains material from more than a single dialect. He also suggests it is likely that the viharas in North India had separate collections of material, preserved in the local dialect. In the early period it is likely that no degree of translation was necessary in communicating this material to other areas. Around
15345-658: The Sinhala commentarial tradition that had been preserved and expanded in Sri Lanka since the 3rd century BCE. With only a few possible exceptions, the entire corpus of Pali texts known today is believed to derive from the Anuradhapura Maha Viharaya in Sri Lanka. While literary evidence exists of Theravadins in mainland India surviving into the 13th century, no Pali texts specifically attributable to this tradition have been recovered. Some texts (such as
15510-456: The Sravasti legends with the Buddha. He also visited a Buddhist temple 60 feet high with a seated Buddha image in Shravasti, and a deva temple about the same size as the Buddha temple, both in good condition. Over sixty li to the northwest of Sravasti capital, he saw a series of stupas built by Ashoka for Kasyapa Buddha. The Shravasti archaeological site, also called the Saheth–Maheth site,
15675-458: The Sri Lankan tradition and then spread to other Theravada regions, some texts may have other origins. The Milinda Panha may have originated in northern India before being translated from Sanskrit or Gandhari Prakrit . There are also a number of texts that are believed to have been composed in Pali in Sri Lanka, Thailand and Burma but were not widely circulated. This regional Pali literature
15840-493: The UK; incongruously, the citizens of the UK were not nearly so robust in Sanskrit and Prakrit language studies as Germany, Russia, and even Denmark . Even without the inspiration of colonial holdings such as the former British occupation of Sri Lanka and Burma, institutions such as the Danish Royal Library have built up major collections of Pali manuscripts, and major traditions of Pali studies. Pali literature
16005-451: The Vedic teachings, enlightenment or a similar attainment. It is therefore not unusual that Aṅgulimāla is described to do his teacher's horrible bidding—although being a good and kind person at heart—in the knowledge that in the end he will reap the highest attainment. Indologist Richard Gombrich has postulated that the story of Aṅgulimāla may be a historical encounter between the Buddha and
16170-839: The arising of the first tantric cults about a thousand years later, and no corroborating evidence has been found, whether textual or otherwise, of earlier sanguinary tantric practices. Though Gombrich argues that there other, similar antinomian practices (going against moral norms) which are only mentioned once in Buddhist scriptures and for which no evidence can be found outside of the scriptures, Buddhist Studies scholars Mudagamuwa and Von Rospatt dismiss these as incorrect examples. They also take issue with Gombrich's metrical arguments, thus disagreeing with Gombrich's hypotheses with regard to Aṅgulimāla. They do consider it possible, however, that Angulimāla's violent practices were part of some kind of historical cult. Buddhist Studies scholar L. S. Cousins has also expressed doubts about Gombrich's theory. In
16335-696: The available sources suggest that Pali is not equatable with that language. Modern scholars generally regard Pali to have originated from a western dialect, rather than an eastern one. Pali has some commonalities with both the western Ashokan Edicts at Girnar in Saurashtra , and the Central-Western Prakrit found in the eastern Hathigumpha inscription . These similarities lead scholars to associate Pali with this region of western India. Nonetheless, Pali does retain some eastern features that have been referred to as Māgadhisms . Pāḷi, as
16500-463: The basis of an early colonial-era incorrect conjecture on the current location of historic Kapilavastu – the birthplace of Buddha. Xuanzang describes the country of Shravasti in Fascicle 6 of his travelogue Dà Táng Xīyù Jì . In this fascicle, he presents four countries including Shravasti, and describes the villages and towns in the region as deserted and dilapidated. He says the Shravasti country
16665-473: The bite of snakes. Many people in Theravada cultures still believe that taking a vow in Pali has a special significance, and, as one example of the supernatural power assigned to chanting in the language, the recitation of the vows of Aṅgulimāla are believed to alleviate the pain of childbirth in Sri Lanka. In Thailand, the chanting of a portion of the Abhidhammapiṭaka is believed to be beneficial to
16830-501: The carbon dating suggests that the structures in Sravasti were largely built from 1st-century CE through most of the Gupta period. The layers suggest that the monasteries and the city went through a period of stagnation and decline about the 5th century and then expanded again from 7th-century onwards through the 12th-century, then they were burnt down. The most important finds through the various excavations include: Outside of Shravasti
16995-416: The combustion products were undisturbed. About 100 meters away from this burnt down site, they discovered another large caitya complex which was also covered with a thick layer of charcoal and combustion residue of the same age. Similar observations across many spots, separated by significant distances, suggests that the Buddhist monastic complexes of Sravasti were likely burnt down at the same time. Further,
17160-423: The death of the Buddha, Pali may have evolved among Buddhists out of the language of the Buddha as a new artificial language. R. C. Childers, who held to the theory that Pali was Old Magadhi, wrote: "Had Gautama never preached, it is unlikely that Magadhese would have been distinguished from the many other vernaculars of Hindustan, except perhaps by an inherent grace and strength which make it a sort of Tuscan among
17325-561: The different regions of the Indian subcontinent . Inscribed slabs and statues found at and near Sravasti suggest it was an active Buddhist site and prosperous area from the time of the Buddha ( c. 5th-century BCE) through at least the 12th-century CE. It was destroyed and covered with mounds sometime in or after the 13th-century, chronologically marking the arrival and establishment of the Delhi Sultanate . Excavations between 1986 and 1996, led by Japanese archaeologists, suggest that
17490-550: The early Mūlasārvastivāda school, has been translated in two Chinese texts (in the 4th–5th century CE) by the early Sarvāstivāda and Kāśyapīya schools and also contains versions of the story. A text translated in Chinese from the Sanskrit Ekottara Agāma by the Mahāsaṃghika school is also known. Furthermore, three other Chinese texts dealing with Aṅgulimāla have also been found, of unknown origin but different from
17655-422: The early Buddhist discourses precisely. Tannirat's choice to only use the early accounts, rather than the popular tales from the commentaries, was precisely what led to the protests. Citizens, this is the first time I have come across a terrorist who sees the error of his ways and actually renounces crime ... As Angulimala changed from being a terrorist to a monk, I changed from being a giver of harsh punishments to
17820-441: The early grammarians because it was understood to have been purely a literary language. In works of Sanskrit poetics such as Daṇḍin 's Kavyadarsha , it is also known by the name of Bhūtabhāṣā , an epithet which can be interpreted as 'dead language' (i.e., with no surviving speakers), or bhūta means past and bhāṣā means language i.e. 'a language spoken in the past'. Evidence which lends support to this interpretation
17985-408: The effects of old karma that they once did. The effects of his karma are inevitable, and even the Buddha cannot stop them from occurring. After having admitted Aṅgulimāla in the monastic order, the Buddha issues a rule that from now on, no criminals should be accepted as monks in the order. Buddhaghosa states that Aṅgulimāla dies shortly after becoming a monk. After his death, a discussion arises among
18150-410: The epithet in consequence of the perfection of its grammatical structure". There is persistent confusion as to the relation of Pāḷi to the vernacular spoken in the ancient kingdom of Magadha , which was located in modern-day Bihar . Beginning in the Theravada commentaries, Pali was identified with ' Magadhi ', the language of the kingdom of Magadha, and this was taken to also be the language that
18315-440: The fearless violence of Aṅgulimāla and, by contrast, the peacefulness of the Buddha. Later accounts attempt to include more detail and clarify anything that might not conform with Buddhist doctrine. For example, one problem that is likely to have raised questions is the sudden transformation from a killer to an enlightened disciple—later accounts try to explain this. Later accounts also include more miracles, however, and together with
18480-423: The film, stating it did not distort Buddhist teachings. They did insist that the director cut two scenes of violent material. The conservative groups were offended by the depiction of Aṅgulimāla as a brutal murderer, without including the history which led him to become such a violent brigand. Tannirat defended himself, however, arguing that although he had omitted interpretations from the commentaries, he had followed
18645-402: The first clean up and partial excavation of Shravasti in 1876. This successfully revealed the stupas and small shrines, but these were of a later date. This renewed the debate of whether Cunningham's proposal was correct and where the real Shravasti is. About a decade later, in 1885, Hoey completed a more extensive excavations, but these were also partial. The most significant discovery of Hoey was
18810-629: The first three Chinese texts. Apart from these early texts, there are also later renderings, which appear in the commentary to the Majjhima Nikāya attributed to Buddhaghosa (5th century CE) and the Theragāthā commentary attributed to Dhammapāla (6th century CE). The two commentaries do not appear to be independent of one another: it appears that Dhammapāla has copied or closely paraphrased Buddhaghosa, although adding explanation of some inconsistencies. The earliest accounts of Aṅgulimāla's life emphasize
18975-607: The language and its literature, including the Maha Bodhi Society founded by Anagarika Dhammapala . In Europe, the Pali Text Society has been a major force in promoting the study of Pali by Western scholars since its founding in 1881. Based in the United Kingdom, the society publishes romanized Pali editions, along with many English translations of these sources. In 1869, the first Pali Dictionary
19140-454: The language underwent a small degree of Sanskritisation (i.e., MIA bamhana > brahmana, tta > tva in some cases). Bhikkhu Bodhi , summarizing the current state of scholarship, states that the language is "closely related to the language (or, more likely, the various regional dialects) that the Buddha himself spoke". He goes on to write: Scholars regard this language as a hybrid showing features of several Prakrit dialects used around
19305-558: The late 19th-century through the 1990s. It is now a small town, a center of heritage tourism and religious pilgrimage by Buddhists from around the world. Shravasti (Sravasti) is located in the southern foothills of the Himalayas, now in Shravasti district of Uttar Pradesh. This is a region of many rivers and rivulets. Sravasti is on the banks of West Rapti river ( Achiravati ) – now a seasonal river that typically dries up in summer. It
19470-572: The lineage of the Buddhas , i.e. the monastic community. After Aṅgulimāla makes this "act of truth" , the woman safely gives birth to her child. This verse later became one of the protective verses , commonly called the Aṅgulimāla paritta . Monastics continue to recite the text during blessings for pregnant women in Theravāda countries, and often memorize it as part of monastic training. Thus, Aṅgulimāla
19635-427: The main subject of at least three movies. In 2003, Thai director Suthep Tannirat attempted to release a film named Angulimala . Over 20 conservative Buddhist organizations in Thailand launched a protest, however, complaining that the movie distorted Buddhist teachings and history, and introduced Hindu and theistic influences not found in the Buddhist scriptures. The Thai film censorship board rejected appeals to ban
19800-411: The many narrative details this tends to overshadow the main points of the story. The early Pāli discourses ( Pali : sutta ) do not provide for any motive for Aṅgulimāla's actions, other than sheer cruelty. Later texts may represent attempts by later commentators to "rehabilitate" the character of Aṅgulimāla, making him appear as a fundamentally good human being entrapped by circumstance, rather than as
19965-417: The massive ancient wall ruins. Scholars of his time were debating competing candidate locations in India and Nepal for the "ancient site of Shravasti", largely based on the travelogues of Chinese pilgrims. Cunningham linked this site with a colossal Bodhisattva image found nearby with early Kushana era inscription. He also measured and published a pretty detailed map for both Saheth and Maheth. Cunningham led
20130-666: The monastic ordination died out in Sri Lanka, many texts were lost also. Therefore the Sri Lankan Pali canon had been translated first into Indo-Chinese Pali, and then back again into Pali. Despite an expansion of the number and influence of Mahavihara-derived monastics, this resurgence of Pali study resulted in no production of any new surviving literary works in Pali. During this era, correspondences between royal courts in Sri Lanka and mainland Southeast Asia were conducted in Pali, and grammars aimed at speakers of Sinhala, Burmese, and other languages were produced. The emergence of
20295-441: The monks as to what Aṅgulimāla's afterlife destination is. When the Buddha states that Aṅgulimāla has attained Nirvana, this surprises some monks. They wonder how it is possible for someone who killed so many people to still attain enlightenment . The Buddha responds that even after having done much evil, a person still has a possibility to change for the better and attain enlightenment. The giving of goodbye gifts to one's teacher
20460-516: The natural language, the root language of all beings. Comparable to Ancient Egyptian , Latin or Hebrew in the mystic traditions of the West , Pali recitations were often thought to have a supernatural power (which could be attributed to their meaning, the character of the reciter, or the qualities of the language itself), and in the early strata of Buddhist literature we can already see Pali dhāraṇī s used as charms, as, for example, against
20625-408: The news that Pasenadi is hunting an outlaw. Since Aṅgulimāla was born with bad omens, they conclude it must be him. Although the father prefers not to interfere, the mother disagrees. Fearing for her son's life, she sets out to find her son, warn him of the king's intent and take care of him. The Buddha perceives through meditative vision ( Pali : abhiññā ) that Aṅgulimāla has slain 999 victims, and
20790-466: The organization refers to the power of transformation illustrated by Aṅgulimāla's story. According to the website of the organization, "The story of Angulimala teaches us that the possibility of Enlightenment may be awakened in the most extreme of circumstances, that people can and do change and that people are best influenced by persuasion and above all, example." In popular culture, Aṅgulimāla's legend has received considerable attention. The story has been
20955-417: The other hand, describes Aṅgulimāla's story as "[p]robably the first concept of transformative justice", citing Aṅgulimāla's repentance and renunciation of his former life as a brigand, and the pardon he eventually receives from relatives of victims. Writing about capital punishment, scholar Damien Horigan notes that rehabilitation is the main theme of Aṅgulimāla's story, and that witnessing such rehabilitation
21120-406: The passage of the mother trying to stop Aṅgulimāla, as well as Aṅgulimāla healing a mother giving childbirth. Furthermore, both the Buddha and Aṅgulimāla take on motherly roles in the story. Although many ancient Indian stories associate women with qualities like foolishness and powerlessness, Aṅgulimāla's story accepts feminine qualities, and the Buddha acts as a wise adviser to use those qualities in
21285-400: The people start to avoid roads, he enters villages and drags people from their homes to kill them. Entire villages become abandoned. He never takes clothes or jewels from his victims, only fingers. To keep count of the number of victims that he has taken, he strings them on a thread and hangs them on a tree. However, because birds begin to eat the flesh from the fingers, he starts to wear them as
21450-401: The recently departed, and this ceremony routinely occupies as much as seven working days. There is nothing in the latter text that relates to this subject, and the origins of the custom are unclear. Pali died out as a literary language in mainland India in the fourteenth century but survived elsewhere until the eighteenth. Today Pali is studied mainly to gain access to Buddhist scriptures, and
21615-448: The remembered teachings of the Buddha were either heard or compiled, and centuries later were recorded as the Pali canon elsewhere. Shravasti is also mentioned as the capital and home of king Prasenajit – where the royal patron of the Buddha lived. It was also the home of Anathapindada – the richest early donor for the Buddha. Anathapindada is famous in the Buddhist literature as the one who offered his Jetavana grove and residences. In
21780-440: The right path. Aṅgulimāla becomes a follower of the Buddha, and to the surprise of the king and others, becomes a monk under his guidance. Villagers are still angry with Aṅgulimāla, but this is improved somewhat when Aṅgulimāla helps a mother with childbirth through an act of truth . Scholars have theorized that Aṅgulimāla may have been part of a violent cult before his conversion. Indologist Richard Gombrich has suggested that he
21945-424: The road through the forest of Kosala, Aṅgulimāla first sees his mother. According to some versions of the story, he then has a moment of reconciliation with her, she providing food for him. After some deliberation, however, he decides to make her his thousandth victim. But then when the Buddha also arrives, he chooses to kill him instead. He draws his sword, and starts running towards the Buddha. But although Aṅgulimāla
22110-449: The seasonal Rapti river which likely has changed it course over the last 2000 years. The Nepalese Himalayan foothills frame the view to the north. The Shravasti archaeological site and its potential importance was first identified by the British archaeologist Alexander Cunningham in 1863. At that time, the site was two significant mounds, as well as monuments whose stones and bricks were partly visible and covered with vegetation, all inside
22275-466: The short variants occur only in closed syllables, the long variants occur only in open syllables. Short and long e and o are therefore not distinct phonemes. e and o are long in an open syllable: at the end of a syllable as in [ne-tum̩] เนตุํ 'to lead' or [so-tum̩] โสตุํ 'to hear'. They are short in a closed syllable: when followed by a consonant with which they make a syllable as in [upek-khā] 'indifference' or [sot-thi] 'safety'. e appears for
22440-448: The site continued to be built up and expanded through the 1st millennium. Thereafter, the discovery of numerous charcoal remains and burnt soil suggests that a large portion of the site was burnt down and damaged, while other parts went into disuse and suffered the effects of erosion. The Shravasti site was rediscovered by a team of British and Indian archaeologists in late 19th-century. It has attracted waves of systematic excavations from
22605-563: The story as a non-violent response to the Global War on Terror . The story of Aṅgulimāla is most well known in the Theravāda tradition. Two texts in the early discourses in the Pāli language are concerned with Aṅgulimāla's initial encounter with the Buddha and his conversion, and are believed to present the oldest version of the story. The first is the Theragāthā , probably the oldest of
22770-637: The story of Aṅgulimāla may point at an Indian mythology with regard to a yakṣa living in the wild. In many depictions Aṅgulimāla is wearing a headdress, which Taddei describes as an example of dionysian -like iconography. Art historian Pia Brancaccio argues, however, that the headdress is an Indian symbol used for figures associated with the wild or hunting. She concurs with Taddei that depictions of Aṅgulimāla, especially in Gandhāra, are in many ways reminiscent of dionysian themes in Greek art and mythology, and influence
22935-514: The subtle nuances of that thought-world. According to A. K. Warder , the Pali language is a Prakrit language used in a region of Western India . Warder associates Pali with the Indian realm ( janapada ) of Avanti , where the Sthavira nikāya was centered. Following the initial split in the Buddhist community , the Sthavira nikāya became influential in Western and South India while
23100-494: The teacher's command. In another story version, the teacher's wife tries to seduce Ahiṃsaka. When the latter refuses her advances, she is spiteful and tells the teacher Ahiṃsaka has tried to seduce her. The story continues in the same way. Following his teacher's bidding, Aṅgulimāla becomes a highwayman, living on a cliff in a forest called Jālinī where he can see people passing through, and kills or hurts those travelers. He becomes infamous for his skill in seizing his victims. When
23265-430: The teacher's favorite student, enjoying special privileges in his teacher's house. However, the other students grow jealous of Ahiṃsaka's speedy progress and seek to turn his master against him. To that end, they make it seem as though Ahiṃsaka has seduced the master's wife. Unwilling or unable to attack Ahiṃsaka directly, the teacher says that Ahiṃsaka's training as a true brahman is almost complete, but that he must provide
23430-479: The term 'Pali' as the name of the language of the Theravada canon also occurred during this era. While Pali is generally recognized as an ancient language, no epigraphical or manuscript evidence has survived from the earliest eras. The earliest samples of Pali discovered are inscriptions believed to date from 5th to 8th century located in mainland Southeast Asia, specifically central Siam and lower Burma . These inscriptions typically consist of short excerpts from
23595-429: The third century BCE, subjected to a partial process of Sanskritization. While the language is not identical to what Buddha himself would have spoken, it belongs to the same broad language family as those he might have used and originates from the same conceptual matrix. This language thus reflects the thought-world that the Buddha inherited from the wider Indian culture into which he was born, so that its words capture
23760-425: The time of Ashoka there had been more linguistic divergence, and an attempt was made to assemble all the material. It is possible that a language quite close to the Pali of the canon emerged as a result of this process as a compromise of the various dialects in which the earliest material had been preserved, and this language functioned as a lingua franca among Eastern Buddhists from then on. Following this period,
23925-466: The traditional final gift offered to a teacher and then he will grant his approval. As his payment, the teacher demands a thousand fingers, each taken from a different human being, thinking that Aṅgulimāla will be killed in the course of seeking this grisly prize. According to Buddhaghosa, Ahiṃsaka objects to this, saying he comes from a peaceful family, but eventually the teacher persuades him. But according to other versions, Ahiṃsaka does not protest against
24090-607: The two accused. In the end, however, the assembly decides to release the two, when Aṅgulimāla admits to his crimes and Pasenadi gives a speech emphasizing forgiveness rather than punishment. This twist in the story sheds a different light on Aṅgulimāla, whose violent actions ultimately lead to the trial and a more non-violent and just society. Writing about Buddhist texts and Kumar's book, Thompson reflects that ahiṃsa in Buddhism may have different shades of meaning in different contexts, and often does not mean passively standing by, or non-violence as usually understood. Finally, Angulimala
24255-473: The two, and the second is the Aṅgulimāla Sutta in the Majjhima Nikāya . Both offer a short description of Aṅgulimāla's encounter with the Buddha, and do not mention much of the background information later incorporated into the story (such as Aṅgulimāla being placed under oath by a teacher). Apart from the Pāli texts, the life of Aṅgulimāla is also described in Tibetan and Chinese texts which originate from Sanskrit. The Sanskrit collection called Saṃyuktāgama from
24420-414: The woman and say: Sister, since I was born, I do not recall that I have ever intentionally deprived a living being of life. By this truth, may you be well and may your infant be well. Aṅgulimāla points out that it would be untrue for him to say this, to which the Buddha responds with this revised stanza: Sister, since I was born with noble birth , I do not recall that I have ever intentionally deprived
24585-446: The words of the Buddha and his immediate disciples by the Theravada tradition. Extra-canonical texts can be divided into several categories: Other types of texts present in Pali literature include works on grammar and poetics, medical texts, astrological and divination texts, cosmologies, and anthologies or collections of material from the canonical literature. While the majority of works in Pali are believed to have originated with
24750-544: The world differently. I see we need more Buddhas and more monks rather than more soldiers, more police, more prisons. Satish Kumar , The Buddha and the Terrorist , quoted in Thompson Aṅgulimāla has also been the subject of literary works. In 2006, peace activist Satish Kumar retold the story of Aṅgulimāla in his short book The Buddha and the Terrorist . The books deals with the Global War on Terror , reshaping and combining various accounts of Aṅgulimāla, who
24915-473: The worst of people can overcome their faults and return to the right path. The commentaries uphold the story as an example of good karma destroying evil karma. Buddhists widely regard Aṅgulimāla as a symbol of complete transformation and as a showcase that the Buddhist path can transform even the least likely initiates. Buddhists have raised Aṅgulimāla's story as an example of the compassion ( Pali : karuṇa ) and supernatural accomplishment ( Pali : iddhi ) of
25080-404: Was a follower of an early form of Tantra , but this claim has been challenged by several scholars. Buddhists consider Aṅgulimāla a symbol of spiritual transformation, and his story a lesson that everyone can change their life for the better, even the least likely people. This inspired the official Buddhist prison chaplaincy in the UK to name their organization after him. Moreover, Aṅgulimāla's story
25245-446: Was an unwritten agreement of mutual non-interference between the Buddha and kings and rulers of the time. Later, Aṅgulimāla comes across a young woman undergoing difficult labor during a childbirth. Aṇgulimāla is profoundly moved by this, and understands pain and feels compassion to an extent he did not know when he was still a brigand. He goes to the Buddha and asks him what he can do to ease her pain. The Buddha tells Aṅgulimāla to go to
25410-473: Was customary in ancient India. There is an example in the "Book of Pauṣya" of the Vedic epic Mahābharatha . Here the teacher sends his disciple Uttanka away after Uttanka has proven himself worthy of being trustworthy and in the possession of all the Vedic and Dharmashastric teachings. Uttanka says to his teacher: What can I do for you that pleases you ( Sanskrit : kiṃ te priyaṃ karavāni ), because thus it
25575-433: Was further developed by European translators of Xuan Zang's travel accounts in the early twentieth century, but partly based on translation errors. Regardless, Gombrich is the first recent scholar to postulate this idea. However, Gombrich's claim that tantric practices existed before the finalization of the canon of Buddhist discourses (two to three centuries BCE) goes against mainstream scholarship. Scholarly consensus places
25740-400: Was indeed the ancient Sravasti much revered in historic Buddhist texts. In 1910, Marshall and Sahni led another expanded excavation and discovered more monuments here. All of these excavations yielded increasing amounts of ancient stupas, temples, sculptures, inscriptions, coins, seals and terracottas. These also confirmed and resonated with most of the sites mentioned in Buddhist texts such as
25905-413: Was no longer appreciated as an academic talent. His attitude could be summarized as "I have no value: therefore I can kill. If I kill, then that proves I have no value". Summarizing the life of Aṅgulimāla, Mathers writes, "[h]e is ... a figure who bridges giving and taking life." Similarly, referring to the psychological concept of moral injury , theologian John Thompson describes Aṅgulimāla as someone who
26070-600: Was not exclusively used to convey the teachings of the Buddha, as can be deduced from the existence of a number of secular texts, such as books of medical science/instruction, in Pali. However, scholarly interest in the language has been focused upon religious and philosophical literature, because of the unique window it opens on one phase in the development of Buddhism . Vowels may be divided in two different ways: Long and short vowels are only contrastive in open syllables; in closed syllables, all vowels are always short. Short and long e and o are in complementary distribution:
26235-421: Was not shared in the early Buddhist traditions, in which words were only conventional and mutable signs. This view of language naturally extended to Pali and may have contributed to its usage (as an approximation or standardization of local Middle Indic dialects) in place of Sanskrit. However, by the time of the compilation of the Pali commentaries (4th or 5th century), Pali was described by the anonymous authors as
26400-480: Was part of a violent cult was already suggested by the Chinese pilgrim Xuan Zang (602–64 CE). In his travel accounts , Xuan Zang states that Aṅgulimāla's was taught by his teacher that he would be born in the Brahma heaven if he killed a Buddha. A Chinese early text gives a similar description, stating that Aṅgulimāla's teacher followed the gruesome instructions of his guru, to attain immortality. Xuan Zang's suggestion
26565-576: Was prominently used by Jain scholars and is preserved in the Jain Agamas. Ardhamagadhi Prakrit differs from later Magadhi Prakrit in similar ways to Pali, and was often believed to be connected with Pali on the basis of the belief that Pali recorded the speech of the Buddha in an early Magadhi dialect. Magadhi Prakrit was a Middle Indic language spoken in present-day Bihar, and eastern Uttar Pradesh. Its use later expanded southeast to include some regions of modern-day Bengal, Odisha, and Assam, and it
26730-506: Was published by Robert Childers in 1872 and 1875. Following the foundation of the Pali Text Society , English Pali studies grew rapidly and Childer's dictionary became outdated. Planning for a new dictionary began in the early 1900s, but delays (including the outbreak of World War I) meant that work was not completed until 1925. T. W. Rhys Davids in his book Buddhist India , and Wilhelm Geiger in his book Pāli Literature and Language , suggested that Pali may have originated as
26895-593: Was published using the research of Robert Caesar Childers, one of the founding members of the Pali Text Society. It was the first Pali translated text in English and was published in 1872. Childers' dictionary later received the Volney Prize in 1876. The Pali Text Society was founded in part to compensate for the very low level of funds allocated to Indology in late 19th-century England and the rest of
27060-619: Was responsible for the deaths of their loved ones. With sticks and stones they attack him as he walks for alms. With a bleeding head, torn outer robe and a broken alms bowl, Aṅgulimāla manages to return to the monastery. The Buddha encourages Aṅgulimāla to bear his torment with equanimity; he indicates that Aṅgulimāla is experiencing the fruits of the karma that would otherwise have condemned him to hell . Having become an enlightened disciple , Aṅgulimāla remains firm and invulnerable in mind. According to Buddhist teachings, enlightened disciples cannot create any new karma, but they may still be subject to
27225-431: Was used in some Prakrit dramas to represent vernacular dialogue. Preserved examples of Magadhi Prakrit are from several centuries after the theorized lifetime of the Buddha, and include inscriptions attributed to Asoka Maurya . Differences observed between preserved examples of Magadhi Prakrit and Pali lead scholars to conclude that Pali represented a development of a northwestern dialect of Middle Indic, rather than being
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