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117-507: Abdülmecid II or Abdulmejid II ( Ottoman Turkish : عبد المجید ثانی , romanized :  ʿAbdü'l-Mecîd-i s ânî ; Turkish : II. Abdülmecid ; 29 May 1868 – 23 August 1944) was the last Ottoman caliph , the only caliph of the Republic of Turkey , and head of the Osmanoğlu family from 1926 to 1944. As opposed to previous caliphs, he used the title Halîfe-i Müslimîn (Caliph of

234-731: A congress in Sivas . Those who opposed the Allies in various provinces in Turkey issued a declaration named Misak-ı Millî ("National Pact"). Atatürk was appointed as the head of the executive committee of the Congress, which gave him the legitimacy he needed for his future politics. The last election to the Ottoman parliament held in December 1919 gave a sweeping majority to candidates of

351-561: A Muslim part of a vast Empire into a modern, democratic, and secular nation-state. This had a positive influence on human capital because from then on, what mattered at school was science and education; Islam was concentrated in mosques and religious places. Atatürk's driving goal was the complete independence of the country. He clarified his position: ...by complete independence, we mean of course complete economic, financial, juridical, military, cultural independence and freedom in all matters. Being deprived of independence in any of these

468-523: A Turkish surname. The Turkish Parliament granted him the surname Atatürk in 1934, which means "Father of the Turks", in recognition of the role he played in building the modern Turkish Republic. He died on 10 November 1938 at Dolmabahçe Palace in Istanbul , at the age of 57; he was succeeded as president by his long-time prime minister İsmet İnönü , and was honored with a state funeral . In 1981,

585-425: A [d] when followed by a vowel sound. This is reflected in conventions of Ottoman orthography as well. In Turkish, there is a verb representing to be , but it is a defective verb. It doesn't have an infinitive or several other tenses. It is usually a suffix. Negative verb to be is created with the use of the word دگل değil , followed by the appropriate conjugation of the to be verb; or optionally used as

702-504: A confidant that Enver Pasha was a dangerous figure who might lead the country to ruin. The primary concern towards Atatürk was the Turkish government's involvement with and reaction to the burning of Smyrna in 1922, which saw Muslim Turkish mobs and paramilitaries openly engaged in mass murder of Greeks and Armenians and destroy the city's Greek and Armenian quarters, killing an estimated 100,000 people. Whether these atrocities, including

819-685: A counter-revolution (see 31 March Incident ). Atatürk was instrumental in suppressing the revolt. In 1910, he was called to the Ottoman provinces in Albania . At that time Isa Boletini was leading Albanian uprisings in Kosovo , and there were revolts in Albania as well. In 1910, Atatürk met with Eqrem Vlora , the Albanian lord, politician, writer, and one of the delegates of the Albanian Declaration of Independence . Later, in

936-642: A counteroffensive. Two of his divisions captured Bitlis and Muş , upsetting the calculations of the Russian Command. Following this victory, the CUP government in Constantinople proposed to establish a new army in Hejaz ( Hicaz Kuvve-i Seferiyesi ) and appoint Atatürk to its command, but he refused the proposal and this army was never established. Instead, on 7 March 1917, Atatürk was promoted from

1053-606: A decision backed by President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan , who said the language should be taught in schools so younger generations do not lose touch with their cultural heritage. Most Ottoman Turkish was written in the Ottoman Turkish alphabet ( Ottoman Turkish : الفبا , romanized :  elifbâ ), a variant of the Perso-Arabic script . The Armenian , Greek and Rashi script of Hebrew were sometimes used by Armenians, Greeks and Jews. (See Karamanli Turkish ,

1170-508: A dialect of Ottoman written in the Greek script; Armeno-Turkish alphabet ) The actual grammar of Ottoman Turkish is not different from the grammar of modern Turkish .The focus of this section is on the Ottoman orthography; the conventions surrounding how the orthography interacted and dealt with grammatical morphemes related to conjugations, cases, pronouns, etc. Table below lists nouns with

1287-676: A document but would use the native Turkish word bal ( بال ) when buying it. The transliteration system of the İslâm Ansiklopedisi has become a de facto standard in Oriental studies for the transliteration of Ottoman Turkish texts. In transcription , the New Redhouse, Karl Steuerwald, and Ferit Devellioğlu dictionaries have become standard. Another transliteration system is the Deutsche Morgenländische Gesellschaft (DMG), which provides

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1404-473: A few years later, in 1934, full universal suffrage. His government carried out a policy of Turkification , trying to create a homogeneous, unified and above all secular nation under the Turkish banner. Under Atatürk, the minorities in Turkey were ordered to speak Turkish in public, but were allowed to maintain their own languages in private and within their own communities; non-Turkish toponyms were replaced and non-Turkish families were ordered to adopt

1521-594: A merchant Mustafa Elvan (Cantekin) called Vatan ve Hürriyet ("Motherland and Liberty"). On 20 June 1907, he was promoted to the rank of Senior Captain ( Kolağası ) and on 13 October 1907, was assigned to the headquarters of the Third Army in Manastır . He joined the Committee of Union and Progress , with membership number 322, although in later years he became known for his opposition to, and frequent criticism of,

1638-499: A modern musical gathering, and of his wife, Şehsuvar Hanım , reading Goethe 's novel Faust , express the influence of western Europe in his elite circle. These were displayed at a 1918 exhibition of Ottoman paintings in Vienna . His personal self-portrait can be seen at Istanbul Modern . Abdulmejid was also an avid collector of butterflies , an activity that he pursued during the last 20 years of his life. His favourite magazine

1755-644: A more significant role as Chairman of the Ottoman Artists' Society and was a personal friend of some Western painters, such as Fausto Zonaro , who was influential in art in the Ottoman Empire . He was also connected to the French artist Adolphe Thalasso, who dedicated some works to him. He is considered one of the most important painters of late period Ottoman art . His paintings of the Harem , showing

1872-670: A national election to establish a new Turkish Parliament seated in Angora. – the " Grand National Assembly " (GNA). On 23 April 1920, the GNA opened with Atatürk as the speaker ; this act effectively created the situation of diarchy in the country. In May 1920, the power struggle between the two governments led to a death sentence in absentia for Atatürk by the Turkish courts-martial . Halide Edib (Adıvar) and Ali Fuat (Cebesoy) were also sentenced to death alongside Atatürk. On 10 August 1920,

1989-601: A period of time, he worked at the headquarters of the Ministry of War ( Harbiye Nezareti ) in Constantinople and continued his activities in this city until 16 May 1919. Along the established lines of the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire , the Allies (British, Italian, French and Greek forces) occupied Anatolia . The occupation of Constantinople, followed by the occupation of İzmir (the two largest Ottoman cities at

2106-418: A post-Ottoman state . See the list of replaced loanwords in Turkish for more examples of Ottoman Turkish words and their modern Turkish counterparts. Two examples of Arabic and two of Persian loanwords are found below. Historically speaking, Ottoman Turkish is the predecessor of modern Turkish. However, the standard Turkish of today is essentially Türkiye Türkçesi (Turkish of Turkey) as written in

2223-510: A religious school, something he did reluctantly and only briefly. Later, he attended the Şemsi Efendi School (a private school with a more secular curriculum) at the direction of his father. When he was seven years old, his father died. His mother wanted him to learn a trade, but without consulting them, Atatürk took the entrance exam for the Salonica Military School ( Selanik Askeri Rüştiyesi ) in 1893. In 1896, he enrolled in

2340-411: A single root verb, with the addition of a variety of morphemes and suffixes, multiple new and different verbs meanings can be expressed in single but larger words. Below table is a sample from the verb تپمك tepmek meaning 'to kick', whose root (which is also 2nd person imperative) is تپ tep . Each of the produced new verbs below can be made into an infinitive with the addition of ـمك -mek at

2457-721: A sister named Makbule (Atadan) survived childhood; she died in 1956. Claims and theories about Atatürk's ancestry are strikingly varied and contrasting. According to Andrew Mango, his family was Muslim, Turkish-speaking and precariously middle-class. His father Ali Rıza is thought to have been of Albanian origin by some authors; however, according to Falih Rıfkı Atay , Vamık D. Volkan , Norman Itzkowitz , Müjgân Cunbur, Numan Kartal and Hasan İzzettin Dinamo, Ali Rıza's ancestors were Turks , ultimately descending from Söke in Aydın Province of Anatolia . His mother Zübeyde

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2574-434: A son and a daughter: Ottoman Turkish language Historically, Ottoman Turkish was transformed in three eras: In 1928, following the fall of the Ottoman Empire after World War I and the establishment of the Republic of Turkey , widespread language reforms (a part in the greater framework of Atatürk's Reforms ) instituted by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk saw the replacement of many Persian and Arabic origin loanwords in

2691-427: A standalone for 3rd person. Generally, the verbs 'to exist' and 'to have' are expressed using what's called an existential copula , the word وار var . The verb 'to have' is expressed in the same way, except that the object noun will take a possessive pronoun, producing sentences that will literally mean "there exists house of mine". The verbs 'to exist' and 'to have' conjugated for other tenses, are expressed in

2808-692: A strength of 150,000 men; it was opposed by 20,000 Bedouins and 8,000 Turks. A short time before Italy declared war, many of the Ottoman troops in Libya were sent to the Ottoman province of Yemen Vilayet to put down the rebellion there, so the Ottoman government was caught with inadequate resources to counter the Italians in Libya. Britain, which controlled the Ottoman provinces of Egypt and Sudan , did not allow additional Ottoman troops to reach Libya through Egypt. Ottoman soldiers like Atatürk went to Libya either dressed as Arabs (risking imprisonment if noticed by

2925-732: A stronger defensive line to the north, in Ottoman Syria (in parts of the Beirut Vilayet , Damascus Vilayet , and Aleppo Vilayet ), with Turks instead of Germans in command. Following the rejection of his report, Atatürk resigned from the Seventh Army and returned to Constantinople. There, he was assigned with the task of accompanying the crown prince (and future sultan) Mehmed Vahideddin during his train trip to Austria-Hungary and Germany. While in Germany, Atatürk visited

3042-486: A telegram to the Minister of Foreign Affairs Yusuf Kemal that described the official version of events in the city. In the telegram, he alleged the Greek and Armenian minorities had "pre-arranged plans" to "destroy İzmir". There are allegations Atatürk chose to do little about the Greek and Armenian victims of the fires caused by Muslim rioters in order to rebuild the city as Turkish-dominated İzmir . Although Atatürk

3159-623: A transliteration system for any Turkic language written in Arabic script. There are few differences between the İA and the DMG systems. Mustafa Kemal Atat%C3%BCrk Reforms Kemalism Mustafa Kemal Atatürk , also known as Mustafa Kemal Pasha until 1921, and Ghazi Mustafa Kemal from 1921 until the Surname Law of 1934 ( c. 1881  – 10 November 1938), was a Turkish field marshal , revolutionary statesman, author, and

3276-435: A variety of phonological features that come into play when taking case suffixes. The table includes a typical singular and plural noun, containing back and front vowels, words that end with the letter ه ـه ([a] or [e]), both back and front vowels, word that ends in a ت ([t]) sound, and word that ends in either ق or ك ([k]). These words are to serve as references, to observe orthographic conventions: Table below shows

3393-616: A very limited extent and usually in specialist contexts ; for example, the Persian genitive construction takdîr-i ilâhî (which reads literally as "the preordaining of the divine" and translates as "divine dispensation" or "destiny") is used, as opposed to the normative modern Turkish construction, ilâhî takdîr (literally, "divine preordaining"). In 2014, Turkey's Education Council decided that Ottoman Turkish should be taught in Islamic high schools and as an elective in other schools,

3510-610: A while, he moved to Nice , France in October 1924. Abdulmejid lived a quiet life in Nice, France . His daughter Dürrüşehvar Sultan and his niece Nilüfer Hanım Sultan married the sons of the Nizam of Hyderabad , one of the richest people in the world; thanks to this, his financial situation improved. As he did not get the anticipated support from the Islamic world for the restoration of

3627-409: Is compound verbs. This consists of adding a Persian or Arabic active or passive participle to a neuter verb, to do ( ایتمك etmek ) or to become ( اولمق olmaq ). For example, note the following two verbs: Below table shows some sample conjugations of these two verbs. The conjugation of the verb "etmek" isn't straightforward, because the root of the verb ends in a [t]. This sound transforms into

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3744-403: Is equivalent to the nation and country being deprived of all its independence. He led wide-ranging reforms in social, cultural, and economic aspects, establishing the new Republic's backbone of legislative, judicial, and economic structures. Though he was later idealized by some as an originator of sweeping reforms, many of his reformist ideas were already common in Ottoman intellectual circles at

3861-501: Is thought to have been of Turkish origin, and according to Şevket Süreyya Aydemir , she was of Turkic Yörük ancestry. According to some various claims, she descended from Albanians , Macedonian Torbeši , or Muslim Bulgarians . Due to the large Jewish community of Salonica in the Ottoman period, many of his Islamist opponents who were disturbed by his reforms claimed that Atatürk had Jewish Dönme ancestors. In his early years, his mother encouraged Atatürk to attend

3978-863: The Caliphate army propped up by the Allied occupation forces and had the immediate task of fighting the Armenian forces in the Eastern Front and the Greek forces advancing eastward from Smyrna (today known as İzmir ) that they had occupied in May 1919, on the Western Front . The GNA military successes against the Democratic Republic of Armenia in the autumn of 1920 and later against

4095-900: The Fifth Army during the Battle of Gallipoli . He became the front-line commander after correctly anticipating where the Allies would attack, and held his position until they retreated. Following the Battle of Gallipoli, Atatürk served in Edirne until 14 January 1916. He was then assigned to the command of the XVI Corps of the Second Army and sent to the Caucasus Campaign after the massive Russian offensive had reached key Anatolian cities. On 7 August, he rallied his troops and mounted

4212-600: The Gallipoli peninsula and, during the First Balkan War , he took part in the amphibious landing at Bulair on the coast of Thrace under Binbaşı Fethi Bey , but this offensive was repulsed during the Battle of Bulair by Georgi Todorov 's 7th Rila Infantry Division under the command of Stiliyan Kovachev 's Bulgarian Fourth Army . In June 1913, during the Second Balkan War , he took part in

4329-847: The Kingdom of Italy in the Treaty of Lausanne (1912) signed ten days later, on 18 October 1912. Since 1923, historians have preferred to name this treaty as the "Treaty of Ouchy", after the Château d'Ouchy in Lausanne where it was signed, to distinguish it from the later Treaty of Lausanne (1923) signed between the Allies of World War I and the Grand National Assembly of Turkey in Ankara (at that time known as Angora). On 1 December 1912, Atatürk arrived at his new headquarters on

4446-685: The Monastir Military High School (in modern Bitola , North Macedonia ) where he excelled at mathematics. On 14 March 1899, he enrolled at the Ottoman Military Academy in the neighbourhood of Pangaltı within the Şişli district of the Ottoman capital city Constantinople (modern Istanbul ) and graduated in 1902. He later graduated from the Ottoman Military College in Constantinople on 11 January 1905. Shortly after graduation, he

4563-662: The Turkish postal service . Once a provincial town deep in Anatolia, the city was thus turned into the center of the independence movement. Atatürk wanted a "direct government by the Assembly" and visualized a representative democracy , parliamentary sovereignty , where the National Parliament would be the ultimate source of power. In the following years, he altered his stance somewhat; the country needed an immense amount of reconstruction, and "direct government by

4680-422: The founding father of the Republic of Turkey , serving as its first president from 1923 until his death in 1938. He undertook sweeping progressive reforms , which modernized Turkey into a secular , industrializing nation. Ideologically a secularist and nationalist , his policies and socio-political theories became known as Kemalism (Atatürkism). Atatürk came to prominence for his role in securing

4797-467: The "Association for Defence of Rights for Anatolia and Roumelia" ( Anadolu ve Rumeli Müdafaa-i Hukuk Cemiyeti ), headed by Atatürk, who himself remained in Angora, now known as Ankara . The fourth (and last) term of the parliament opened in Constantinople on 12 January 1920. It was dissolved by British forces on 18 March 1920, shortly after it adopted the Misak-ı Millî ("National Pact"). Atatürk called for

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4914-591: The 15th Avenue du Maréchal Mounoury, Paris , due to a heart attack. His death coincided with the Liberation of Paris from the German occupation . Despite the efforts of Dürrüşehvar Sultan, the Turkish government did not permit his funeral to be held in Turkey. Subsequently, his remains were preserved at the Grand Mosque of Paris for ten years. Finally, when the mosque could no longer maintain his body, his body

5031-418: The Assembly" could not survive in such an environment. The revolutionaries faced challenges from the supporters of the old Ottoman regime, and also from the supporters of newer ideologies such as communism and fascism . Atatürk saw the consequences of fascist and communist doctrines in the 1920s and 1930s and rejected both. He prevented the spread into Turkey of the totalitarian party rule which held sway in

5148-515: The British authorities in Egypt) or by the very few available ferries (the Italians, who had superior naval forces, effectively controlled the sea routes to Tripoli ). However, despite all the hardships, Atatürk's forces in Libya managed to repel the Italians on a number of occasions, such as at the Battle of Tobruk on 22 December 1911. During the Battle of Derna on 16–17 January 1912, while Atatürk

5265-741: The Commander of the Ottoman forces in Derna. He managed to defend and retain the city and its surrounding region until the end of the Italo-Turkish War on 18 October 1912. Atatürk, Enver Bey , Fethi Bey , and the other Ottoman military commanders in Libya had to return to Ottoman Europe following the outbreak of the Balkan Wars on 8 October 1912. Having lost the war, the Ottoman government had to surrender Tripolitania , Fezzan , and Cyrenaica (three provinces forming present-day Libya) to

5382-702: The Dolmabahçe Palace at 5:00 the next morning. Here, after being hosted by the head of the Rumeli Railways Company for a while, they were put on the Simplon Express . When he left Turkey, he traveled to Switzerland . However, contrary to expectations, he was not greeted by a delegation or ceremony but simply as an ordinary traveler. He was also in a difficult financial situation. When Abdulmejid II arrived in Switzerland , he

5499-442: The GNA, refused any proposal that would compromise Turkish sovereignty, such as the control of Turkish finances, the Capitulations , the Straits and other issues. Although the conference paused on 4 February, it continued after 23 April mainly focusing on the economic issues. On 24 July 1923, the Treaty of Lausanne was signed by the Powers with the GNA, thus recognising the latter as the government of Turkey. On 29 October 1923,

5616-490: The German lines on the Western Front and concluded that the Central Powers would soon lose the war. He did not hesitate to openly express this opinion to Kaiser Wilhelm II and his high-ranking generals in person. During the return trip, he briefly stayed in Karlsbad and Vienna for medical treatment between 30 May and 28 July 1918. When Mehmed VI became the new Sultan of the Ottoman Empire in July 1918, he called Atatürk to Constantinople, and after several meetings in

5733-428: The Greeks were made possible by a steady supply of gold and armaments to the Kemalists from the Russian Bolshevik government from the autumn of 1920 onwards. After a series of battles during the Greco-Turkish War , the Greek army advanced as far as the Sakarya River , just eighty kilometers west of Ankara. On 5 August 1921, Atatürk was promoted to commander in chief of the forces by the GNA. The ensuing Battle of

5850-399: The Latin alphabet and with an abundance of neologisms added, which means there are now far fewer loan words from other languages, and Ottoman Turkish was not instantly transformed into the Turkish of today. At first, it was only the script that was changed, and while some households continued to use the Arabic system in private, most of the Turkish population was illiterate at the time, making

5967-463: The Muslims), instead of Emîrü'l-Mü'minîn (Commander of the Faithful). He was also a relatively famous artist and a Turkish aesthete , interested in art and the ways to promote it, mainly literature , painting and music , in Turkey. After the abolition of the Ottoman caliphate , he was succeeded for a few months by Hussein bin Ali , who was mostly recognized in the Arab world , but that attempt ended as well. He died in Paris in 1944 and

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6084-412: The Ottoman Grand Vizier Damat Ferid Pasha signed the Treaty of Sèvres , finalizing plans for the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire , including the regions that Turkish nationals viewed as their heartland. Atatürk insisted on the country's complete independence and the safeguarding of interests of the Turkish majority on "Turkish soil". He persuaded the GNA to gather a National Army. The GNA army faced

6201-420: The Ottoman Army forces commanded by Kaymakam Enver Bey that recovered Dimetoka and Edirne (Adrianople, the capital city of the Ottoman Empire between 1365 and 1453, thus of utmost historic importance for the Turks) together with most of eastern Thrace from the Bulgarians. In 1913, he was appointed the Ottoman military attaché to all Balkan states (his office was in Sofia , Bulgaria) and promoted to

6318-403: The Ottoman Empire. There was indeed a conflict among certain Muslims, for example in Palestine , who opposed the figures of Hussein bin Ali and Abdulmejid to succeed Mehmed VI . Western colonial powers, such as France or the United Kingdom , were very attentive to these developments. One of those critics was Muhammad Rashid Rida , who claimed that he lacked some of the qualities needed to be

6435-444: The Ottoman Turkish victory at the Battle of Gallipoli (1915) during World War I . During this time, the Ottoman Empire perpetrated genocides against its Greek , Armenian and Assyrian subjects ; while never involved, Atatürk's role in their aftermath was the subject of discussion. Following the defeat of the Ottoman Empire after World War I, he led the Turkish National Movement , which resisted mainland Turkey's partition among

6552-474: The Persian character of its Arabic borrowings with other Turkic languages that had even less interaction with Arabic, such as Tatar , Bashkir , and Uyghur . From the early ages of the Ottoman Empire, borrowings from Arabic and Persian were so abundant that original Turkish words were hard to find. In Ottoman, one may find whole passages in Arabic and Persian incorporated into the text. It was however not only extensive loaning of words, but along with them much of

6669-400: The Republic of Turkey was proclaimed . Since then, Republic Day has been celebrated as a national holiday on that date. With the establishment of the Republic of Turkey, efforts to modernise the country started. The new government analyzed the institutions and constitutions of Western states such as France, Sweden, Italy, and Switzerland and adapted them to the needs and characteristics of

6786-401: The Sakarya was fought from 23 August–13 September 1921 and ended with the defeat of the Greeks. After this victory, Atatürk was given the rank of Mareşal and the title of Gazi by the Grand National Assembly on 19 September 1921. The Allies, ignoring the extent of Atatürk's successes, hoped to impose a modified version of the Treaty of Sèvres as a peace settlement on Angora, but the proposal

6903-402: The Seventh Army to withdraw to the north in order to prevent the British from conducting a short envelopment to the Jordan River . The Seventh Army retired towards the Jordan River but was destroyed by British aerial bombardment during its retreat from Nablus on 21 September 1918. Nevertheless, Atatürk managed to form a defence line to the north of Aleppo . According to Lord Kinross , Atatürk

7020-414: The Six Arrows. These fundamentals were not new in world politics or, indeed, among the elite of Turkey. What made them unique was that these interrelated fundamentals were explicitly formulated for Turkey's needs. A good example is the definition and application of secularism; the Kemalist secular state significantly differed from predominantly Christian states. Atatürk's private journal entries dated before

7137-416: The Soviet Union, Germany, and Italy. Some perceived his opposition and silencing of these ideologies as a means of eliminating competition; others believed it was necessary to protect the young Turkish state from succumbing to the instability of new ideologies and competing factions. Under Atatürk, the arrest process known as the 1927 Detentions ( 1927 Tevkifatı ) was launched, and a widespread arrest policy

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7254-547: The Turkish nation. Highlighting the public's lack of knowledge regarding Atatürk's intentions, the public cheered: "We are returning to the days of the first caliphs ." Atatürk placed Fevzi Çakmak , Kâzım Özalp , and İsmet İnönü in political positions where they could institute his reforms . He capitalized on his reputation as an efficient military leader and spent the following years, up until his death in 1938, instituting political, economic, and social reforms. In doing so, he transformed Turkish society from perceiving itself as

7371-442: The additional - ـنـ [n] is a vowel, the final vowel ی is kept; otherwise it is removed (note the respective examples for kitaplarını versus kitaplarından ). Examples below : Below table shows the positive conjugation for two sample verbs آچمق açmak (to open) and سولمك sevilmek (to be loved). The first verb is the active verb, and the other has been modified to form a passive verb. The first contains back vowels,

7488-432: The autumn of 1910, he was among the Ottoman military observers who attended the Picardie army manoeuvres in France, and in 1911, served at the Ministry of War ( Harbiye Nezareti ) in Constantinople for a short time. In 1911, he volunteered to fight in the Italo-Turkish War in the Ottoman Tripolitania Vilayet (present-day Libya ). He served mainly in the areas near Derna and Tobruk . The invading Italian army had

7605-460: The caliph. However, even though he was criticized when he assumed the position, it seems that the vast majority of Muslims chose to recognize him. Abdulmejid was targeted by Kemalist propaganda which used the fact that he occupied the Yıldız Palace in Istanbul, and he was subsequently portrayed as having unjustly claimed it for himself. He was also unhappy about the transfer of certain responsibilities from Istanbul to Ankara ; for instance, he

7722-491: The caliphate, he started to focus more on worship, painting, and music. Abdulmejid, who later settled in Paris, used to perform Friday prayers at the Grand Mosque of Paris with other Muslims in the region. After the departure of his very fond grandchildren and son, who left France to marry the Kavala princes of Egypt, he spent painful days alone. He wrote a 12-volume book of memoirs, preserved by his daughter Dürrüşehvar Sultan. On 23 August 1944, Abdulmejid II died at his house in

7839-400: The centennial of Atatürk's birth, his memory was honoured by the United Nations and UNESCO , which declared it The Atatürk Year in the World and adopted the Resolution on the Atatürk Centennial , describing him as "the leader of the first struggle given against colonialism and imperialism " and a "remarkable promoter of the sense of understanding between peoples and durable peace between

7956-409: The civilians in Antep in case of a defensive conflict against the invading Allies. Atatürk's last active service in the Ottoman Army was organizing the return of the Ottoman troops left behind to the south of the defensive line. In early November 1918, the Yıldırım Army Group was officially dissolved, and Atatürk returned to an occupied Constantinople , the Ottoman capital, on 13 November 1918. For

8073-483: The command of the XVI Corps to the overall command of the Second Army, although the Czar's armies were soon withdrawn when the Russian Revolution erupted. In July 1917, he was appointed to the command of the Seventh Army , replacing Fevzi Pasha on 7 August 1917, who was under the command of the German general Erich von Falkenhayn 's Yildirim Army Group (after the British forces of General Edmund Allenby captured Jerusalem in December 1917, Erich von Falkenhayn

8190-403: The condition that he reside outside Turkey; Senussi declined the offer and confirmed his support for Abdulmejid. He was succeeded by Hussein bin Ali in the Arab world, with the support of his cousin, Mehmed VI but that attempt ended fast as well. Although Abdulmejid and his family were upset about this decision, they did not want the people to revolt, so they secretly went to Çatalca by car from

8307-417: The end. Ottoman Turkish was highly influenced by Arabic and Persian. Arabic and Persian words in the language accounted for up to 88% of its vocabulary. As in most other Turkic and foreign languages of Islamic communities, the Arabic borrowings were borrowed through Persian, not through direct exposure of Ottoman Turkish to Arabic, a fact that is evidenced by the typically Persian phonological mutation of

8424-467: The establishment of the republic in 1923 show that he believed in the importance of the sovereignty of the people. In forging the new republic, the Turkish revolutionaries turned their back on the perceived corruption and decadence of cosmopolitan Constantinople and its Ottoman heritage. For instance, they made Ankara (as Angora has been known in English since 1930), the country's new capital and reformed

8541-424: The final 'â' softens the 'l' the pronunciation closely approximates that of the Arabic 'Kemal'. However, Atatürk returned to the old spelling of Kemal from May 1937 and onwards. To make a soft transition, he avoided using the name as much as he could, either by not using it at all or by signing documents as 'K. Atatürk'. An official explanation was never given, but it is widely agreed that the issue with Atatürk's name

8658-431: The fire, was part of the genocides of Asia Minor's Christian minorities that the Turkish army and government carried out during WWI is unclear, responsibility remains a contentious debate and it is unclear if the Turks entered the city with these intentions. Many Turkish apologists argue that the regular Turkish Army did not play a role in these events. At the time, Atatürk was commander of the Turkish armed forces, and sent

8775-546: The following days. Atatürk twice asked Dimitrina's parents for their permission to marry her (the second time was in 1915, during World War I ) and was twice refused, which left him with a lifelong sadness. In 1914, the Ottoman Empire entered the European and Middle Eastern theatres of World War I allied with the Central Powers . Atatürk was given the task of organizing and commanding the 19th Division attached to

8892-696: The following year. As the president of the newly formed Turkish Republic, Atatürk initiated a rigorous program of political, economic, and cultural reforms with the ultimate aim of building a republican and secular nation-state. He made primary education free and compulsory, opening thousands of new schools all over the country. He also introduced the Latin-based Turkish alphabet , replacing the old Ottoman Turkish alphabet . Turkish women received equal civil and political rights during Atatürk's presidency. In particular, women were given voting rights in local elections by Act no. 1580 on 3 April 1930 and

9009-472: The government in actuality. In 1920, before the Turkish Parliament, Atatürk called the genocides a "shameful act" and did not publicly deny them at that time. Atatürk's relations with Enver Pasha , a key perpetrator of the genocides, has also been controversial but poorly understood. While the two men may have been close at times, Atatürk held a personal dislike of Enver Pasha; he once said to

9126-399: The government's official news agency Anadolu Agency gave the following explanation: According to our intelligence, the name 'Kamâl' that Atatürk bears is not an Arabic word, nor does it have the meaning by the Arabic word kemal ['maturity', 'perfection']. Atatürk's given name, which is being retained, is 'Kamâl', the Turkish meaning of which is army and fortress. As the circumflex accent on

9243-422: The grammatical systems of Persian and Arabic. In a social and pragmatic sense, there were (at least) three variants of Ottoman Turkish: A person would use each of the varieties above for different purposes, with the fasih variant being the most heavily suffused with Arabic and Persian words and kaba the least. For example, a scribe would use the Arabic asel ( عسل ) to refer to honey when writing

9360-459: The language with their Turkish equivalents. One of the main supporters of the reform was the Turkish nationalist Ziya Gökalp . It also saw the replacement of the Perso-Arabic script with the extended Latin alphabet . The changes were meant to encourage the growth of a new variety of written Turkish that more closely reflected the spoken vernacular and to foster a new variety of spoken Turkish that reinforced Turkey's new national identity as being

9477-430: The last session of the budget negotiations on 3 March 1924, Urfa Deputy Sheikh Saffet Efendi and his 53 friends demanded the abolition of the caliphate, arguing it was not necessary any more. This was approved by majority of the votes and a law was established. With the same law, it was decided to expel all members of the Ottoman dynasty. Mustafa Kemal Atatürk , however, offered the caliphate to Ahmed Sharif as-Senussi , on

9594-634: The months July and August 1918, reassigned him to the command of the Seventh Army in Palestine. Atatürk arrived in Aleppo on 26 August 1918, then continued south to his headquarters in Nablus . The Seventh Army was holding the central sector of the front lines. On 19 September, at the beginning of the Battle of Megiddo , the Eighth Army was holding the coastal flank but fell apart and Liman Pasha ordered

9711-575: The name himself as a tribute to the nationalist poet Namık Kemal . According to Alkan, Atatürk seems to have embraced the name Kemal during his army years. After receiving the surname Atatürk on his first ID card in 1934, his name appeared as Kemal Atatürk, while the given name Mustafa had disappeared altogether. In February 1935, Atatürk began to use the Old Turkic name Kamâl. According to Tarama Dergisi (1934), kamal meant "fortification", "fortress", "army", and "shield". On 4 February 1935,

9828-509: The nations of the world and that he worked all his life for the development of harmony and cooperation between peoples without distinction". Atatürk was also credited for his peace-in-the-world oriented foreign policy and friendship with neighboring countries such as Iran, Yugoslavia, Iraq, and Greece, as well as the creation of the Balkan Pact that resisted the expansionist aggressions of Fascist Italy and Tsarist Bulgaria . Atatürk

9945-713: The policies pursued by the CUP leadership. On 22 June 1908, he was appointed the Inspector of the Ottoman Railways in Eastern Rumelia ( Doğu Rumeli Bölgesi Demiryolları Müfettişi ). In July 1908, he played a role in the Young Turk Revolution which seized power from Sultan Abdülhamid II and restored the constitutional monarchy . He was proposing depoliticization in the army, a proposal which

10062-538: The rank of Kaymakam ( Lieutenant Colonel / Colonel ) on 1 March 1914. While in Bulgaria, he met with Dimitrina Kovacheva, the daughter of Bulgarian general Stiliyan Kovachev (against whose forces he had fought during the Balkan Wars ), who had recently completed her education in Switzerland , during a New Year's Eve ball in Sofia and fell in love with her. The two danced at the ball and started to secretly date in

10179-496: The same way, with a possessive pronoun if needed, and copula وار var , followed by the 3rd person singular form of the verb 'to do: ایتمك etmek attached as a suffix (or separate as a stanadalone verb); as conjugated in the above section. The verbs 'not to exist' and 'not to have' are created in the exact same manner and conjugation, except that the copula یوق yok is used. Turkish being an agglutinative language as opposed to an analytical one (generally), means that from

10296-609: The second front vowels; both containing non-rounded vowels (which also impacts pronounciation and modern Latin orthograhpy). Below table shows the conjugation of a negative verb, and a positive complex verb expressing ability. In Turkish, complex verbs can be constructed by adding a variety of suffixes to the base root of a verb. The two verbs are یازممق yazmamaq (not to write) and سوه‌بلمك sevebilmek (to be able to love). Another common category of verbs in Turkish (more common in Ottoman Turkish than in modern Turkish),

10413-410: The suffixes for creating possessed nouns. Each of these possessed nouns, in turn, take case suffixes as shown above. For third person (singular and plural) possessed nouns, that end in a vowel, when it comes to taking case suffixes, a letter - ـنـ [n] comes after the possessive suffix. For singular endings, the final vowel ی is removed in all instances. For plural endings, if the letter succeeding

10530-538: The switch to the Latin alphabet much easier. Then, loan words were taken out, and new words fitting the growing amount of technology were introduced. Until the 1960s, Ottoman Turkish was at least partially intelligible with the Turkish of that day. One major difference between Ottoman Turkish and modern Turkish is the latter's abandonment of compound word formation according to Arabic and Persian grammar rules. The usage of such phrases still exists in modern Turkish but only to

10647-545: The time) sparked the establishment of the Turkish National Movement and the Turkish War of Independence. At the time of the late Ottoman genocides reportedly committed by the CUP and the declining Ottoman Empire, but now controversial , Atatürk was a member of the CUP, and to that extent, a Young Turk , but so had many Arabs , Albanians , Jews , and initially, Armenians and Greeks , as it

10764-562: The turn of the 20th century and were expressed more openly after the Young Turk Revolution . Atatürk created a banner to mark the changes between the old Ottoman and the new republican rule. Each change was symbolized as an arrow in this banner. This defining ideology of the Republic of Turkey is referred to as the "Six Arrows", or Kemalism . Kemalism is based on Atatürk's conception of realism and pragmatism . The fundamentals of nationalism, populism, and statism were all defined under

10881-551: The victorious Allied powers . Establishing a provisional government in the present-day Turkish capital Ankara (known in English at the time as Angora), he defeated the forces sent by the Allies, thus emerging victorious from what was later referred to as the Turkish War of Independence . He subsequently proceeded to abolish the sultanate in 1922 and proclaimed the foundation of the Turkish Republic in its place

10998-501: The war criminals were also invited to the government of the new Turkish republic. On 30 April 1919, Fahri Yaver-i Hazret-i Şehriyari ("Honorary Aide-de-camp to His Majesty Sultan") Mirliva Atatürk was assigned as the inspector of the Ninth Army Troops Inspectorate to reorganize what remained of the Ottoman military units and to improve internal security. On 19 May 1919, he reached Samsun . His first goal

11115-476: The words of Arabic origin. The conservation of archaic phonological features of the Arabic borrowings furthermore suggests that Arabic-incorporated Persian was absorbed into pre-Ottoman Turkic at an early stage, when the speakers were still located to the north-east of Persia , prior to the westward migration of the Islamic Turkic tribes. An additional argument for this is that Ottoman Turkish shares

11232-592: Was Revue des deux Mondes . Abdülmecid's first wife was Şehsuvar Hanım , a Turk or an Ubykh . They married on 23 December 1896. She was the mother of Şehzade Ömer Faruk , born in 1898. She died in Paris in 1945, and was buried in  Bobigny cemetery . His second wife was Mihrimah Hanım. She died at the Nakkaştepe Palace, on 23 May 1899, and was buried in Nuhkuyusu Mosque, Istanbul. His third wife

11349-545: Was Hayrünissa Hanım, a Circassian . She was childless. His fourth wife was Mehisti Hanım . She was a Circassian - Abkhazian . Her father was Akalsba Hacımaf Bey, and her mother was Safiye Hanım. They married on 16 April 1912. She was the mother of Dürrüşehvar Sultan (who married Azam Jah , son of Mir Osman Ali Khan ), born in 1914. She died in Middlesex ,  London in 1964, and was buried in  Brookwood cemetery . Abdülmejid II had four consorts: Abdülmejid II had

11466-725: Was a composer also. He played the piano . When his cousin was deposed on 1 November 1922, the Ottoman Sultanate was abolished . But on 19 November 1922, the Crown Prince was elected Caliph by the Turkish National Assembly at Ankara . He established himself in Istanbul on 24 November 1922. The choice of Abdulmejid as caliph was not evident for all Muslims, and there was a significant amount of Islamic and political criticism from within and outside

11583-489: Was angry about the relocation of a military band unit. On 3 March 1924, six months after the foundation of the Turkish Republic, the Ottoman Caliphate was abolished and the Ottoman dynasty was deposed and expelled from Turkey . The caliph was nominally the supreme religious and political leader of all Muslims across the world, with the main goal to prevent extremism or protect the religion from corruption. In

11700-487: Was arrested by the police for his anti-monarchist activities. Following confinement for several months he was released only with the support of Rıza Pasha, his former school director. After his release, Atatürk was assigned to the Fifth Army based in Damascus as a Staff Captain in the company of Ali Fuat (Cebesoy) and Lütfi Müfit (Özdeş). He joined a small secret revolutionary society of reformist officers led by

11817-636: Was assaulting the Italian-controlled fortress of Kasr-ı Harun, two Italian planes dropped bombs on the Ottoman forces; a limestone splinter from a damaged building's rubble struck Atatürk's left eye, causing permanent tissue damage, but not total loss of sight. He received medical treatment for nearly a month; he attempted to leave the Red Crescent 's health facilities after only two weeks, but when his eye's situation worsened, he had to return and resume treatment. On 6 March 1912, Atatürk became

11934-573: Was based on a general ballot. Deputies at the GNA served as the voice of Turkish society by expressing its political views and preferences. It had the right to select and control both the government and the Prime Minister. Initially, it also acted as a legislative power, controlling the executive branch and, if necessary, served as an organ of scrutiny under the Turkish Constitution of 1921 . The Turkish Constitution of 1924 set

12051-501: Was born Mustafa . His second name Kemal (meaning "perfection" or "maturity" in Arabic ) was given to him by his mathematics teacher, Captain Üsküplü Mustafa Efendi. According to Afet İnan , his teacher gave this name "in admiration of [Atatürk's] capability and maturity." According to other sources, his teacher wanted to distinguish Atatürk from another student who was also named Mustafa. Andrew Mango suggests that he may have chosen

12168-492: Was buried as a caliph in Medina . On 30 May 1868, he was born at Dolmabahçe Palace , Beşiktaş , Istanbul, to then Sultan Abdulaziz and his consort Hayranidil Kadın . He was the younger full brother of Nazime Sultan . He was educated privately. According to testimonies, he agreed with marriages between cousins within the Ottoman dynasty to reduce tensions within the dynasty. In accordance with late Ottoman custom, Abdulmejid

12285-564: Was confined to the palace until he was 40. On 4 July 1918, his first cousin Mehmed VI became Sultan and Abdulmejid was named Crown Prince. He was interested in literature and founded the Pierre Loti Society in 1920 to promote the works of the author and translate them into Turkish. He had a genuine interest in painting as well, and himself painted a lot, trying to develop realist art in the Ottoman Empire and in music, for he

12402-470: Was critical of the Armenian genocide and Kemalists had pledged to prosecute those involved with the genocide, on March 31, 1923, a general amnesty was declared for those who had been convicted of court-martial and by the municipal courts after the defeat of the Ottoman forces. Turkey also refused to deliver those involved with the crimes to the Allies, arguing that it would violate Turkish sovereignty. Some of

12519-552: Was detained at the border for a while, but was admitted to the country after a delay. In Switzerland, he said multiple times that he was upset about the abolition of the caliphate, and that this would bring chaos to the Islamic world, with the rise of extremism. But after the Turkish government put pressure on the Swiss government, Abdulmejid was never allowed to give such speeches in Switzerland again. After staying in Switzerland for

12636-470: Was disliked by the leaders of the CUP. As a result, he was sent away to Tripolitania Vilayet (present Libya , then an Ottoman territory) under the pretext of suppressing a tribal rebellion towards the end of 1908. According to Mikush however, he volunteered for this mission. He suppressed the revolt and returned to Constantinople in January 1909. In April 1909 in Constantinople, a group of soldiers began

12753-635: Was in September 1919, when Atatürk met with the United States Army General James Harbord , the leader of the Harbord Commission into the genocides, in Sivas . Harbord would later recall that Atatürk told him of his disapproval of the Armenian genocide, and that he had allegedly stated that "the massacre and deportation of Armenians was the work of a small committee who had seized power", rather than by

12870-708: Was linked to the Turkish language reform . Atatürk was born either in the Ahmet Subaşı neighbourhood or at a house (preserved as a museum) in Islahhane Street (now Apostolou Pavlou Street) in the Koca Kasım Pasha neighbourhood in Salonica ( Selanik ), Ottoman Empire . His parents were Ali Rıza Efendi , a military officer originally from Kodžadžik ( Kocacık ), title deed clerk and lumber trader, and Zübeyde Hanım . Only one of Mustafa's siblings,

12987-566: Was put in place against the Communist Party of Turkey members. Communist political figures such as Hikmet Kıvılcımlı , Nâzım Hikmet , and Şefik Hüsnü were tried and sentenced to prison terms. Then, in 1937, a delegation headed by Atatürk decided to censor the writings of Kıvılcımlı as harmful communist propaganda. The heart of the new republic was the GNA, established during the Turkish War of Independence by Atatürk. The elections were free and used an egalitarian electoral system that

13104-630: Was rejected. In August 1922, Atatürk launched an all-out attack on the Greek lines at Afyonkarahisar in the Battle of Dumlupınar , and Turkish forces regained control of İzmir on 9 September 1922. On 10 September 1922, Atatürk sent a telegram to the League of Nations stating that the Turkish population was so worked up that the Ankara Government would not be responsible for the ensuing massacres . The Conference of Lausanne began on 21 November 1922. Turkey, represented by İsmet İnönü of

13221-554: Was replaced by Otto Liman von Sanders who became the new commander of the Yıldırım Army Group in early 1918.) Atatürk did not get along well with General von Falkenhayn and, together with Miralay İsmet Bey , wrote a report to Grand Vizier Talaat Pasha regarding the grim situation and lack of adequate resources in the Palestinian front. However, Talaat Pasha ignored their observations and refused their suggestion to form

13338-524: Was subsequently moved to Medina , where he was then buried. His predecessor, Mehmed VI , was buried in Damascus , by Faisal I . This is explained by the prohibition imposed by the Kemalists , Atatürk and then İnönü , who prohibited the former caliph from being buried in Turkey. Abdulmejid was given the title of General in the Ottoman Army , but did not have strong military inclinations. He had

13455-666: Was the establishment of an organized national movement against the occupying forces. In June 1919, he issued the Amasya Circular , declaring the independence of the country was in danger. He resigned from the Ottoman Army on 8 July, and the Ottoman government issued a warrant for his arrest. But Kâzım Karabekir and other military commanders active in Eastern Anatolia followed Atatürk's lead and acknowledged him as their leader. On 4 September 1919, he assembled

13572-469: Was the only Turkish general in the war who never suffered a defeat. The war ended with the Armistice of Mudros which was signed on 30 October 1918, and all German and Austro-Hungarian troops in the Ottoman Empire were granted ample time to withdraw. On 31 October, Atatürk was appointed to the command of the Yıldırım Army Group, replacing Liman von Sanders. Atatürk organized the distribution of weapons to

13689-433: Was then simply an anti- Abdul Hamid movement. As for the actual occurrences of the genocides, Atatürk had since divested from the movement and was serving as a relatively junior Lieutenant Colonel fighting in Gallipoli and Western Thrace during the Armenian genocide . Historical evidence proves decisively that he was not involved with the killings, and that he later went on to condemn them. One such explicit condemnation

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