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148-461: Carlisle ( / k ɑːr ˈ l aɪ l / kar- LYLE , locally / ˈ k ɑːr l aɪ l / KAR -lyle ; from Cumbric : Caer Luel ) is a cathedral city in the ceremonial county of Cumbria in England. It is the administrative centre of Cumberland Council which covers an area similar to the historic county of Cumberland . Carlisle's early history is marked by the establishment of
296-472: A continuum . The whole question is made more complex because there is no consensus as to whether any principled distinction can be made between languages and dialects . Below, some of the proposed differences between Cumbric and Old Welsh are discussed. In Welsh, Cornish, and Breton, the Common Brittonic cluster *rk was spirantized to /rx/ (Welsh rch , Cornish rgh , Breton rc'h ) but
444-568: A vigesimal counting system, i.e. numbering up to twenty, with intermediate numbers for ten and fifteen. Therefore, after numbering one to ten, numbers follow the format one-and-ten, two-and-ten etc. to fifteen, then one-and-fifteen, two-and-fifteen to twenty. The dialect words for the numbers themselves show much variation across the region. (see chart) A number of words occurring in the Scots language and Northern English dialects have been proposed as being of possible Brittonic origin. Ascertaining
592-464: A cathedral in 1133. In 1157, Carlisle became the seat of the new county of Carliol (a name that was originally an abbreviation of Latin Carlioliensis , meaning "[Bishop] of Carlisle"); in 1177 the county was renamed Cumberland . The conquest of Cumberland was the beginning of a war between Scotland and England which saw the region centred around Carlisle change hands a number of times. It was
740-403: A certain point, probably during the 11th century, all the inhabitants of northern Alba had become fully Gaelicised Scots, and Pictish identity was forgotten. Henry of Huntingdon was one of the first (surviving) historians to note this disappearance in the mid-12th century Historia Anglorum . Later, the idea of Picts as a tribe was revived in myth and legend . The early history of Pictland
888-484: A densely populated mill town . This, combined with its strategic position, allowed for the development of Carlisle as an important railway town , with seven railway companies sharing Carlisle railway station . Nicknamed the 'Great Border City', Carlisle today is a main cultural, commercial and industrial centre within the British borders. The ancient history of Carlisle is derived mainly from archaeological evidence and
1036-540: A descriptive term continued to the formation of the Alpínid dynasty in the ninth century, and the merging of the Pictish Kingdom with that of Dál Riata. The Latin word Picti first occurs in a panegyric , a formal eulogising speech from 297 and is most commonly explained as meaning 'painted' (from Latin pingere 'to paint'; pictus , 'painted', cf. Greek πυκτίς pyktis , 'picture' ). This
1184-532: A distinctive form of the general Celtic Early Medieval development of La Tène style with increasing influences from the Insular art of 7th and 8th century Ireland and Northumbria , and then Anglo-Saxon and Irish art as the Early Medieval period continues. The most well-known surviving examples are the many Pictish stones located across Pictland. The symbols and patterns consist of animals including
1332-640: A feature of Cumbric. Further evidence is wanting, however. James mentions that devoicing appears to be a feature of many Cumbric place names. Devoicing of word final consonants is a feature of modern Breton and, to an extent, Cornish. Watson notes initial devoicing in Tinnis Castle (in Drumelzier ) (compare Welsh dinas 'fortress, city') as an example of this, which can also be seen in the Cornish Tintagel , din 'fort'. Also notable are
1480-440: A handful of dialectal words. From this scanty evidence, little can be deduced about the singular characteristics of Cumbric, not even the name by which its speakers referred to it. However, linguists generally agree that Cumbric was a Western Brittonic language closely related to Welsh and, more distantly, to Cornish and Breton . Around the time of the battle described in the poem Y Gododdin , c. 600, Common Brittonic
1628-584: A human settlement to serve castles along Hadrian's Wall in Britain . Due to its proximity to Scotland (being located eight miles or thirteen kilometres south of the current Anglo-Scottish border ), Carlisle Castle and the city became an important military stronghold in the Middle Ages . The castle served as a prison for Mary, Queen of Scots in 1568 and currently hosts the Duke of Lancaster's Regiment and
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#17327651863331776-553: A large rural area with many villages and towns including Dalston , Brampton , Longtown , Wetheral , Bewcastle and Scotby . Cumberland Council , the local authority for Cumberland , is a unitary authority , having the powers of a non-metropolitan county and district council combined. It operated as a shadow authority until taking up its powers on 1 April 2023. Cumberland Council replaced Cumbria County Council, Allerdale Borough Council , Carlisle City Council and Copeland Borough Council . The first election to Cumberland Council
1924-576: A major part of the diet of ordinary people, while the elite would have eaten a diet rich in meat from farming and hunting. No Pictish counterparts to the areas of denser settlement around important fortresses in Gaul and southern Britain, or any other significant urban settlements, are known. Larger, but not large, settlements existed around royal forts, such as at Burghead Fort , or associated with religious foundations. No towns are known in Scotland until
2072-519: A major stronghold after the construction of the castle. During the wars, the livelihood of the people on the borders was devastated by armies from both sides. Even when the countries were not at war, tension remained high, and royal authority in one or the other kingdom was often weak. The uncertainty of existence meant that communities or peoples kindred to each other sought security through their own strength and cunning, and they improved their livelihoods at their enemies' expense. These peoples were known as
2220-574: A much longer period. Pictland was not solely influenced by Iona and Ireland. It also had ties to churches in Northumbria, as seen in the reign of Nechtan mac Der Ilei . The reported expulsion of Ionan monks and clergy by Nechtan in 717 may have been related to the controversy over the dating of Easter , and the manner of tonsure , where Nechtan appears to have supported the Roman usages, but may equally have been intended to increase royal power over
2368-543: A number of place names appear to show Cumbric retained the stop in this position. Lanark and Lanercost are thought to contain the equivalent of Welsh llannerch 'clearing'. There is evidence to the contrary, however, including the place names Powmaughan and Maughanby (containing Welsh Meirchion ) and the word kelchyn (related to Welsh cylch ). Jackson concludes that the change of Common Brittonic *rk > /rx/ " may have been somewhat later in Cumbric". There
2516-533: A region situated between England and Scotland". The Latinate term Cambria is often used for Wales; nevertheless, the Life of St Kentigern ( c. 1200) by Jocelyn of Furness has the following passage: When King Rederech ( Rhydderch Hael ) and his people had heard that Kentigern had arrived from Wallia [i.e. Wales] into Cambria [i.e. Cumbria], from exile into his own country, with great joy and peace both king and people went out to meet him. John T. Koch defined
2664-431: A separate language, or a dialect of Old Welsh. Koch calls it a dialect but goes on to say that some of the place names in the Cumbric region "clearly reflect a developed medieval language, much like Welsh, Cornish or Breton". Jackson also calls it a dialect but points out that "to call it Pr[imitive] W[elsh] would be inaccurate", so clearly views it as distinct in some meaningful respect. It has been suggested that Cumbric
2812-593: A special purpose or significance. In the Cumbric region, the word "Man" frequently occurs in geographical names associated with standing stones (most notably the Old Man of Coniston ) and it is possible, albeit "hard to say" according to Alan G. James, if the Cumbric reflex *main had any influence on these. Among the evidence that Cumbric might have influenced local English dialects are a group of counting systems, or scores, recorded in various parts of northern England. Around 100 of these systems have been collected since
2960-509: A surviving reference to him has been uncovered in Carlisle. Coins excavated in the area suggest that Romans remained in Carlisle until the reign of Emperor Valentinian II , from 375 to 392. The period of late antiquity after Roman rule saw Cumbria organised as the native British kingdom of Rheged . It is likely that the kingdom took its name from a major stronghold within it; this has been suggested to have been broadly coterminous with
3108-505: A usage of the word penn "head" (attached to the names of several animals hunted by the protagonist), that is unique in medieval Welsh literature and may, according to Koch, reflect Cumbric influence ("[r]eferring to a single animal in this way is otherwise found only in Breton, and we have no evidence that the construction ever had any currency in the present-day Wales"). The relevant lines are: Translated as: The form derwennydd however,
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#17327651863333256-592: A useful guide, these extend across a very large area. Relying on knowledge of pre-Roman Gaul , or 13th-century Ireland, as a guide to the Picts of the 6th century may be misleading if the analogy is pursued too far. Like most northern European people in Late Antiquity , the Picts were farmers living in small communities. Cattle and horses were an obvious sign of wealth and prestige. Sheep and pigs were kept in large numbers, and place names suggest that transhumance
3404-524: A wall the length of the frontier. A new fort, Petriana , was therefore built in the Stanwix area of the city north of the river on Hadrian's Wall . It was the largest fort along the wall and was completed in stone by around 130. Like Luguvalium, which lay within sight, Petriana housed a nominal 1,000-strong cavalry regiment, the Ala Gallorum Petriana , the sole regiment of this size along
3552-465: A wide following in the north in earlier times, although he was all but forgotten by the 12th century. Saint Serf of Culross was associated with Nechtan's brother Bridei. It appears, as is well known in later times, that noble kin groups had their own patron saints, and their own churches or abbeys. Pictish art is primarily associated with monumental stones , but also includes smaller objects of stone and bone, and metalwork such as brooches . It uses
3700-697: Is a village near Carlisle called Cumwhitton (earlier Cumquinton). This appears to contain the Norman name Quinton, affixed to a cognate of the Welsh cwm , meaning valley. There were no Normans in this area until 1069 at the earliest. In the Battle of the Standard in 1138, the Cumbrians are noted as a separate ethnic group. Given that their material culture was very similar to their Gaelic and Anglian neighbours, it
3848-460: Is arguable that what set them apart was still their language. Also the castle at Castle Carrock – Castell Caerog – dates from around 1160–1170. Barmulloch , earlier Badermonoc (Cumbric "monk's dwelling" ), was given to the church by Malcolm IV of Scotland between 1153 and 1165. A more controversial point is the surname Wallace. It means "Welshman". It is possible that all the Wallaces in
3996-486: Is at odds with the absence of the ending -ydd noted below. It is to be noted, however, that such semantics are probably archaisms, and rather than being features diagnostic of linguistic distinctiveness, are more likely to be legacies of features once common to all Brittonic speech. The modern Brittonic languages have different forms of the definite article : Welsh yr, -'r, y , Cornish an , and Breton an, ar, al . These are all taken to derive from an unstressed form of
4144-514: Is believed to have been transitioning into its daughter languages: Cumbric in North Britain , Old Welsh in Wales , and Southwestern Brittonic , the ancestor of Cornish and Breton. Kenneth Jackson concludes that the majority of changes that transformed British into Primitive Welsh belong to the period from the middle of the fifth to the end of the sixth century. This involved syncope and
4292-488: Is defined according to geographical rather than linguistic criteria: that is, it refers to the variety of Brittonic spoken within a particular region of North Britain and implies nothing about that variety except that it was geographically distinct from other varieties. This has led to a discussion about the nature of Cumbric and its relationship with other Brittonic languages, in particular with Old Welsh . Linguists appear undecided as to whether Cumbric should be considered
4440-434: Is difficult to prove. Many Brittonic place-names remain in these regions which should not be described as Cumbric, such as Leeds , Manchester , Wigan and York , because they were coined in a period before Brittonic split into Cumbric and its sister dialects. Some of the principal towns and cities of the region have names of Cumbric origin, including: Several supposed Cumbric elements occur repeatedly in place names of
4588-482: Is evidence to suggest that the consonant cluster mb remained distinct in Cumbric later than the time it was assimilated to mm in Welsh, Cornish, and Breton. The cluster remains in: Jackson notes that only in the north does the cluster appear in place names borrowed after circa 600AD and concludes that it may have been a later dialectal survival here. Jackson notes the legal term galnys , equivalent to Welsh galanas , may show syncope of internal syllables to be
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4736-659: Is extinct. Evidence is limited to place-names , personal names , and contemporary records in other languages. The evidence of place and personal names appears to indicate that the Picts spoke an Insular Celtic language related to the Brittonic languages of the south. It is possible that Pictish diverged significantly from the Southern Neo-Brittonic dialects due to the lack of influence of Latin. The absence of surviving written material in Pictish, discounting
4884-468: Is generally understood to be a reference to the practice of tattooing. Claudian , in his account of the Roman commander Stilicho , written around 404, speaks of designs on the bodies of dying Picts, presumably referring to tattoos or body paint. Isidore of Seville reports in the early seventh century that the practice was continued by the Picts. An alternative suggestion is that the Latin Picti
5032-474: Is likely that the Pictish language influenced the development, grammar and vocabulary of Scottish Gaelic , which has some characteristics unique among the Goidelic languages and which, in certain cases, are more reminiscent of Brittonic languages. Toponymic evidence indicates the advance of Gaelic into Pictland; Atholl , meaning New Ireland , is attested in the early 8th century. This may be an indication of
5180-602: Is limited. Naturalistic depictions of Pictish nobles, hunters and warriors, male and female, without obvious tattoos, are found on monumental stones . These include inscriptions in Latin and ogham script, not all of which have been deciphered. The well-known Pictish symbols found on standing stones and other artefacts have defied attempts at translation over the centuries. Pictish art can be classed as " Celtic " and later as Insular . Irish poets portrayed their Pictish counterparts as very much like themselves. Early Pictish religion
5328-450: Is operational and used by railfreight companies. The Strand Road drill hall opened in 1874. At the start of the 20th century, the population had grown to over 45,000. Transport was improved by the City of Carlisle Electric Tramways from 1900 until 1931, and the first cinema was built in 1906. In 1912, the boundaries of Carlisle were extended to include Botcherby in the east and Stanwix in
5476-466: Is presumed to have resembled Celtic polytheism in general, although only place names remain from the pre-Christian era. When the Pictish elite converted to Christianity is uncertain, but traditions place Saint Palladius in Pictland after he left Ireland , and link Abernethy with Saint Brigid of Kildare . Saint Patrick refers to "apostate Picts", while the poem Y Gododdin does not remark on
5624-401: Is reminiscent of Gaelic names such as Maol Choluim "Malcolm" and Gille Crìosd "Gilchrist", which have Scottish Gaelic maol (Old Irish máel 'bald, tonsured; servant') and gille ('servant, lad', < Old Irish gilla 'a youth'). The most well-known example of this Cumbric naming practice is Gospatric , which occurs as the name of several notable Anglo-Scottish noblemen in
5772-692: Is similar to the situation with the Gaelic name of Scotland, Alba , which originally seems to have been a generalised term for Britain. It has been proposed that the Picts may have called themselves Albidosi , a name found in the Chronicle of the Kings of Alba during the reign of Máel Coluim mac Domnaill . The origin myth presented in Bede 's Ecclesiastical History of the English People describes
5920-610: Is thought to be of Pictish origin, composed around 700. Its structure is similar to the origin myths of other peoples and its main purpose appears to have been to legitimise the annexation of Pictish territories by Fortriu and the creation of a wider Pictland. A study published in 2023 sequenced the whole genomes from eight individuals associated with the Pictish period, excavated from cemeteries at Lundin Links in Fife and Balintore, Easter Ross . The study observed "broad affinities" between
6068-583: Is unclear whether the Mormaers were originally former kings, royal officials, or local nobles, or some combination of these. Likewise, the Pictish shires and thanages , traces of which are found in later times, are thought to have been adopted from their southern neighbours. The archaeological record gives insight into the Picts' material culture , and suggest a society not readily distinguishable from its British, Gaelic, or Anglo-Saxon neighbours. Although analogy and knowledge of other Celtic societies may be
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6216-589: Is unclear. In later periods, multiple kings ruled over separate kingdoms, with one king, sometimes two, more or less dominating their lesser neighbours. De Situ Albanie , a 13th century document, the Pictish Chronicle , the 11th century Duan Albanach , along with Irish legends, have been used to argue the existence of seven Pictish kingdoms. These are: Cait , or Cat, situated in modern Caithness and Sutherland ; Ce , situated in modern Mar and Buchan ; Circin , perhaps situated in modern Angus and
6364-526: The Ala Gallorum Sebosiana . By the early 2nd century, Carlisle was established as a prominent stronghold. The 'Stanegate' frontier, which consisted of Luguvalium and several other forts in a line east to Corbridge , was proving a more stable frontier against the Picts than those established deeper into Caledonia . In 122, the province was visited by Hadrian , who approved a plan to build
6512-674: The Civitas Carvetiorum , Carlisle. King Urien and his son and successor Owain became the subjects of a great deal of Arthurian legend . Their capital has been identified as the Cair Ligualid listed by Nennius among the 28 cities of Britain, which later developed into Caer -luel , whence the city's modern Welsh name Caerliwelydd . Rheged came under Northumbrian control before 730, probably by inheritance after Rienmelth, daughter of Royth and great-granddaughter of Urien, married Oswy , King of Northumbria . For
6660-592: The Border Regiment Museum. In the early 12th century, a priory was built and gained cathedral status with a diocese in 1133 ( city status at the time meant the settlement became a city) while the county of Cumberland was created and later renamed Cumbria. In the 19th century, the introduction of textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution began a process of socioeconomic transformation in Carlisle, which developed into
6808-884: The Border Reivers and Carlisle was the major city within their territories. The Reivers became so much of a nuisance to the Scottish and English governments that, in 1525, the Archbishop of Glasgow Gavin Dunbar cursed all the reivers of the borderlands. The curse was detailed in 1,069 words, beginning: "I curse their head and all the hairs of their head; I curse their face, their brain (innermost thoughts), their mouth, their nose, their tongue, their teeth, their forehead, their shoulders, their breast, their heart, their stomach, their back, their womb, their arms, their leggs, their hands, their feet and every part of their body, from
6956-568: The Guildhall and Tithe Barn . The Citadel towers , which until 2016 also served as offices for Cumbria County Council, were designed by Thomas Telford , with the eastern tower incorporating part of the 16th-century building. The first Citadel building was a Tudor fortification replacing the medieval Englishgate, designed by the Moravian military engineer Stefan von Haschenperg in 1541. Next to
7104-618: The Irish Sea , have been found. This trade may have been controlled from Dunadd in Dál Riata, where such goods appear to have been common. While long-distance travel was unusual in Pictish times, it was far from unknown as stories of missionaries, travelling clerics and exiles show. Brochs are popularly associated with the Picts. Although built earlier in the Iron Age , with construction ending around 100 AD, they remained in use beyond
7252-469: The Irish annals . There has been substantial critical reappraisal of the concept of "Pictishness" over recent decades. The popular view at the beginning of the twentieth century was that they were exotic "lost people". It was noted in the highly influential work of 1955, The Problem of the Picts , that the subject area was difficult, with the archaeological and historical records frequently being at odds with
7400-567: The Kingdom of York . In a major battle in 839 , the Vikings killed the King of Fortriu , Eógan mac Óengusa , the King of Dál Riata Áed mac Boanta , and many others. In the aftermath, in the 840s, Kenneth MacAlpin ( Medieval Gaelic : Cináed mac Ailpín ) became king of the Picts. During the reign of Cínaed's grandson, Caustantín mac Áeda (900–943), outsiders began to refer to the region as
7548-552: The Local Government Act 1972 the city and county borough and the Border Rural District were abolished and new enlarged City of Carlisle non-metropolitan district was created within the newly formed administrative county of Cumbria . The municipal borough contained several civil parishes or parts of parishes but these were merged into a single civil parish of Carlisle in 1904. The civil parish
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#17327651863337696-487: The Medieval Latin genitive case ), Cærleoil 1130) and Derwent ( Deorwentan stream c890 (Old English), Derewent ) suggest derivations from Br * Luguvaljon and *Derwentjō . But the Welsh forms Caerliwelydd and Derwennydd are derived from alternative forms *Luguvalijon, *Derwentijō which gave the -ydd ending. This appears to show a divergence between Cumbric and Welsh at a relatively early date. If this
7844-483: The Pictish Beast , the "rectangle", the "mirror and comb", "double-disc and Z-rod" and the "crescent and V-rod", among many others. There are also bosses and lenses with pelta and spiral designs. The patterns are curvilinear with hatchings. The cross-slabs are carved with Pictish symbols, Insular-derived interlace and Christian imagery, though interpretation is often difficult due to wear and obscurity. Several of
7992-445: The cathedral's nave to obtain the stone to rebuild the castle. Carlisle continued to remain a barracks thereafter. In 1698 travel writer Celia Fiennes wrote of Carlisle as having most of the trappings of a military town and that it was rife with alcohol and prostitutes. In 1707 an act of union was passed between England and Scotland, creating Great Britain , but Carlisle remained a garrison town. The tenth, and most recent siege in
8140-619: The 11th and 12th centuries. Other examples, standardised from original sources, include Gosmungo ( Saint Mungo ), Gososwald ( Oswald of Northumbria ) and Goscuthbert ( Cuthbert ). It is impossible to give an exact date of the extinction of Cumbric. However, there are some pointers which may give a reasonably accurate estimate. In the mid-11th century, some landowners still bore what appear to be Cumbric names. Examples of such landowners are Dunegal (Dyfnwal), lord of Strathnith or Nithsdale ; Moryn (Morien), lord of Cardew and Cumdivock near Carlisle; and Eilifr (Eliffer), lord of Penrith. There
8288-472: The 12th century. The technology of everyday life is not well recorded, but archaeological evidence shows it to have been similar to that in Ireland and Anglo-Saxon England. Recently evidence has been found of watermills in Pictland. Kilns were used for drying kernels of wheat or barley, not otherwise easy in the changeable, temperate climate. The early Picts are associated with piracy and raiding along
8436-810: The 13th, written in Old Welsh and Middle Welsh . Cumbric place-names occur in Scotland south of the firths of Forth and Clyde. Brittonic names north of this line are Pictish . Cumbric names are also found commonly in the historic county of Cumberland and in bordering areas of Northumberland. They are less common in Westmorland, east Northumberland, and Durham, with some in Lancashire and the adjoining areas of North and West Yorkshire. Approaching Cheshire, late Brittonic placenames are probably better characterised as Welsh rather than as Cumbric. As noted below, however, any clear distinction between Cumbric and Welsh
8584-411: The 18th century; the scholarly consensus is that these derive from a Brittonic language closely related to Welsh. Though they are often referred to as "sheep-counting numerals", most recorded scores were not used to count sheep, but in knitting or for children's games or nursery rhymes . These scores are often suggested to represent a survival from medieval Cumbric, a theory first popularized in
8732-419: The 19th century. However, later scholars came to reject this idea, suggesting instead that the scores were later imports from either Wales or Scotland , but in light of the dearth of evidence one way or another, Markku Filppula, Juhani Klemola, and Heli Paulasto posit that it remains plausible that the counting systems are indeed of Cumbric origin. Cumbric, in common with other Brythonic languages, used
8880-510: The 7th century Northumbria was the most powerful kingdom in Britain. The Picts were probably tributary to Northumbria until the reign of Bridei mac Beli , when, in 685, the Anglians suffered a defeat at the Battle of Dun Nechtain that halted their northward expansion. The Northumbrians continued to dominate southern Scotland for the remainder of the Pictish period. Dál Riata was subject to
9028-770: The 8th and 9th centuries, after Christianization, the Pictish elite adopted a particular form of the Irish Celtic brooch , preferring true penannular brooches with lobed terminals. Some older Irish brooches were adapted to the Pictish style, for example, the c. 8th century Breadalbane Brooch now in the British Museum . The St Ninian's Isle Treasure (c. 750–825 AD) contains the best collection of Pictish forms. Other characteristics of Pictish metalwork are dotted backgrounds or designs and animal forms influenced by Insular art. The 8th century Monymusk Reliquary has elements of Pictish and Irish styles. The Pictish language
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#17327651863339176-544: The Carlisle Board of Control, and subsequently the Carlisle & District State Management Scheme , it lasted until 1971. During the Second World War, Carlisle hosted over 5,000 evacuees, many of whom arrived from Newcastle upon Tyne and the surrounding towns. A shopping centre (including a new central library) was built to the east and north-east of the market cross and opened in 1986. The area east of
9324-476: The Christian images carved on various stones, such as David the harpist, Daniel and the lion, or scenes of St Paul and St Anthony meeting in the desert, have been influenced by the Insular manuscript tradition. Pictish metalwork is found throughout Pictland (modern-day Scotland) and also further south; the Picts appeared to have a considerable amount of silver available, probably from raiding further south, or
9472-610: The Citadel is Carlisle railway station , designed by William Tite in the neo-Tudor style, considered by Historic England to be among the most important early railway stations in England. Carlisle has held city status since the Middle Ages and a borough constituency or parliamentary borough for centuries, at one time returning two MPs. In 1835 it became a municipal borough which was promoted to county borough status in 1914. The city's boundaries have changed several times since 1835, most notably between 1974 and 2023, when under
9620-757: The Clyde area were medieval immigrants from Wales, but given that the term was also used for local Cumbric-speaking Strathclyde Welsh, it seems equally, if not more, likely that the surname refers to people who were seen as being "Welsh" due to their Cumbric language. Picts The Picts were a group of peoples in what is now Scotland north of the Firth of Forth , in the Early Middle Ages . Where they lived and details of their culture can be gleaned from early medieval texts and Pictish stones . The name Picti appears in written records as an exonym from
9768-624: The Common Brittonic demonstrative *sindos , altered by assimilation (compare the Gaelic articles ). Throughout Old Welsh the article is ir (or -r after a vowel), but there is evidence in Cumbric for an article in -n alongside one in -r . Note the following: Of all the names of possible Cumbric derivation, few are more certain than Carlisle and Derwent which can be directly traced back to their Romano-British recorded forms Luguvalium and Derventio . The modern and medieval forms of Carlisle ( Luel c1050, Cardeol 1092, Karlioli c1100 (in
9916-635: The Durranhill Industrial Estate. Adjoining Harraby to the south but outside the former borough boundary is the hamlet of Carleton . Carlisle is linked to the rest of England via the M6 motorway to the south, and to Scotland via the M74/A74 towards Glasgow and the north. Many trunk roads begin or terminate in Carlisle, including the A6 to Penrith and Luton (historically the main road to
10064-588: The Galloway dialect word gossock 'short, dark haired inhabitant of Wigtownshire' (W. gwasog 'a servant' ) apparently show that the Cumbric equivalent of Welsh and Cornish gwas & B gwaz 'servant' was *gos . Jackson suggests that it may be a survival of the original Proto-Celtic form of the word in –o- (i.e. *uɸo-sto ). This idea is disputed by the Dictionary of the Scots Language ; and
10212-425: The Kingdom of Alba rather than the Kingdom of the Picts, but it is not known whether this was because a new kingdom was established or Alba was simply a closer approximation of the Pictish name for the Picts. However, though the Pictish language did not disappear suddenly, a process of Gaelicisation (which may have begun generations earlier) was clearly underway during the reigns of Caustantín and his successors. By
10360-408: The Mearns ; Fib, the modern Fife ; Fidach, location unknown, but possibly near Inverness ; Fotla, modern Atholl ( Ath-Fotla ); and Fortriu , cognate with the Verturiones of the Romans, recently shown to be centred on Moray . More small kingdoms may have existed. Some evidence suggests that a Pictish kingdom also existed in Orkney . De Situ Albanie is not the most reliable of sources, and
10508-539: The Pictish king Óengus mac Fergusa (reigned 729–761), and although it had its own kings beginning in the 760s, does not appear to have recovered its political independence from the Picts. A later Pictish king, Caustantín mac Fergusa (793–820), placed his son Domnall on the throne of Dál Riata (811–835). Pictish attempts to achieve a similar dominance over the Britons of Alt Clut ( Strathclyde ) were not successful. The Viking Age brought significant change to Britain and Ireland, no less in Scotland than elsewhere, with
10656-495: The Pictish kingdom merged with that of Dál Riata to form the Kingdom of Alba , ruled by the House of Alpin . The concept of "Pictish kingship" continued for a few decades until it was abandoned during the reign of Caustantín mac Áeda . Pictish society was typical of many early medieval societies in northern Europe and had parallels with neighbouring groups. Archaeology gives some impression of their culture. Medieval sources report
10804-508: The Pictish period. Crannogs , which may originate in Neolithic Scotland, may have been rebuilt, and some were still in use in the time of the Picts. The most common sort of buildings would have been roundhouses and rectangular timbered halls. While many churches were built in wood, from the early 8th century, if not earlier, some were built in stone. The Picts are often said to have tattooed themselves, but evidence for this
10952-478: The Picts as pagans. Bede wrote that Saint Ninian (confused by some with Saint Finnian of Moville , who died c. 589), had converted the southern Picts. Recent archaeological work at Portmahomack places the foundation of the monastery there, an area once assumed to be among the last converted, in the late 6th century. This is contemporary with Bridei mac Maelchon and Columba, but the process of establishing Christianity throughout Pictland will have extended over
11100-580: The Picts as settlers from Scythia who arrived on the northern coast of Ireland by chance. Local Scoti leaders redirected them to northern Britain where they settled, taking Scoti wives. The Pictish Chronicle , repeating this story, further names the mythical founding leader Cruithne (the Gaelic word for Pict ), followed by his sons, whose names correspond with the seven provinces of Pictland: Circin , Fidach , Fortriu , Fotla ( Atholl ), Cat , Ce and Fib . Bede's account has long been recognised as pseudohistorical literary invention, and
11248-539: The Picts practised matrilineal succession, but because they were usually followed by their own brothers or cousins ( agnatic seniority ), more likely to be experienced men with the authority and the support necessary to be king. This was similar to tanistry . The nature of kingship changed considerably during the centuries of Pictish history. While earlier kings had to be successful war leaders to maintain their authority, kingship became rather less personalised and more institutionalised during this time. Bureaucratic kingship
11396-569: The Sands Centre (and the nearby Shell petrol station and Bitts Park), marooned from the rest of the city. As several other areas of Cumbria were also badly affected (particularly Appleby and Wigton), all trains to Scotland were postponed indefinitely, with trains on the West Coast Mainline going no further than Preston, as nearby Lancaster suffered flooding and problems with electricity supply. Prime Minister David Cameron visited
11544-517: The Vikings conquering and settling the islands and various mainland areas, including Caithness , Sutherland and Galloway . In the middle of the 9th century Ketil Flatnose is said to have founded the Kingdom of the Isles , governing many of these territories, and by the end of that century the Vikings had destroyed the Kingdom of Northumbria, greatly weakened the Kingdom of Strathclyde , and founded
11692-578: The advance of Gaelic. Fortriu also contains place names suggesting Gaelic settlement, or Gaelic influences. A pre-Gaelic interpretation of the name as Athfocla meaning 'north pass' or 'north way', as in gateway to Moray, suggests that the Gaelic Athfotla may be a Gaelic misreading of the minuscule c for t. Ogham inscriptions on Pictish stones and other Pictish archaeological objects survive. These were argued by influential linguist Kenneth Jackson to be unintelligible as Celtic and evidence for
11840-486: The area, including Verturiones , Taexali and Venicones . Written history relating to the Picts as a people emerges in the Early Middle Ages . At that time, the Gaels of Dál Riata controlled what is now Argyll , as part of a kingdom straddling the sea between Britain and Ireland. The Angles of Bernicia , which merged with Deira to form Northumbria , overwhelmed the adjacent British kingdoms, and for much of
11988-431: The basis of Irish legends and a statement in Bede 's history. The kings of the Picts when Bede was writing were Bridei and Nechtan, sons of Der Ilei, who indeed claimed the throne through their mother Der Ilei, daughter of an earlier Pictish king. In Ireland, kings were expected to come from among those who had a great-grandfather who had been king. Kingly fathers were not frequently succeeded by their sons, not because
12136-578: The castle was garrisoned for the king. It endured a long siege from October 1644 until June 1645 when the Royalist forces surrendered after the Battle of Naseby . The city was occupied by a parliamentary garrison, and subsequently by their Scots allies. In 1646, the Scots, now holding Carlisle pending payment of monies owed them by the English Parliament, improved its fortifications, destroying
12284-463: The church. Nonetheless, the evidence of place names suggests a wide area of Ionan influence in Pictland. Likewise, the Cáin Adomnáin (Law of Adomnán , Lex Innocentium ) counts Nechtan's brother Bridei among its guarantors. The importance of monastic centres in Pictland was not as great as in Ireland. In areas that have been studied, such as Strathspey and Perthshire , it appears that
12432-457: The city on 7 December 2015 to assess the damage, having earlier called an emergency Cobra meeting. In the north of Carlisle are the suburbs of Kingstown, Lowry Hill and Moorville, formerly part of the parish of Kingmoor. To the south of them are Stanwix , Edentown, Etterby, St Ann's Hill and Belah which were added to Carlisle in 1912. The parish of Stanwix Rural exists but only includes a small part of Carlisle's urban area, Whiteclosegate . To
12580-587: The city's history took place after Charles Edward Stuart took Carlisle in the Jacobite Rising of 1745 . When the Jacobites retreated across the border to Scotland they left a garrison of 400 men in Carlisle Castle. Ten days later Prince William, Duke of Cumberland took the castle and executed 31 Jacobites on the streets of Carlisle. Although Carlisle continued to garrison soldiers, becoming
12728-548: The coasts of Roman Britain . Even in the Late Middle Ages , the line between traders and pirates was unclear, so that Pictish pirates were probably merchants on other occasions. It is generally assumed that trade collapsed with the Roman Empire, but this is to overstate the case. There is only limited evidence of long-distance trade with Pictland, but tableware and storage vessels from Gaul, probably transported up
12876-667: The conventional essentialist expectations about historical peoples. Since then, the culture-historical paradigm of archaeology dominant since the late nineteenth century gave way to the processual archaeology (formerly known as the New Archaeology ) theory. Moreover, there has been significant reappraisal of textual sources written, for example by Bede and Adomnán in the seventh and eighth centuries. These works relate events of previous centuries, but current scholarship recognises their often allegorical, pseudo-historical nature, and their true value often lies in an appraisal of
13024-659: The councillors that cover the said areas. They act as appropriate bodies in which historic rights and privileges of Carlisle, including the mayoralty will continue until a governance review will determine the need of a city council . The current member of Parliament is Julie Minns , representing the Labour Party . Carlisle used to be within the North West England constituency of the European Parliament . Carlisle elected 18 county councillors to
13172-920: The different English names of two Welsh towns named Dinbych ('little fort'); Denbigh and Tenby . There is also a significant number of place names which do not support this theory. Devoke Water and Cumdivock (< Dyfoc , according to Ekwall) and Derwent (< Common Brittonic Derwentiō ) all have initial /d/ . The name Calder (< Brit. *Caletodubro- ) in fact appears to show a voiced Cumbric consonant where Welsh has Calettwr by provection , which Jackson believes reflects an earlier stage of pronunciation. Jackson also notes that Old English had no internal or final /ɡ/ , so would be borrowed with /k/ by sound substitution. This can be seen in names with c, k, ck (e.g. Cocker < Brittonic * kukro- , Eccles < Brittonic eglēsia ). The Cumbric personal names Gospatrick, Gososwald and Gosmungo meaning 'servant of St...' (Welsh, Cornish, Breton gwas 'servant, boy') and
13320-592: The district. In the 2011 census, the city's population had risen to 75,306, with 107,524 in the district. On 1 April 2023 the City of Carlisle local government district was abolished, and the boundaries of the City of Carlisle were redefined to cover the following wards: Belah and Kingmoor, Botcherby and Harraby North, Cathedral and Castle, Currock and Upperby, Denton Holme and Morton South, Harraby South and Parklands, Newtown and Morton North, Sandsfield and Morton West and Stanwix and Houghton. Charter trustees were formed from
13468-453: The end of the 19th century when mass housing was built west of the city walls. In 1823 a canal was built to Fisher's Cross ( Port Carlisle ) to transport goods produced in the city. This enabled other industrial centres such as Liverpool to link with Carlisle via the Solway . This was short-lived and when the canal operators ran into financial difficulty the waterway was filled in. A railway
13616-400: The ending were absent. Of additional relevance is that Guto Rhys demonstrated "some robust proof" of the presence of the -ydd ending in the closely aligned Pictish language . One particularly distinctive element of Cumbric is the repeated use of the element Gos- or Cos- (W. gwas 'boy, lad; servant, attendant') in personal names, followed by the name of a saint. The practice
13764-464: The enigmatic Ogham inscriptions, does not indicate a pre-literate society. The church certainly required literacy in Latin, and could not function without copyists to produce liturgical documents. Pictish iconography shows books being read and carried, and its naturalistic style gives every reason to suppose that such images were of real life. Literacy was not widespread, but among the senior clergy, and in monasteries, it would have been common enough. It
13912-493: The existence of a Pictish language , and evidence shows that it was an Insular Celtic language related to the Brittonic spoken by the Celtic Britons to the south. Pictish was gradually displaced by Middle Gaelic as part of the wider Gaelicisation from the late ninth century. Much of their history is known from outside sources, including Bede , hagiographies of saints such as that of Columba by Adomnán , and
14060-532: The former Cumbria County Council. Its headquarters were located at Cumbria House on Botchergate. Until April 2023 Carlisle was governed by a district council , Carlisle City Council and a County Council, Cumbria County Council. After the 2019 elections the Conservative Party ran a minority administration on the district council with the support of the Independents. The district council covered
14208-655: The fourth century. The bulk of written history dates from the seventh century onwards. The Irish annalists and contemporary scholars like Bede use "Picts" to describe the peoples under the Verturian hegemony . This encompassed most of Scotland north of the Forth-Clyde isthmus and to the exclusion of territory occupied by Dál Riata in the west. To the south lay the Brittonic kingdom of Strathclyde , with Lothian occupied by Northumbrian Angles. The use of "Picts" as
14356-786: The headquarters of the Border Regiment , the city's importance as a military town decreased as the industrial age took over. The post of Governor of Carlisle as garrison commander was abolished in 1838. In the early 19th century textile mills, engineering works and food manufacturers built factories in the city mostly in the Denton Holme , Caldewgate and Wapping suburbs in the Caldew Valley. These included Carr's of Carlisle , Kangol , Metal Box and Cowans Sheldon. Shaddon Mill , in Denton Holme, became famous for having
14504-464: The hoard has a "Z-rod", one of the Pictish symbols, in a particularly well-preserved and elegant form; unfortunately few comparable pieces have survived. Over ten heavy silver chains, some over 0.5m long, have been found from this period; the double-linked Whitecleuch Chain is one of only two that have a penannular linking piece for the ends, with symbol decoration including enamel, which shows how these were probably used as "choker" necklaces. In
14652-694: The immediate south of Stanwix is the River Eden. On the opposite bank is the city centre bounded on the west by the West Coast Main Railway line and the River Caldew. In the past industry flourished on the banks of the River Caldew, especially Denton Holme and Caldewgate on the west bank and Wapping, around the former Metal Box works, on the east. West of Caldewgate and north of Denton Holme the suburbs of Newtown, Morton, Sandsfield Park, Longsowerby, Raffles and Belle Vue developed in
14800-659: The late 19th and 20th centuries. The eastern side of the city centre developed in the 19th century into a more affluent area along the main A69 road . It links with the former village of Botcherby to which a large council estate was added in the mid-20th century and later still Durranhill Housing Estate. South of the city centre is the Botchergate/St Nicholas area of late Victorian terraced housing similar to that found in Denton Holme and Caldewgate. The Botchergate East area until recently had older slum dwellings. To
14948-480: The late third century AD. They are assumed to have been descendants of the Caledonii and other northern Iron Age tribes. Their territory is referred to as "Pictland" by modern historians. Initially made up of several chiefdoms , it came to be dominated by the Pictish kingdom of Fortriu from the seventh century. During this Verturian hegemony , Picti was adopted as an endonym. This lasted around 160 years until
15096-536: The latter as far as Morecambe . At the time of the flood, emergency services also had to respond to cases of car-related arson in the city. Carlisle is the only city in Cumbria. The city centre is largely pedestrianised and the Lanes shopping centre is home to around 75 shops. Carlisle has a compact historic centre with a castle , cathedral and semi-intact city walls , as well as other medieval buildings including
15244-532: The loss of final syllables. If the poem ultimately dates to this time, it would have originally been written in an early form of Cumbric, the usual name for the Brythonic speech of the Hen Ogledd; Jackson suggested the name "Primitive Cumbric" for the dialect spoken at the time. However, scholars date the poem to between the 7th and the early 11th centuries, and the earliest surviving manuscript of it dates to
15392-536: The mainland Pictish genomes, Iron Age Britons and the present-day people living in western Scotland, Wales , Northern Ireland and Northumbria , but less with the rest of England, supporting the current archaeological theories of a "local origin" of the Pictish people. The area occupied by the Picts had previously been described by Roman writers and geographers as the home of the Caledonii . These Romans also used other names to refer to Britannic tribes living in
15540-607: The market cross had formerly been occupied by narrow alleyways of housing and small shops (on a layout which had not changed much since medieval times) and referred to locally as The Lanes . Carlisle city centre was pedestrianised in 1989. On the evening of Friday, 7 January 2005, the rivers Eden, Caldew and Petteril burst their banks due to as much as 180 mm rainfall upstream that day. 2,700 homes were flooded and three people died. The city's police and fire stations were flooded along with Brunton Park football stadium. The police, fire service and Carlisle United F.C. were mobilised,
15688-463: The name, in terms of language, culture, religion and politics. The term "Pict" is found in Roman sources from the end of the third century AD, when it was used to describe unromanised people in northern Britain. The term is most likely to have been pejorative, emphasising their supposed barbarism in contrast to the Britons under Roman rule. It has been argued, most notably by James Fraser , that
15836-558: The north end the castle towers were converted to artillery platforms, at the south the medieval Bochard gate was converted into the Citadel , an artillery fortification with two massive artillery towers. The death of Queen Elizabeth I in 1603 and her succession by James VI of Scotland as King James I of England allowed more determined and coordinated efforts to suppress reiving. The borderers were not quick to change their ways and many were hanged and whole families were exiled to Ireland. It
15984-472: The north of England and the south of Scotland. Other sources include the personal names of Strathclyde Britons in Scottish, Irish, and Anglo-Saxon sources, and a few Cumbric words surviving into the High Middle Ages in southwest Scotland as legal terms. Although the language is long extinct, traces of its vocabulary arguably have persisted into the modern era in the form of " counting scores " and in
16132-472: The north. Carlisle was subject to the decline in the textile industry experienced throughout Britain as new machinery made labour unnecessary. In 1916, during the First World War , the government took over the public houses and breweries in Carlisle because of drunkenness among construction and munitions workers from the munitions factory at Gretna . This experiment nationalised brewing. As
16280-542: The northernmost limit of the study with the southernmost limits being Liverpool Bay and the Humber , although a few more southerly place-names in Cheshire and, to a lesser extent, Derbyshire and Staffordshire were also included. The evidence from Cumbric comes almost entirely through secondary sources, since no known contemporary written records of the language survive. The majority of evidence comes from place names of
16428-407: The number of kingdoms, one for each of the seven sons of Cruithne , the eponymous founder of the Picts, may well be grounds enough for disbelief. Regardless of the exact number of kingdoms and their names, the Pictish nation was not a united one. For most of Pictish recorded history, the kingdom of Fortriu appears dominant, so much so that king of Fortriu and king of the Picts may mean one and
16576-537: The occurrence in Gospatrick's Writ of the word wassenas 'dependants', thought to be from the same word gwas , is evidence against Jackson's theory. Koch notes that the alternation between gwa- and go- is common among the Brittonic languages and does not amount to a systematic sound change in any of them. Thomas Clancy opined that the royal feminine personal name in Life of Kentigern, Languoreth , demonstrates
16724-560: The other Brittonic languages . Place-name evidence suggests Cumbric may also have been spoken as far south as Pendle and the Yorkshire Dales . The prevailing view is that it became extinct in the 12th century, after the incorporation of the semi-independent Kingdom of Strathclyde into the Kingdom of Scotland . Dauvit Broun sets out the problems with the various terms used to describe the Cumbric language and its speakers. The people seem to have called themselves * Cumbri
16872-408: The parochial structure of the High Middle Ages existed in early medieval times. Among the major religious sites of eastern Pictland were Portmahomack, Cennrígmonaid (later St Andrews ), Dunkeld , Abernethy and Rosemarkie . It appears that these are associated with Pictish kings, which argue for a considerable degree of royal patronage and control of the church. Portmahomack in particular has been
17020-479: The payment of subsidies to keep them from doing so. The very large hoard of late Roman hacksilver found at Traprain Law may have originated in either way. The largest hoard of early Pictish metalwork was found in 1819 at Norrie's Law in Fife, but unfortunately much was dispersed and melted down ( Scots law on treasure finds has always been unhelpful to preservation). A famous 7th century silver and enamel plaque from
17168-591: The presence of /gw/ Cumbric. It is noteworthy that the toponym Brenkibeth in Cumberland (now Burntippet; possibly bryn , "hill" + gwyped , "gnats") may display this syllable anglicized as -k- . The name, however, may not be Brittonic at all, and instead be of Scandinavian origin. In the Book of Aneirin , a poem entitled " Peis Dinogat " (possibly set in the Lake District of Cumbria ), contains
17316-507: The real derivation of these words is far from simple, due in part to the similarities between some cognates in the Brittonic and Goidelic languages and the fact that borrowing took place in both directions between these languages. Another difficulty lies with other words which were taken into Old English , as in many cases it is impossible to tell whether the borrowing is directly from Brittonic or not (e.g. Brogat , Crag , below). The following are possibilities: The linguistic term Cumbric
17464-720: The region further as being bound in the north by the Firth of Clyde, in the south by the River Ribble and in the east by the Southern Scottish Uplands and the Pennine Ridge. The study Brittonic Language in the Old North by Alan G. James, concerned with documenting place- and river-names as evidence for Cumbric and the pre-Cumbric Brittonic dialects of the region Yr Hen Ogledd , considered Loch Lomond
17612-399: The region. The following table lists some of them according to the modern Welsh equivalent: Some Cumbric names have historically been replaced by Scottish Gaelic , Middle English , or Scots equivalents, and in some cases the different forms occur in the historical record. Derivatives of Common Brittonic *magno , such as Welsh maen and Cornish men , mean "stone", particularly one with
17760-574: The rest of the first millennium, Carlisle was an important stronghold contested by several entities who warred over the area, including the Brythonic Kingdom of Strathclyde and the Anglian kingdom of Northumbria . In 685, St Cuthbert , visiting the Queen of Northumbria in her sister's monastery at Carlisle, was taken to see the city walls and a marvellously constructed Roman fountain. By
17908-466: The same thing in the annals. This was previously thought to lie in the area around Perth and southern Strathearn ; however, recent work has convinced those working in the field that Moray (a name referring to a very much larger area in the High Middle Ages than the county of Moray ) was the core of Fortriu. The Picts are often thought to have practised matrilineal kingship succession on
18056-488: The same way that the Welsh called themselves Cymry (most likely from reconstructed Brittonic * kom-brogī meaning "fellow countrymen"). The Welsh and the Cumbric-speaking people of what are now southern Scotland and northern England probably felt they were actually one ethnic group. Old Irish speakers called them "Britons", Bretnach , or Bretain . The Norse called them Brettar . In Latin,
18204-679: The south prior to the opening of the M6), the A595 to western Cumbria, the A69 to Newcastle upon Tyne and the A7 to Edinburgh. Cumbric language Cumbric is an extinct Celtic language of the Brittonic subgroup spoken during the Early Middle Ages in the Hen Ogledd or "Old North", in Northern England and the southern Scottish Lowlands . It was closely related to Old Welsh and
18352-477: The south west of Botchergate and St Nicholas are the former villages now suburbs of Upperby and Currock . The urban area spills over the former county borough boundary into Blackwell and Durdar in the civil parish of St Cuthbert Without . Between Upperby and Botcherby is Harraby, a former village once part of St Cuthbert Without and the largest suburb of Carlisle. Harraby is subdivided into Harraby East, New Harraby, Harraby Green, Old Harraby, Petteril Bank and
18500-610: The specifically Cumbric region as "the area approximately between the line of the River Mersey and the Forth-Clyde Isthmus", but went on to include evidence from the Wirral Peninsula in his discussion and did not define its easterly extent. Kenneth H. Jackson described Cumbric as "the Brittonic dialect of Cumberland , Westmorland , northern Lancashire , and south-west Scotland" and went on to define
18648-490: The subject of recent excavation and research, published by Martin Carver . The cult of saints was, as throughout Christian lands, of great importance in later Pictland. While kings might venerate great saints, such as Saint Peter in the case of Nechtan, and perhaps Saint Andrew in the case of the second Óengus mac Fergusa , many lesser saints, some now obscure, were important. The Pictish Saint Drostan appears to have had
18796-708: The term "Pict" would have had little meaning to the people to whom it was being applied. Fraser posits that it was only adopted as an endonym in the late seventh century, as an inclusive term for people under rule of the Verturian hegemony, centered in Fortriu (the area around modern-day Inverness and Moray ), particularly following the Battle of Dun Nechtain . This view is, however, not universal. Gordon Noble and Nicholas Evans consider it plausible, if not provable, that "Picts" may have been used as an endonym by those northern Britons in closest contact with Rome as early as
18944-642: The terms Cymry and Cumbri were Latinised as Cambria and Cumbria respectively. In Medieval Latin, the English term Welsh became Wallenses ("of Wales"), while the term Cumbrenses referred to Cumbrians ("of Cumbria"). However, in Scots, a Cumbric speaker seems to have been called Wallace – from the Scots Wallis/Wellis "Welsh". In Cumbria itaque: regione quadam inter Angliam et Scotiam sita – "And so in Cumbria:
19092-579: The time of the Norman Conquest of England in 1066, Carlisle was in the possession of the Scots. It was not recorded in the 1086 Domesday Book . This changed in 1092, when William the Conqueror 's son William Rufus invaded the region and incorporated Carlisle into England. The construction of Carlisle Castle began in 1093 on the site of the Roman fort, south of the River Eden . The castle
19240-469: The time period in which they were written. The difficulties with Pictish history and archaeology arise from the fact that the people who were called Picts were a fundamentally heterogeneous group with little cultural uniformity. Care is needed to avoid viewing them through the lens of what the cultural historian Gilbert Márkus calls the "Ethnic Fallacy". The people known as "Picts" by outsiders in late antiquity were very different from those who later adopted
19388-434: The time. In the time of the emperor Nero , it was said to have burned down. The Roman settlement was named Luguvalium , based on a native name that has been reconstructed as Brittonic * Luguwaljon , "[city] of Luguwalos", a masculine Celtic given name meaning "strength of Lugus ". Excavations undertaken along Annetwell Street in the 1970s dated the Roman timber fort constructed at the site of present Carlisle Castle to
19536-513: The top of their head to the soles of their feet, before and behind, within and without." After the Pilgrimage of Grace , Henry VIII , concerned at the weakness of his hold on the North, employed (1539) the engineer Stefan von Haschenperg to modernise the defences of Carlisle. von Haschenperg was sacked in 1543 for having "spent great treasures to no purpose"; but (by him and his successors) at
19684-488: The wall. Hadrian's successor Antoninus Pius abandoned the frontier and attempted to move further north; he built the Antonine Wall between the firths of Forth and Clyde . It was not a success and, after 20 years, the garrisons returned to Hadrian's Wall. At one time, Carlisle broke off from Rome when Marcus Carausius assumed power over the territory. He was assassinated and suffered damnatio memoriae , but
19832-399: The wild. The pastoral economy meant that hides and leather were readily available. Wool was the main source of fibres for clothing, and flax was also common, although it is not clear if they grew it for fibres, for oil, or as a foodstuff. Fish, shellfish, seals, and whales were exploited along coasts and rivers. The importance of domesticated animals suggests that meat and milk products were
19980-461: The winter of AD 73. It protected a strategic location on the Roman road to the north and overlooking the confluence of the Caldew and Eden rivers. The fort at Carlisle was reconstructed in 83 using oak timbers from further afield, rather than local alder as a possible result of the increased Roman control of the area. At this time the Roman fort was garrisoned by a 500-strong cavalry regiment,
20128-565: The works of the Roman historian Tacitus . The earliest recorded inhabitants in the area were the Carvetii tribe of Britons who made up the main population of ancient Cumbria and North Lancashire . According to Boethius and John of Fordun , writing in the 18th and 19th centuries, Carlisle existed before the arrival of the Romans in Britain and was one of the strongest British towns at
20276-558: The world's 8th tallest chimney and was the largest cotton mill in England. The expanding industries brought about an increase in population as jobs shifted from rural farms towards the cities. This produced a housing shortage where at one point 25,000 people in the city only had 5,000 houses to live in. People were said to be herded together with animal houses, slaughter houses and communal lavatories with open drains running between them. Living conditions were so bad that riots were common and some people emigrated. The problem wasn't solved until
20424-486: Was abolished on 1 April 1974, although parts of the urban fringe are in the parishes of Stanwix Rural , Kingmoor and St Cuthbert Without . Carlisle unsuccessfully applied to become a Lord Mayoralty in 2002. Carlisle City Council had its headquarters at the 1960s Civic Centre in Rickergate, the tallest building in the city. At the time of the 2001 census , the population of Carlisle was 71,773, with 100,734 living in
20572-439: Was an early dialectal variation, it can't be applied as a universal sound law, as the equivalent of W mynydd 'mountain' occurs in a number of Cumbric names with the spirant intact: E.g. Mindrum ( Minethrum 1050) from 'mountain ridge' (Welsh mynydd trum ). It might also be noted that Medieval Welsh forms of Caerliwelydd and Derwennydd both occur in poems of supposed Cumbrian origin whose rhyme and metre would be disrupted if
20720-560: Was built in place of the canal. Carlisle became a major railway centre on the West Coast Main Line with connections to the east. At one time seven companies used Carlisle Citadel railway station . Before the building of the Citadel railway station the city had several other railway stations, including London Road railway station . Carlisle had the largest railway marshalling yard in Europe, Kingmoor, which, reduced in size,
20868-660: Was common. Animals were small by later standards, although horses from Britain were imported into Ireland as breeding stock to enlarge native horses. From Irish sources, it appears that the elite engaged in competitive cattle breeding for size, and this may have been the case in Pictland also. Carvings show hunting with dogs, and also, unlike in Ireland, with falcons. Cereal crops included wheat , barley , oats and rye . Vegetables included kale , cabbage , onions and leeks , peas and beans and turnips , and some types no longer common, such as skirret . Plants such as wild garlic , nettles and watercress may have been gathered in
21016-552: Was derived from a native form, perhaps related etymologically to the Gallic Pictones . The Picts were called Cruithni in Old Irish and Prydyn in Old Welsh . These are lexical cognates , from the proto-Celtic * kwritu 'form', from which * Pretania (Britain) also derives. Pretani (and with it Cruithni and Prydyn ) is likely to have originated as a generalised term for any native inhabitant of Britain. This
21164-1074: Was held on 5 May 2022. All 46 seats were up for election. Labour won a majority of 30 seats. Conservatives have 7 seats, Liberal Democrats 4 seats, Independents 3 seats and Green Party 2 seats. Turnout was 36.1%. Carlisle is situated on a slight rise, in the Cumberland Ward , at the confluence of the rivers Eden , Caldew and Petteril . An important centre for trade, it is located 56 mi (90 km) west of Newcastle upon Tyne , 71 mi (114 km) north of Lancaster , 90 mi (140 km) south-east of Glasgow , 93 mi (150 km) south of Edinburgh , 120 mi (190 km) north-west of York , and 300 mi (480 km) north-north-west of London . Nearby towns and villages include Longtown (north), Penrith (south), Brampton (east), Wigton (west), Haggbeck, Harker , Carwinley, Blackford , Houghton, Scotby , Wreay and Rockcliffe . Carlisle experiences an oceanic climate ( Köppen climate classification Cfb ). In January 2005 Carlisle
21312-447: Was hit by strong gales and heavy rain, and on Saturday 8 January 2005 all roads into Carlisle were closed owing to severe flooding , the worst since 1822, which caused three deaths. Even worse flooding than in 2005 affected Carlisle between 4 and 6 December 2015. During this time, nearly 36 hours of incessant rainfall breached flood defences and left several areas submerged – including Bitts Park, Hardwicke Circus and Warwick Road. This left
21460-599: Was more closely aligned to the Pictish language than to Welsh, though there is considerable debate regarding the classification of that language. On the basis of place name evidence it has also been proposed that all three languages were very similar. In all probability, the "Cumbric" of Lothian more nearly resembled the "Pictish" of adjacent Fife than the Welsh dialects spoken over 300 miles away in Dyfed and accordingly, Alan G. James has argued that all 3 languages may have formed
21608-488: Was not until 1681 that the problem of the reivers was acknowledged as no longer an issue. Following the personal union of the crowns Carlisle Castle should have become obsolete as a frontier fortress, but the two kingdoms continued as separate states. In 1639, with war between the two kingdoms looming, the castle was refortified using stone from the cathedral cloisters. In 1642 the English Civil War broke out and
21756-407: Was rebuilt in stone in 1112, with a keep and the city walls . The walls enclosed the city south of the castle and included three gates to the east, south, and north called the Irish or Caldew Gate, the English or Botcher Gate, and the Scotch or Ricker Gate respectively. The names of the gates exist in road names in Carlisle today. Carlisle Cathedral was founded as an Augustinian priory and became
21904-600: Was still far in the future when Pictland became Alba, but the support of the church, and the apparent ability of a small number of families to control the kingship for much of the period from the later 7th century onwards, provided a considerable degree of continuity. In much the same period, the Picts' neighbours in Dál Riata and Northumbria faced considerable difficulties, as the stability of succession and rule that previously benefited them ended. The later Mormaers are thought to have originated in Pictish times, and to have been copied from, or inspired by, Northumbrian usages. It
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