127-658: The Animal Defence and Anti-Vivisection Society (ADAVS), also known as the Animal Defence Society was an animal welfare organisation, co-founded in England, in 1906, by Lizzy Lind af Hageby , and Nina Douglas-Hamilton, Duchess of Hamilton . The objective of the Society was a "Consistent Opposition to all forms of Cruelty to Animals and Abolition of Vivisection". The Society was known for its support of humane slaughter. The Society's assets were transferred to
254-697: A bill in Parliament which, despite much opposition from Hotel York Limited, became the Letchworth Garden City Corporation Act 1962 ( 10 & 11 Eliz. 2 . c. xxxix). The act created a public body, the Letchworth Garden City Corporation, which on 1 January 1963, took over the garden city estate as it had existed on 20 July 1961. Compensation for taking the company's assets had to be paid to First Garden City Limited, which continued to exist as
381-461: A charity, The Animal Defence Trust that was registered in 1971. It was based for many years at Animal Defence House, 15 St James's Place , London, and ran a 237-acre animal sanctuary at Ferne House near Shaftesbury, Dorset, an estate owned by the Duke and Duchess of Hamilton. An early member of the Society's executive council was Alice Drakoules who was a lifelong campaigner for animal welfare and
508-412: A competition for designing the town's layout, and were appointed as consulting architects to the company. Most of the pre-existing trees and hedgerows were preserved in the layout. Unwin took the alignment of the town's main avenue (Broadway) from three old oak trees which stood on the central plateau of the estate and were incorporated into the central square (Broadway Gardens). A temporary railway halt
635-404: A continuum from very good to very poor and studies of welfare will be most effective if a wide range of measures is used." John Webster criticized this definition for making "no attempt to say what constitutes good or bad welfare." Animal welfare often refers to a utilitarian attitude towards the well-being of nonhuman animals. It believes the animals can be exploited if the animal suffering and
762-409: A group of six houses called "Alpha Cottages" at 22–32 Baldock Road, where the first residents moved in during July 1904. Much of the town's early housing was to the east of the nascent town centre, within walking distance of the main industrial area on the eastern edge of the town. Many houses were built in a modest cottage style, finished with cream painted render, green doors, and clay-tiled roofs. To
889-512: A hypodermic needle according to good veterinary practice." It also includes modifying the genes of a protected animal if this causes the animal pain, suffering, distress, or lasting harm. The ASPA also considers other issues such as animal sources , housing conditions, identification methods, and the humane killing of animals. Those applying for a license must explain why such research cannot be done through non-animal methods. The project must also pass an ethical review panel which aims to decide if
1016-602: A keen supporter of the Society. She helped the Society campaign for humane slaughter, licensed slaughterhouses and for an end to performing animals. The Society came to widespread attention during the Brown Dog affair (1903–1910), which began when Lind af Hageby infiltrated the vivisection in University College London of a brown terrier dog. The subsequent description of the experiment in her book, The Shambles of Science (1903) – in which she wrote that
1143-486: A large lecture theatre and a veterinary inspection area. The Society also planned to build a bacon factory in which pigs were shot with the humane killer. The model humane abattoir gained support from the National Council for Animals' Welfare . The Society stated that the meat from the abattoir was to sold by their own company. Duchess Nina Douglas-Hamilton was a vegetarian in her personal life but in 1928 became
1270-678: A maximum of six months. In the UK, the welfare of research animals being used for "regulated procedures" was historically protected by the Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986 (ASPA) which is administrated by the Home Office . The Act defines "regulated procedures" as animal experiments that could potentially cause "pain, suffering, distress or lasting harm" to "protected animals". Initially, "protected animals" encompassed all living vertebrates other than humans, but, in 1993, an amendment added
1397-417: A memorial to her a public hall was built, paid for by public subscriptions. The Mrs Howard Memorial Hall opened in 1906 and was one of the town's first public buildings. In 1905, and again in 1907, the company held "Cheap Cottages Exhibitions", which were contests for architects and builders to demonstrate innovations in inexpensive housing. The 1905 exhibition attracted some 60,000 visitors. The popularity of
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#17328012668731524-558: A point on the main avenue where six roads converged, with the roads later being named Broadway, Spring Road, and Sollershott. Plans drawn up in July 1908 proposed a circular traffic island at this point, influenced by the Place de l'Étoile in Paris, which Unwin wrote about in 1909. The Letchworth roundabout is known to have been in use by 1910. When first built, traffic could circulate around
1651-463: A population in 1801 of 67, rising to 96 by 1901. In 1898, the social reformer Ebenezer Howard wrote To-morrow: A Peaceful Path to Real Reform (republished in 1902 as Garden Cities of To-morrow ), in which he advocated the construction of a new kind of town, which he called a "garden city". The idea was summed up in a diagram called the "Three Magnets", showing how the mixed advantages and disadvantages of town or country living could be combined into
1778-585: A protected rural belt were later taken up more generally in town planning in Britain from the mid-twentieth century as the green belt . Howard's ideas were mocked in some sections of the press but struck a chord with many, especially members of the Arts and Crafts movement and the Quakers . After examining several possible locations for establishing a garden city, the garden city pioneers settled on Letchworth as
1905-685: A public body which would manage it for the benefit of the community, and until then dividends to shareholders were restricted to no more than 5% per annum. This made it a very unusual company, but it was otherwise an ordinary joint stock company , owned by its shareholders. Until the Second World War, the company largely ran the emerging town, developing close working relationships with the Hitchin Rural District Council and (after 1919) Letchworth Urban District Council to ensure that any approvals needed were given when
2032-494: A research field to study "living things and their environment with respect to their welfare (defined as net happiness, or enjoyment minus suffering)." The European Commission 's activities in this area start with the recognition that animals are sentient beings. The general aim is to ensure that animals do not endure avoidable pain or suffering, and obliges the owner/keeper of animals to respect minimum welfare requirements. European Union legislation regarding farm animal welfare
2159-509: A single invertebrate species, the common octopus . Primates , cats , dogs , and horses have additional protection over other vertebrates under the Act. Revised legislation came into force in January 2013. This has been expanded to protect "...all living vertebrates, other than man, and any living cephalopod . Fish and amphibia are protected once they can feed independently and cephalopods at
2286-462: A third option, "Town-Country", offering the advantages of both cities and the countryside while eliminating their disadvantages. Industry would be kept separate from residential areas , whilst the residents would have good access to parks and the countryside. The garden city would be contained in a belt of open countryside, providing land not just for agriculture, but also for children's homes, asylums, new forests and brickfields . Echoes of this idea of
2413-520: A town which was itself inspired by the garden city movement. The idea was to minimise the impact of traffic by having houses face onto pedestrian-only green lanes and open spaces, with parking and servicing provided in garage courts behind the houses. Private housing resumed more slowly after the Second World War, partly due to the tight controls on building materials and licences which were imposed and remained in force until 1954. As these restrictions eased, additional areas of private housing were built to
2540-602: Is a positive science." Dictionary definition – In the Saunders Comprehensive Veterinary Dictionary , animal welfare is defined as "the avoidance of abuse and exploitation of animals by humans by maintaining appropriate standards of accommodation, feeding and general care, the prevention and treatment of disease and the assurance of freedom from harassment, and unnecessary discomfort and pain." American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA) has defined animal welfare as: "An animal
2667-687: Is an issue of importance as part of the social development of nations worldwide. The campaign to achieve the UDAW is being coordinated by World Animal Protection , with a core working group including Compassion in World Farming , the RSPCA, and the Humane Society International (the international branch of HSUS ). The 2019 UN Global Sustainable Development Report identified animal welfare as one of several key missing issues in
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#17328012668732794-486: Is coping with the conditions in which it lives. An animal is in a good state of welfare if (as indicated by scientific evidence) it is healthy, comfortable, well nourished, safe, able to express innate behaviour, and if it is not suffering from unpleasant states such as pain, fear, and distress. Good animal welfare requires disease prevention and veterinary treatment, appropriate shelter, management, nutrition, humane handling and humane slaughter/killing. Animal welfare refers to
2921-488: Is debate about which of these best indicate animal welfare. Respect for animal welfare is often based on the belief that nonhuman animals are sentient and that consideration should be given to their well-being or suffering , especially when they are under the care of humans. These concerns can include how animals are slaughtered for food, how they are used in scientific research , how they are kept (as pets, in zoos, farms, circuses, etc.), and how human activities affect
3048-530: Is derived from the Old English "lycce weorth", meaning a farm inside a fence or enclosure. It appears in the Domesday Book of 1086 as "Leceworde", when it was described as having nine households of villagers, four cottagers, one slave and one priest. The presence of the priest suggests that Letchworth was by that time a parish. Letchworth's parish church was built in the 12th century, but likely on
3175-461: Is in a good state of welfare if (as indicated by scientific evidence) it is healthy, comfortable, well nourished, safe, able to express innate behavior, and if it is not suffering from unpleasant states such as pain, fear, and distress." They have offered the following eight principles for developing and evaluating animal welfare policies. Terrestrial Animal Health Code of World Organisation for Animal Health defines animal welfare as "how an animal
3302-586: Is no binding obligation to carry out the original policy." Shares in the company therefore became much more valuable. In 1960, a company called Hotel York Limited acquired a controlling interest in First Garden City Limited. Hotel York's chairman, Amy Rose (née Charles), became managing director of First Garden City Limited in January 1961. Hotel York Limited had been founded in 1906 and had previously owned and run hotels in London, including
3429-591: Is regularly re-drafted according to science-based evidence and cultural views. For example, in 2009, legislation was passed which aimed to reduce animal suffering during slaughter and on 1 January 2012, the European Union Council Directive 1999/74/EC came into act, which means that conventional battery cages for laying hens are now banned across the Union. The Animal Welfare Act 2006 makes owners and keepers responsible for ensuring that
3556-518: Is sometimes defined by a list of positive conditions which should be provided to the animal. This approach is taken by the Five Freedoms and the three principles of professor John Webster. The Five Freedoms are: John Webster defines animal welfare by advocating three positive conditions: Living a natural life, being fit and healthy, and being happy. High production – In the past, many have seen farm animal welfare chiefly in terms of whether
3683-417: Is that consciousness exists in nonhuman animals; however, some still maintain that consciousness is a philosophical question that may never be scientifically resolved. Remarkably, a new study has managed to overcome some of the difficulties in testing this question empirically and devised a unique way to dissociate conscious from nonconscious perception in animals. In this study conducted in rhesus monkeys,
3810-567: Is the ban, most unusual for a British town, on selling alcohol in public premises. This was initially decided by a public vote in June 1907, in which 54% voted against allowing a licensed public house. This did not stop the town having a "pub" however – the Skittles Inn or the "pub with no beer" which opened in March 1907. Despite the ban it is not entirely true to say that there were no pubs in
3937-668: Is unique in having a private charity , the Letchworth Garden City Heritage Foundation, which is responsible for the management of many aspects of the garden city estate, having some planning and grant-making functions similar to those normally associated with local authorities. These functions derive from the Heritage Foundation's ownership of the estate and do not replace the usual local authority functions and responsibilities, but operate in addition to them. Historically, Letchworth
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4064-569: The Berners Hotel . The Rose family had taken control of Hotel York in 1957, and by 1960 all its properties had been sold. The town feared that such asset stripping might now happen to Letchworth, and the likelihood of the town gaining the financial benefit that Howard and the pioneers had originally envisaged was decreasing. Initial assurances from Mrs Rose about maintaining the integrity of the estate did not last long. During 1961, First Garden City Limited started auctioning freeholds of parts of
4191-536: The Domesday Book of 1086. It remained a small rural village until the start of the twentieth century. The development of the modern town began in 1903, when much of the land in Letchworth and the neighbouring parishes of Willian and Norton was purchased by a company called First Garden City Limited, founded by Ebenezer Howard and his supporters with the aim of building the first "garden city", following
4318-669: The Five Freedoms . In the UK, the " Animal Welfare Act 2006 " consolidated many different forms of animal welfare legislation. A number of animal welfare organisations are campaigning to achieve a Universal Declaration on Animal Welfare (UDAW) at the United Nations. In principle, the Universal Declaration would call on the United Nations to recognise animals as sentient beings, capable of experiencing pain and suffering, and to recognise that animal welfare
4445-525: The Green Flag Award for well-managed green space. As the town approached its centenary, there was a campaign to change the name officially from Letchworth to "Letchworth Garden City", this time without the parentheses of the 1904 version of the name. Proponents of the change argued that as the later Welwyn Garden City incorporated the "Garden City" within its official name, so too should the first garden city at Letchworth. The Letchworth campaign
4572-690: The National Institutes of Health Office of Laboratory Animal Welfare, researchers must try to minimize distress in animals whenever possible: "Animals used in research and testing may experience pain from induced diseases, procedures, and toxicity. The Public Health Service (PHS) Policy and Animal Welfare Regulations (AWRs) state that procedures that cause more than momentary or slight pain or distress should be performed with appropriate sedation, analgesia, or anesthesia. However, research and testing studies sometimes involve pain that cannot be relieved with such agents because they would interfere with
4699-529: The RSPCA . The society used members' donations to employ a growing network of inspectors, whose job was to identify abusers, gather evidence, and report them to the authorities. In 1837, the German minister Albert Knapp founded the first German animal welfare society. One of the first national laws to protect animals was the UK " Cruelty to Animals Act 1835 " followed by the " Protection of Animals Act 1911 ". In
4826-410: The mulesing of sheep and predation of stock by wild animals. Biosecurity is also a risk with free range farming, as it allows for more contact between livestock and wild animal populations, which may carry zoonoses . Farmed animals are artificially selected for production parameters which sometimes impinge on the animals' welfare. For example, broiler chickens are bred to be very large to produce
4953-517: The " Cruel Treatment of Cattle Act 1822 " through Parliament offering protection from cruelty to cattle, horses, and sheep, an animal welfare movement has been active in England. Martin was among the founders of the world's first animal welfare organization, the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals , or SPCA, in 1824. In 1840, Queen Victoria gave the society her blessing, and it became
5080-462: The "humane killer" and criticized the cruelty of the poleaxe. In 1924, a report they signed had found that that a pig had to be hit four times on the head before it was rendered unconscious and that the humane killer rendered twenty animals unconscious by the first shot. In 1925, it was reported that the Duchess of Hamilton had witnessed 52 animals being slaughtered in a single afternoon in pursuance of
5207-618: The 1930s. In 1933, members of the Society's executive council included Sara Blomfield , Charlotte Despard , Douglas S. S. Steuart and Janette Ranken Thesiger . In 1959, the Society protested against a mass pigeon shoot throughout the East of England the Midlands. NC State University Libraries holds a large collection of pamphlets from the Animal Defence and Anti-Vivisection Society. Despite supporting total abolition of vivisection
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5334-460: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Animal welfare science is an emerging field that seeks to answer questions raised by the keeping and use of animals, such as whether hens are frustrated when confined in cages, whether the psychological well-being of animals in laboratories can be maintained, and whether zoo animals are stressed by the transport required for international conservation. Ireland leads research into farm animal welfare with
5461-824: The Australian capital Canberra , Hellerau in Germany, Tapanila in Finland and Mežaparks in Latvia . Ownership of the estate passed from First Garden City Limited to the Letchworth Garden City Corporation in 1963, which in turn was replaced in 1995 by the Letchworth Garden City Heritage Foundation . The estate eventually started yielding a financial surplus which could be used for the benefit of
5588-587: The Bruite Creatures" Liberty 92 and 93 in the " Massachusetts Body of Liberties " of 1641. In 1776, English clergyman Humphrey Primatt authored A Dissertation on the Duty of Mercy and Sin of Cruelty to Brute Animals , one of the first books published in support of animal welfare. Marc Bekoff said that "Primatt was largely responsible for bringing animal welfare to the attention of the general public." Since 1822, when Irish MP Richard Martin brought
5715-790: The Garden City. Pubs that had existed from before the foundation of the Garden City continued to operate, including the Three Horseshoes in Norton and the Three Horseshoes and the Fox in Willian, and benefited from the lack of alcohol to be had in the centre of the town, as did the pubs in neighbouring Hitchin and Baldock . New inns also sprang up on the borders of the town, including the Wilbury Hotel which opened in 1940 just outside
5842-511: The Society advocated reform of animal slaughter . The Society called for legislation making humane slaughter compulsory. The Society advertised its own "humane killer" for sale, a type of captive bolt pistol . In 1923, the Society advocated a statement of minimum slaughter reform that was sent to the Cabinet Committee . Their proposal was that local authorities should be under obligation to approve only types of human killers for use in
5969-527: The Society opened the "Model Humane Abattoir" in Letchworth . The building was owned by the Society and was used to demonstrate humane slaughter and hygienic treatment of meat. It was designed by R. Stephen Ayling between 1925 and 1926. The humane model abattoir was built on a site covering two acres and planned to deal with 20,000 animals a year. The site contained a slaughter hall, lairs, cooling hall for cattle, general loading stage, chill rooms, engine room,
6096-457: The Society organized an exhibition in London with demonstrations of humane killers. In 1939, the Society angered the poultry industry by campaigning against the use of battery cage hens. The Society stated that the hens are imprisoned in the battery system in a confined space with no contact with fresh air and grass. The Society campaigned for the abolition of private slaughterhouses and the creation of humanely-conducted public abattoirs. In 1929,
6223-460: The UK alone, up to 20 million broilers each year die from the stress of catching and transporting before reaching the slaughterhouse. Animal welfare violations have been observed more in intensively bred chicken, pig and cattle species, respectively, and studies and laws have been enacted in this regard. However, animal welfare in semi-intensive species such as sheep and goats is nowadays being scrutinised and gaining importance. Another concern about
6350-878: The US are also protected under the Animal Welfare Act . The United States Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) enforces the Animal Welfare Act. APHIS inspects animal research facilities regularly and reports are published online. According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), the total number of animals used in the U.S. in 2005 was almost 1.2 million, but this does not include rats, mice, and birds which are not covered by welfare legislation but make up approximately 90% of research animals. There are many different approaches to describing and defining animal welfare. Positive conditions – Providing good animal welfare
6477-473: The US it was many years until there was a national law to protect animals—the " Animal Welfare Act of 1966 "—although there were a number of states that passed anti-cruelty laws between 1828 and 1898. In India, animals are protected by the " Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, 1960 ". Significant progress in animal welfare did not take place until the late 20th century. In 1965, the UK government commissioned an investigation—led by professor Roger Brambell—into
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#17328012668736604-523: The US, every institution that uses vertebrate animals for federally funded laboratory research must have an Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC). Each local IACUC reviews research protocols and conducts evaluations of the institution's animal care and use which includes the results of inspections of facilities that are required by law. The IACUC committee must assess the steps taken to "enhance animal well-being" before research can take place. This includes research on farm animals. According to
6731-569: The United Kingdom's first roundabout , Sollershott Circus, which was built c. 1909 . The layout for Letchworth incorporates extensive parkland and open spaces, including Norton Common and Howard Park . A takeover of First Garden City Limited in 1960 led to significant changes in how the company managed the town, which were opposed by the residents and local council who wanted the original garden city ideals retained. They secured an act of parliament which transferred ownership of
6858-643: The ancient road of Icknield Way . The hill fort was refortified c. 400 BC in the Middle Iron Age , and appears to have been occupied until the Roman conquest of Britain . Evidence for Bronze Age, Romano-British and late Iron Age settlement has also been found in the fields between Norton village and the A1. By the time of the Norman Conquest , Letchworth was established as a village. The name
6985-407: The animal is producing well. The argument is that an animal in poor welfare would not be producing well, however, many farmed animals will remain highly productive despite being in conditions where good welfare is almost certainly compromised, e.g., layer hens in battery cages . Emotion in animals – Others in the field, such as professor Ian Duncan and professor Marian Dawkins , focus more on
7112-405: The area of Norton parish, which was abolished, and the northern part of Willian parish. The detached part of Letchworth parish at Burleigh Farm was transferred to Knebworth at the same time. A parish council was established, with Sir John Gorst , a barrister and former Conservative Member of Parliament, being the first chairman of the parish council. On 1 April 1919, the parish of Letchworth
7239-800: The captives afterward for signs of infection from the procedure. Research on wild cetaceans leaves them free to roam and make sounds in their natural habitat, eat live fish, face predators and injury, and form social groups voluntarily. However, boat engines of researchers, whale watchers and others add substantial noise to their natural environment, reducing their ability to echolocate and communicate. Electric engines are far quieter, but are not widely used for either research or whale watching, even for maintaining position, which does not require much power. Vancouver Port offers discounts for ships with quiet propeller and hull designs. Other areas have reduced speeds. Boat engines also have unshielded propellers, which cause serious injuries to cetaceans who come close to
7366-400: The central island in both directions; the instruction to keep left was not added until 1921. It was named "Sollershott Circus" and is recognised as the first roundabout on a public road in the United Kingdom. Two signs were erected on the roundabout in 2006 saying "UK's First Roundabout Built circa 1909" This was after a petition was made by Andrew White of Letchworth for a school project. As
7493-583: The cetaceans from a distance with dart guns. A cetacean was killed by a fungal infection after being darted, due to either an incompletely sterilized dart or an infection from the ocean entering the wound caused by the dart. Researchers on wild cetaceans have not yet been able to use drones to capture noninvasive breath samples. Other harms to wild cetaceans include commercial whaling , aboriginal whaling , drift netting , ship collisions , water pollution , noise from sonar and reflection seismology , predators , loss of prey , and disease . Efforts to enhance
7620-449: The chosen site. The Letchworth Hall estate had come up for sale, and although it alone was too small, secret negotiations with fourteen adjoining landowners allowed an estate of 3,818 acres (1,545 hectares) to be assembled and purchased for £155,587. A company called First Garden City Limited was established on 1 September 1903 to purchase the land and begin building the garden city. In 1904, architects Raymond Unwin and Barry Parker won
7747-621: The claim was published in the Daily Mail and the Daily Sketch in November 1916 as part of articles accusing the town of being a haven for communists and conscientious objectors—claims which the town denied. For the first few years, the new town's Anglicans had to use the old parish churches at Letchworth village, Willian or Norton on the edges of the estate. Many of the town's pioneers had non-conformist leanings, in keeping with
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#17328012668737874-597: The community by the Heritage Foundation. The town lies 32 miles (51 km) north of London , on the railway linking London to Cambridge , and it also adjoins the A1 road , making it relatively popular with commuters. Residential areas in the town are mixed; large parts of the town are included in conservation areas in recognition of their quality, but the town also contains four of the five poorest-scoring neighbourhoods in North Hertfordshire for deprivation . As
8001-400: The company changed its articles of association to say that when the company was wound up only 10% of any surplus would be applied for the benefit of the town, rather than the 100% anticipated in 1903. The rest was to be distributed among the shareholders of the company. In 1956, limits on dividends to shareholders were removed, with the company chairman, Eric Macfadyen declaring that "there
8128-408: The company requested them. The company's layout plan was not underpinned by any statutory town planning role, but was instead a statement of intent from a private landowning company laying out its land as it wished. The relationship between the company and the council began to change after the Second World War, as more town planning functions were given to councils and utilities nationalised. In 1949,
8255-493: The costs of use is less than the benefits to humans. This attitude is also known simply as welfarism . Letchworth Letchworth Garden City , commonly known as Letchworth , is a town in the North Hertfordshire district of Hertfordshire , England. It is noted for being the first garden city . The population at the time of the 2021 census was 33,990. Letchworth was an ancient parish , appearing in
8382-440: The council built Letchworth Town Hall on Broadway to act as its meeting place and offices. The building stands in a prominent position overlooking Broadway Gardens in the centre of the town. The urban district was enlarged on 1 April 1935 by the abolition of Willian parish (which had already been reduced in 1908), plus smaller areas from other adjoining parishes. The council was granted a coat of arms on 11 December 1944. Over
8509-482: The council's new arms in May 2010, by which time the process of abolishing the council was already underway. The design includes the three magnets from Ebenezer Howard's diagram on a green background with a black squirrel. Since 2013, the town has therefore once again been an unparished area, directly administered by North Hertfordshire District Council, as it had been between 1974 and 2005. The 13 Letchworth councillors on
8636-491: The council, which took over three years, including legal action being taken and public consultation. The parish of Letchworth Garden City and its town council were eventually abolished on 31 March 2013. Shortly before the 2009 election, the town council had petitioned the College of Arms for a coat of arms , having found they were unable to use the former coat of arms of Letchworth Urban District Council. The college issued
8763-571: The course of its existence, the urban district council built nearly 5,000 homes in the town. Letchworth Urban District was abolished by the Local Government Act 1972 , with the area merging with the urban districts of Hitchin , Baldock and Royston and the Hitchin Rural District to become the new district of North Hertfordshire on 1 April 1974. With over 30% of the population of the new district, Letchworth
8890-502: The district council meet as the Letchworth Committee. The current arrangements have evolved from one of Letchworth Garden City's founding principles, that the profits from the town should be used for the benefit of the residents. First Garden City Limited was founded in 1903 to purchase the land and develop the town. Once the garden city was substantially complete it was envisaged that the estate would be transferred to
9017-761: The doctrine of non-violence . In the 13th century CE, Genghis Khan protected wildlife in Mongolia during the breeding season (March to October). Early legislation in the Western world on behalf of animals includes the Ireland Parliament (Thomas Wentworth) " An Act against Plowing by the Tayle, and pulling the Wooll off living Sheep ", 1635, and the Massachusetts Colony ( Nathaniel Ward ) "Off
9144-446: The dog had been conscious throughout and in pain – led to a protracted scandal and a libel case, which the accused researcher won. The affair continued for several years, making a name both for Lind af Hageby and for the Society. The Society was associated with Hageby's International Humanitarian Bureau. It published The Anti-Vivisection and Humanitarian Review in 1929 and Progress Today: The Humanitarian and Anti-Vivisection Review in
9271-408: The early 1980s. Some of the vacated factory sites were redeveloped as business parks and serviced offices, and the town's economy shifted away from a small number of large manufacturing businesses to a large number of smaller office-based businesses. Early housing development in Letchworth largely followed Unwin and Parker's masterplan. The first houses built after the founding of the garden city were
9398-413: The end of Broadway. The first new houses were occupied in July 1904. The following month First Garden City Limited held a vote amongst shareholders and residents on what name the new garden city should take. Several options were proposed, including "Garden City", "Homeworth" and "Alseopolis". The chosen name was "Letchworth (Garden City)". The company adopted this as its name for the town, but adoption of
9525-551: The end of the procedure, or if appropriate, during the procedure." The National Research Council's Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals also serves as a guide to improve welfare for animals used in research in the US. The Federation of Animal Science Societies' Guide for the Care and Use of Agricultural Animals in Research and Teaching is a resource addressing welfare concerns in farm animal research. Laboratory animals in
9652-591: The estate and the company proposed to the county council that much of the estate's agricultural belt could be developed, allowing the town to grow to 60,000 people rather than the 32,000 which had originally been envisaged. In response, the Letchworth Urban District Council began a campaign to restore the original ethos of the garden city to the estate. It enlisted the support of the local Member of Parliament, Martin Maddan , who sponsored
9779-408: The estate from the company to a public sector body, the Letchworth Garden City Corporation, in 1963. The corporation in turn was replaced by a charitable body in 1995, the Letchworth Garden City Heritage Foundation, which owns and manages the estate today. Letchworth today retains large business areas providing jobs in a variety of sectors, and the landlord's profits are reinvested for the benefit of
9906-584: The estate was compulsorily purchased from First Garden City Limited by Letchworth Urban District Council. In 1959, land to the south-east of the town was also compulsorily purchased for the development of the Jackmans estate, another large council estate, with funding provided by London County Council as the area was to accommodate London overspill . The Jackmans estate was developed on the " Radburn principle " which had been pioneered in Radburn, New Jersey ,
10033-763: The exhibitions was significant in leading the Daily Mail to launch the Ideal Home Exhibition (which later became the Ideal Home Show ), in 1908. One possible visitor to the fledgling town was Lenin , who was reputed to have visited during May 1907 whilst attending the Fifth Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party in London. Contemporary evidence confirming the visit is lacking, but
10160-609: The factory was also involved in producing parachutes and decoding machinery. The town attracted and developed a diverse range of industries. Other significant early businesses included: The biggest employer for a number of years was the British Tabulating Machine Company , which moved from London to Letchworth in 1920. In 1958, it merged with Powers-Samas to become International Computers and Tabulators (ICT) and finally became part of International Computers Limited (ICL) in 1969. A power station
10287-481: The feelings of the animal. This approach indicates the belief that animals should be considered as sentient beings. Duncan wrote, "Animal welfare is to do with the feelings experienced by animals: the absence of strong negative feelings, usually called suffering, and (probably) the presence of positive feelings, usually called pleasure. In any assessment of welfare, it is these feelings that should be assessed." Dawkins wrote, "Let us not mince words: Animal welfare involves
10414-659: The first time, minimum standards of care. Additional provisions, called the Humane Euthanasia Act, were added in 1990, and then further expanded and strengthened with the Animal Protection Act of 2000. In 2002, voters passed (by a margin of 55% for and 45% against) Amendment 10 to the Florida Constitution banning the confinement of pregnant pigs in gestation crates. In 2006, Arizona voters passed Proposition 204 with 62% support;
10541-434: The greatest quantity of meat per animal. Broilers bred for fast growth have a high incidence of leg deformities because the large breast muscles cause distortions of the developing legs and pelvis, and the birds cannot support their increased body weight. As a consequence, they frequently become lame or suffer from broken legs. The increased body weight also puts a strain on their hearts and lungs, and ascites often develop. In
10668-471: The head of a humane butcher's shop. Following Lind af Hageby's death in December 1963, the Society's assets were transferred to a trust, The Animal Defence Trust, which continues to offer grants for animal-protection projects. The Animal Defence Trust registered as a charity in 1971. It describes itself as a "charity whose main aims are the welfare of animals and protection of them from cruelty and suffering,
10795-569: The legislation prohibits the confinement of calves in veal crates and breeding sows in gestation crates. In 2007, the Governor of Oregon signed legislation prohibiting the confinement of pigs in gestation crates and in 2008, the Governor of Colorado signed legislation that phased out both gestation crates and veal crates. Also during 2008, California passed Proposition 2 , known as the "Prevention of Farm Animal Cruelty Act", which orders new space requirements for farm animals starting in 2015. In
10922-410: The life of wild cetaceans, besides reducing those harms, include offering human music. Canadian rules do not forbid playing quiet music, though they forbid "noise that may resemble whale songs or calls, underwater". In addition to cetaceans, the welfare of other wild animals has also been studied, though to a lesser extent than that of animals in farms. Research in wild animal welfare has two focuses:
11049-442: The name was not universal. The legal name of the civil parish and (after 1919) urban district remained simply "Letchworth". First Garden City Limited also gradually dropped the "(Garden City)" suffix from the name, partly reflecting common usage, and partly taking the view that as the town matured it should not permanently be seen as an experiment. Similarly, the town's railway station was initially called "Letchworth (Garden City)", but
11176-423: The perception of better animal welfare facilitates continued and increased exploitation of animals. Some authorities therefore treat animal welfare and animal rights as two opposing positions. Others see animal welfare gains as incremental steps towards animal rights. The predominant view of modern neuroscientists , notwithstanding philosophical problems with the definition of consciousness even in humans,
11303-425: The point when they hatch. Embryonic and foetal forms of mammals, birds and reptiles are protected during the last third of their gestation or incubation period." The definition of regulated procedures was also expanded: "A procedure is regulated if it is carried out on a protected animal and may cause that animal a level of pain, suffering, distress or lasting harm equivalent to, or higher than, that caused by inserting
11430-689: The potential benefits outweigh any suffering for the animals involved. In the United States, a federal law called the Humane Slaughter Act was designed to decrease suffering of livestock during slaughter. The Georgia Animal Protection Act of 1986 was a state law enacted in response to the inhumane treatment of companion animals by a pet store chain in Atlanta . The Act provided for the licensing and regulation of pet shops, stables, kennels, and animal shelters, and established, for
11557-416: The principles Howard had set out in his 1898 book, To-morrow: A Peaceful Path to Real Reform . Their aim was to create a new type of settlement which provided jobs, services, and good housing for residents, whilst retaining the environmental quality of the countryside, in contrast to most industrial cities of the time. The town's initial layout was designed by Raymond Unwin and Barry Parker . It includes
11684-1163: The production of goat and cattle milk, raising the same concerns. A 2023 report by the Animal Welfare Institute found that animal welfare claims by companies selling meat and poultry products lack adequate substantiation in roughly 85% of analyzed cases. Captive cetaceans are kept for display, research and naval operations. To enhance their welfare, humans feed them fish that are dead but are disease-free, protect them from predators and injury, monitor their health, and provide activities for behavioral enrichment . Some are kept in lagoons with natural soil and vegetated sides. Most are in concrete tanks which are easy to clean but echo their natural sounds back to them. They cannot develop their own social groups, and related cetaceans are typically separated for display and breeding. Military dolphins used in naval operations swim free during operations and training and return to pens otherwise. Captive cetaceans are trained to present themselves for blood samples, health exams, and noninvasive breath samples above their blow holes. Staff can monitor
11811-581: The promotion of research to discover ways of reducing the use of animals in scientific research, and the establishment of inspections of animal transportation to ensure proper and humane accommodation". Animal welfare Animal welfare is the well-being of non-human animals . Formal standards of animal welfare vary between contexts, but are debated mostly by animal welfare groups, legislators, and academics. Animal welfare science uses measures such as longevity , disease , immunosuppression , behavior , physiology , and reproduction , although there
11938-581: The propeller. The US Coast Guard has proposed rules on propeller guards to protect human swimmers, but has not adopted any rules. The US Navy uses propeller guards to protect manatees in Georgia. Ducted propellers provide more efficient drive at speeds up to 10 knots, and protect animals beneath and beside them, but need grilles to prevent injuries to animals drawn into the duct. Attaching satellite trackers and obtaining biopsies to measure pollution loads and DNA involve either capture and release, or shooting
12065-579: The proponents of these views have advocated carrying out conservation efforts in ways that respect the welfare of wild animals, within the framework of the disciplines of compassionate conservation and conservation welfare , while others have argued in favor of improving the welfare of wild animals for the sake of the animals, regardless of whether there are any conservation issues involved at all. The welfare economist Yew-Kwang Ng , in his 1995 "Towards welfare biology: Evolutionary economics of animal consciousness and suffering", proposed welfare biology as
12192-657: The radical spirit of the early town. The first new place of worship to be built was the Free Church, built in 1905 (later rebuilt in 1923). It was followed in 1907 by 'Howgills' , the Meeting House for the Society of Friends . Letchworth's founding citizens, attracted by the promise of a better life, were often caricatured by outsiders as idealistic and otherworldly. John Betjeman in his poems Group Life: Letchworth and Huxley Hall painted Letchworth people as earnest health freaks. One commonly-cited example of this
12319-746: The recently published Research Report on Farm Animal Welfare Archived 8 May 2019 at the Wayback Machine . A major concern for the welfare of farmed animals is factory farming in which large numbers of animals are reared in confinement at high stocking densities. Issues include the limited opportunities for natural behaviors, for example, in battery cages , veal and gestation crates , instead producing abnormal behaviors such as tail-biting, cannibalism, and feather pecking , and routine invasive procedures such as beak trimming , castration , and ear notching .More extensive methods of farming, e.g. free range , can also raise welfare concerns such as
12446-570: The researchers built experiments predicting completely opposite behavioral outcomes to consciously vs. non-consciously perceived stimuli. Strikingly, the monkeys' behaviors displayed these exact opposite signatures, just like aware and unaware humans tested in the study. Animal protection laws were enacted as early as the 1st millennium BCE in India . Several Indian kings built hospitals for animals, and emperor Ashoka (304–232 BCE) issued orders against hunting and animal slaughter, in line with ahimsa ,
12573-522: The scientific objectives of the study. Accordingly, federal regulations require that IACUCs determine that discomfort to animals will be limited to that which is unavoidable for the conduct of scientifically valuable research, and that unrelieved pain and distress will only continue for the duration necessary to accomplish the scientific objectives. The PHS Policy and AWRs further state that animals that would otherwise suffer severe or chronic pain and distress that cannot be relieved should be painlessly killed at
12700-530: The site of an earlier building. The original dedication of the church is unknown, but it was rededicated to St Mary during the First World War. The village was along Letchworth Lane, stretching from St Mary's and the adjoining medieval manor house of Letchworth Hall up to the staggered crossroads of Letchworth Lane, Hitchin Road, Baldock Road and Spring Road. Letchworth was a relatively small parish, having
12827-423: The slaughterhouse within their districts and that inspectors should be allowed to enter the slaughterhouse to enforce the Act. They urged that all slaughtermen should be licensed and that any other method of killing animals for food should be prohibited. The Society opposed the use of the knife and poleaxe in slaughter. Lizzy Lind af Hageby and Duchess Nina Douglas-Hamilton both visited slaughterhouses and tested
12954-494: The south of the town. This area south of the town was significantly enlarged by the Lordship and Manor Park estates, begun in 1971. Following the completion of these developments in the 1980s, most new housing in the town has been on previously-developed land, as sites vacated by closed schools and businesses have been redeveloped. Innovation in Letchworth was not confined to the design of buildings. The 1904 layout plan included
13081-547: The south-west of the town centre towards Letchworth village was an area of larger individually-designed houses for the upper middle classes. After the Second World War the focus for new development was on large council estates . To the north of the town work began on the Grange estate in 1947. The estate included its own primary schools, recreation ground, public house and a neighbourhood shopping centre. The land for
13208-476: The state of the animal; the treatment that an animal receives is covered by other terms such as animal care, animal husbandry, and humane treatment." Coping – Professor Donald Broom defines the welfare of an animal as "Its state as regards its attempts to cope with its environment. This state includes how much it is having to do to cope, the extent to which it is succeeding in or failing to cope, and its associated feelings." He states that "welfare will vary over
13335-522: The statutory use of the humane killer. The Society supported the Slaughter of Animals Act 1933. The humane killer gained support from slaughterhouse workers. John Dodds, superintendent of the Carlisle abattoir became an expert adviser to the Society in their campaign for compulsory use of the humane killer. The Society's Slaughter Reform Department consisted of John Dodds and Constance Warner. In 1937,
13462-403: The subjective feelings of animals." Welfare biology – Yew-Kwang Ng defines animal welfare in terms of welfare economics : "Welfare biology is the study of living things and their environment with respect to their welfare (defined as net happiness, or enjoyment minus suffering ). Despite difficulties of ascertaining and measuring welfare and relevancy to normative issues, welfare biology
13589-418: The town are included in conservation areas in recognition of their quality, but the town also contains four of the five poorest-scoring neighbourhoods in North Hertfordshire for deprivation , in parts of the Jackmans estate, Grange estate and Wilbury area. The town has extensive parkland and open spaces, with Norton Common and Howard Park being two of the largest open spaces in the town, both of which hold
13716-406: The town had a town council . The council was created following a petition organised by a group of people dissatisfied with how the town was being managed by the Heritage Foundation. Opponents felt that the town council itself was an unnecessary layer of administration. Those opposed to the town council won 22 of the 24 seats on the council at the election in 2009 and began the process of abolishing
13843-584: The town in 1973. This led to investment in a number of town amenities, including a working farm tourist attraction opened at Standalone Farm (1980), the North Herts Leisure Centre (1982), and a free hospital, the Ernest Gardiner Day Hospital (1984). The Broadway cinema was extensively refurbished in 1996, and the Heritage Foundation has also supported several projects to enhance the town centre. Large parts of
13970-466: The town's border. The ban was finally lifted after a referendum in 1957, which led to the opening of the Broadway Hotel in 1962 as the first public house in the centre of the Garden City. Several other public houses have opened since then, but to this day the town centre has relatively few pubs for a town of its size. One of the most prominent industries to arrive in the town in the early years
14097-465: The welfare and survival of wild species. There are two forms of criticism of the concept of animal welfare, coming from diametrically opposite positions. One view, held by some thinkers in history, holds that humans have no duties of any kind to animals. The other view is based on the animal rights position that animals should not be regarded as property and any use of animals by humans is unacceptable. Accordingly, some animal rights proponents argue that
14224-454: The welfare needs of their animals are met. These include the need: for a suitable environment (place to live), for a suitable diet, to exhibit normal behavior patterns, to be housed with, or apart from, other animals (if applicable), and to be protected from pain, injury, suffering and disease. Anyone who is cruel to an animal, or does not provide for its welfare needs, may be banned from owning animals, fined up to £20,000 and/or sent to prison for
14351-496: The welfare of farmed animals is the method of slaughter , especially ritual slaughter . While the killing of animals need not necessarily involve suffering, the general public considers that killing an animal reduces its welfare. This leads to further concerns about premature slaughtering such as chick culling by the laying hen industry , in which males are slaughtered immediately after hatching because they are superfluous; this policy occurs in other farmed animal industries such as
14478-761: The welfare of intensively farmed animals, partly in response to concerns raised in Ruth Harrison 's 1964 book, Animal Machines . On the basis of Brambell's report, the UK government set up the Farm Animal Welfare Advisory Committee in 1967, which became the Farm Animal Welfare Council in 1979. The committee's first guidelines recommended that animals require the freedom to "stand up, lie down, turn around, groom themselves and stretch their limbs." The guidelines have since been elaborated upon to become known as
14605-414: The welfare of wild animals kept in captivity and the welfare of animals living in the wild. The former has addressed the situation of animals kept both for human use, as in zoos or circuses , or in rehabilitation centers. The latter has examined how the welfare of non-domesticated animals living in wild or urban areas are affected by humans or natural factors causing wild animal suffering . Some of
14732-455: The world's first garden city, Letchworth had a notable influence on town planning and the new towns movement in the twentieth century. It directly influenced Welwyn Garden City , founded by Ebenezer Howard in 1920 using a similar model to Letchworth, and Hampstead Garden Suburb , founded in 1906 and also designed to a layout by Raymond Unwin and Barry Parker. Aspects of Letchworth's approach to blending town and county were subsequently used in
14859-613: The world's first garden city, Letchworth has had a notable impact on town planning and the new towns movement ; it influenced nearby Welwyn Garden City , which used a similar approach, and aspects of the principles demonstrated at Letchworth have been incorporated into other projects around the world including the Australian capital Canberra , Hellerau in Germany, Tapiola in Finland and Mežaparks in Latvia . The area now occupied by Letchworth has been inhabited since prehistoric times. A late Bronze Age hill fort , thought to date from c. 700 BC , stood on Wilbury Hill , beside
14986-544: Was an ancient parish in the hundred of Broadwater . The parish also had a detached portion at Burleigh Farm, between Langley and Knebworth , some 6 miles (9.7 km) to the south of the rest of the parish. The parish of Letchworth was included in the Hitchin Poor Law Union from 1835. It therefore became part of the Hitchin Rural District under the Local Government Act 1894 . The 1894 Act also created parish councils, but Letchworth's population
15113-434: Was below the threshold to be given one, and so it only had a parish meeting . Following the commencement of work on Letchworth Garden City in 1903, the area purchased for the new town straddled the parishes of Letchworth, Willian and Norton. An unofficial "Residents' Union" or "Residents' Council" for the town was established in June 1905. The civil parish of Letchworth was substantially enlarged on 1 April 1908 to take over
15240-486: Was built in 1903 on the Great Northern Railway's Hitchin, Royston and Cambridge branch line, which crosses the middle of the garden city estate. Initially, services were irregular special trains for excursions and construction workers. A more substantial temporary wooden station was opened in 1905 with a regular passenger service. The current railway station was built in 1912 in a prominent location at
15367-416: Was built in the 1920s on Works Road to supply electricity. There were two coal-fired generators, called Letchworth A and Letchworth B, with rated outputs of 8 megawatts (MW) and 13 MW respectively. Letchworth A was decommissioned in 1968, followed by Letchworth B in 1974. A gas turbine power station was then built on the site, with two 70 MW turbines and two reinforced concrete chimneys. The first turbine
15494-436: Was commissioned in 1978. Output peaked during the 1984–1985 miners' strike . The power station was demolished in 2007. During the 1970s and 1980s, many of the town's large manufacturing businesses closed. The Kryn and Lahy Steel Foundry closed in 1979. Spirella and ICL both closed their factories in 1989. Borg-Warner also closed its factory during this period. The town went through a period of relatively high unemployment in
15621-436: Was made an urban district . Letchworth Urban District Council was formed to replace the parish council and also took over district-level responsibilities from the Hitchin Rural District Council. The first urban district council had 15 councillors: nine "all party", four Labour , and two independent . The first chairman was Charles Ball, a Conservative, who had been the chairman of the old parish council since 1916. In 1935,
15748-523: Was renamed "Letchworth" in 1937. The station is now known as Letchworth Garden City, with direct trains to Brighton via St Pancras International and terminating trains to King's Cross to the South, and Cambridge and King's Lynn to the North. Ebenezer Howard's wife, Lizzie (Eliza Ann Bills), died in November 1904 in London, shortly before she had been due to move to a new house in Letchworth with her husband. As
15875-463: Was successful, with the name of the railway station being changed in 1999 and the SG6 post town changing from Letchworth to Letchworth Garden City in 2003, the town's centenary year. There are two tiers of local government covering Letchworth, at district and county level: North Hertfordshire District Council and Hertfordshire County Council . In addition to these local government bodies , Letchworth
16002-590: Was the manufacture of corsets ; the Spirella Company, an American business, founded its British subsidiary in the town in 1910. In 1912, they built the first phase of a large factory, the Spirella Building , designed by Cecil Hignett in the Arts and Crafts style. It was completed in 1920. The building's prominence in the town led to it being nicknamed "Castle Corset". During the Second World War ,
16129-549: Was too large to be given a successor parish , and so it became an unparished area , governed directly by North Hertfordshire District Council , with county level services provided by Hertfordshire County Council . North Hertfordshire District Council established its headquarters in Letchworth in 1975 at the newly-built Council Offices on Gernon Road, which had been built as part of the Central Area (later Garden Square) Shopping Centre redevelopment. Between 2005 and 2013,
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