The Third Macedonian War (171–168 BC) was a war fought between the Roman Republic and King Perseus of Macedon . In 179 BC, King Philip V of Macedon died and was succeeded by his ambitious son Perseus . He was anti-Roman and stirred anti-Roman feelings around Macedonia. In 172 BC, a Roman commission visited Perseus and required of him concessions which meant the extinction of his independence. Upon his refusal to comply with the demands they returned home and Rome declared war.
178-674: Most of the war was fought in Macedon as well as neighbouring Thessaly , where the Roman troops were stationed. After an inconclusive battle at Callinicus in 171 BC, and several years of campaigning, Rome decisively defeated the Macedonian forces at the Battle of Pydna in 168 BC, ending the war. Rome's victory ended the Antigonid dynasty and brought an effective end to the independence of
356-477: A siege tower called Helepolis that weighed 360,000 lb (163,293 kg). Despite this engagement, in 304 BC after only one year, he relented and signed a peace agreement, leaving behind a huge store of military equipment. The Rhodians sold the equipment and used the money to erect a statue of their sun god, Helios , the statue since called the Colossus of Rhodes . The Rhodians celebrated in honour of Helios
534-469: A brand new terminal ready to serve 1500 passengers per hour and new airplanes. Although the historical region of Thessaly extended south into Phthiotis and at times north into West Macedonia , today the term 'Thessaly' is identified with the modern Administrative Region which was established in the 1987 administrative reform. With the 2010 Kallikratis plan , the powers and authority of the region were redefined and extended. Along with Central Greece , it
712-536: A commander in Illyria, remained inactive while Perseus was there. After Perseus returned to Macedon, Coelius tried to recover Uscana, but was repulsed and returned to Lychnidus. He sent a detachment to the area to receive the hostages from the cities which had remained loyal (they were sent to Apollonia) and from the Parthini (a tribe of southern Illyria), who were sent to Dyrrhachium (modern Durrës, Albania). Perseus
890-483: A detachment of 800 Romans, which withdrew on a hill and formed a circle with interlocked shields to protect against javelins. The Macedonians surrounded the hill, but could not make their way up. The Macedonians used cestrosphendons , a weapon that had just been invented. It was like a dart with feathers round the shaft shot by a sling held by two thongs. The slinger whirled it and it flew off. The Romans were getting tired and Perseus urged them to surrender. Pulbius Licinius
1068-501: A distinct administrative unit in 1276, when the pinkernes Raoul Komnenos was its governor ( kephale ). From 1271 to 1318 Thessaly was an independent despotate that extended to Acarnania and Aetolia , run by the dynasty founded by John I Doukas . John ruled from 1271 until his death in 1289 and was succeeded by his sons Constantine and Theodore. At this time, Thessaly came under Byzantine suzerainty, though it largely retained its independence. After Constatine's death in 1303, it
1246-752: A grand festival, the Halieia . Throughout the 3rd century BC, Rhodes attempted to secure its independence and commerce, particularly its virtual control over the grain trade in the eastern Mediterranean. Both of these goals depended on none of the three great Hellenistic states achieving dominance. Consequently, the Rhodians pursued a policy of maintaining a balance of power among the Antigonids, Seleucids, and Ptolemies, even if that meant going to war with its traditional ally, Egypt. To this end, they employed their economy and their excellent navy as leverage, which
1424-507: A heroic march into Macedon through the Olympus mountains . He sent 4,000 light infantry ahead to secure the road to a pass near Octolophus, but the road was so difficult and steep that they advanced only fifteen miles and seven miles the following day. They spotted an enemy camp guarding the pass. Quintus Marcius stopped on a hill, which gave a wide view and ordered one day's rest. The next day he attacked with half his troops. The enemy had seen
1602-714: A major centre of the Greek Resistance , most famously seeing the desertion of the Italian Pinerolo Division to the guerrillas of EAM-ELAS in 1943. Thessaly occupies the east side of the Pindus watershed, extending south from Macedonia to the Aegean Sea . The northern tier of Thessaly is defined by a generally southwest-northeast spur of the Pindus range that includes Mount Olympus , close to
1780-506: A modern society. The island suffered through many "governors" appointed by the Italian government. As such, in 1938, the "Leggi razziali" (Racial Laws) were passed, mimicking the footsteps of the antisemitic policies promoted in other European countries. All Jews who served in the government, including the military, were forced to resign, school children were forced to abandon their studies, and all commerce that included any dealings with Jews
1958-549: A natural harbor at Volos for shipping agricultural products from the plains and chromium from the mountains. The Gross domestic product (GDP) of the province was 9.7 billion € in 2018, accounting for 5.2% of Greek economic output. GDP per capita adjusted for purchasing power was 16,100 € or 53% of the EU27 average in the same year. The GDP per employee was 65% of the EU average. The unemployment rate stood at 20.6% in 2017. There are
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#17327658391512136-627: A number of highways such as E75 , and the main railway from Athens to Thessaloniki (Salonika) crosses Thessaly. The region is directly linked to the rest of Europe through the International Airport of Central Greece , which is located in Nea Anchialos , a small distance from Volos and Larisa . Charter flights link the region and bring tourists to the wider area, mainly in Pelion and Meteora . The new infrastructure includes
2314-423: A party to open a road, with allied troops protecting them while clearing the way through the forests. Marcius kept the cavalry and baggage before him and closed the rear with his legions. The descent from the hill felled pack animals. Elephants threw off their riders and roared loudly, frightening the horses. A series of bridges (made with two long posts fastened to the earth to which ten-yard-long beams were attached)
2492-415: A population loss of 6.2%. In 2011, the population of the region of Thessaly was 732,762 and represented 6.8% of the total population of Greece. A 2.8% decrease in the population since 2001 was noted, but Thessaly remains Greece's third most populous region. The population break-down is 44% urban, 40% agrarian, and 16% semi-urban. A decrease in the agrarian population has been accompanied by an increase in
2670-452: A siege started. Perseus heard about this attack and sent one of his commanders with 2,000 men. His instructions were that if he could not dislodge the Romans at Meliboea he was to march on Demetrias before Figulus and Eumenes moved there from Iolcos. When the Romans at Meliboea saw him arriving they burnt the siege works and left. The Macedonians hurried to Demetrias. Figulus and Eumenes reached
2848-503: A speech in the Roman senate with the aim of precipitating hostilities. The contents of the speech were kept secret and emerged only after war's end. He claimed that Perseus had been preparing for war since the day of his accession. He was respected and feared in the east and had influence on many kings. He mentioned Prusias of Bithynia, who was an enemy of Pergamon, asking for the hand of Perseus’ daughter. He also mentioned that Antiochus IV ,
3026-679: A strong garrison in Gonnus and returned to Macedon for the winter. He sent a governor to Phila to try to win over the Magnetes (a tribe to the east of Thessaly) and went to Thessalonica with king Cotys IV, the Thracians' commander. They heard that Autlebis, the chief of a Thracian tribe (possibly the Caeni ) and Corrhagus, one of Eumenes' commanders, had invaded one of Cotys' territories. Perseus let Cotys go to defend it and gave his cavalry only half of
3204-642: A woman who was involved in the failed plot and a Roman who claimed that Perseus had tried to coerce him into poisoning ambassadors to Rome. Perseus was declared a public enemy, the Senate elected to wage war and dispatched an army to Apollonia on the western coast of Greece to occupy the coastal cities. The war was, however, put off. Eumenes also prepared for war. Gentius , king of the Illyrians , brought himself under suspicion, but had not gone so far as to decide which side to support. The Thracian Cotys IV , king of
3382-465: Is Rhodes, jump here!" (as translated from Ancient Greek "Αὐτοῦ γὰρ καὶ Ῥόδος καὶ πήδημα"), an admonition to prove one's idle boasts by deed, rather than boastful talk. It comes from an Aesop's fable called " The Boasting Traveller " and was cited by Hegel , Marx , and Kierkegaard . In 395 with the division of the Roman Empire , the long Byzantine period began for Rhodes. In Late Antiquity ,
3560-541: Is a traditional geographic and modern administrative region of Greece , comprising most of the ancient region of the same name. Before the Greek Dark Ages , Thessaly was known as Aeolia ( Ancient Greek : Αἰολία , Aiolía ), and appears thus in Homer 's Odyssey . Thessaly became part of the modern Greek state in 1881, after four and a half centuries of Ottoman rule . Since 1987 it has formed one of
3738-508: Is one of the most popular tourist destinations in Europe. The island has been known as Ρόδος (Ródos) in Greek throughout its history. Similar-sounding ῥόδον ( rhódon ) in ancient Greek was the word for the rose, whilst in modern Greek the also similar-sounding ρόδι ( ródi ) or ρόιδο ( róido ) refers to the pomegranate. It was also called Lindos ( Ancient Greek : Λίνδος ). In addition,
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#17327658391513916-547: Is supervised by the Decentralized Administration of Thessaly and Central Greece , based at Larissa . The region of Thessaly is divided into five regional units (four were pre-Kallikratis prefectures ), Karditsa , Larissa , Magnesia , the Sporades and Trikala , which are further subdivided into twenty-five municipalities . The regional governor is Dimitris Kouretas [ el ] , who
4094-447: Is the leading cattle-raising area of Greece , and Aromanian shepherds move large flocks of sheep and goats seasonally between higher and lower elevations. In the last few decades, there has been a rise in the cultivation of dried nuts such as almonds , pistachios , and walnuts , especially in the region of Almyros . An increase in the number of olive oil trees has been also observed. The nearly landlocked Gulf of Pagasai provides
4272-621: The Angeloi emperors (1185–1204), in the first half of the 13th century, Rhodes became the centre of an independent domain under Leo Gabalas and his brother John , until it was occupied by the Genoese in 1248–1250. The Genoese were evicted by the Empire of Nicaea , after which the island became a regular province of the Nicaean state (and after 1261 of the restored Byzantine Empire). In 1305,
4450-606: The Bronze Age collapse , the first renewed outside contacts were with Cyprus . In Greek legend, Rhodes was claimed to have participated in the Trojan War under the leadership of Tlepolemus . In the 8th century BC, the island's settlements started to form, with the coming of the Dorians , who built the three important cities of Lindus , Ialysus and Camirus , which together with Kos , Cnidus and Halicarnassus (on
4628-528: The Gulf of Corinth . He left his ships at Creusis and traveled to join the fleet stationed at Chalcis overland. Aulus Hostilius, who had been protecting Rome's allies, had restored discipline in his troops and was encamped in Thessaly; he handed over his troops and returned to Rome. The consul started marching towards Macedon. Perseus sent troops to the mountain passes into Macedon. Quintus Marcius carried out
4806-519: The Hellenistic kingdom of Macedon, although formal annexation was some years away. The kingdom was divided into four client republics, each subservient to Rome. Roman prestige and authority in Greece greatly increased. In 179 BC, King Philip V of Macedon died and his ambitious son, Perseus, ascended the throne. In pursuit of an alliance, Perseus married Laodice, the daughter of Seleucus IV
4984-598: The Odrysian Kingdom , the largest state in Thrace, had already declared for Macedon. The consuls for 171 BC were Publius Licinius Crassus and Gaius Cassius Longinus . Macedon was assigned to Publius Licinius and the command of the fleet was assigned to praetor Gaius Lucretius. Two legions were assigned for Macedon, each number 6,000 instead of the usual 5,200. Allied troops numbering 16,000 infantry and 800 cavalry accompanied them. Envoys were sent to confer with
5162-693: The Palace of the Grand Master , were built during this period. The walls had been strengthened by the Knights through hiring Italian engineers that used knowledge of ballistics to design defences against gunpowder attacks, and which withstood the attacks of the Sultan of Egypt in 1444, and a siege by the Ottomans under Mehmed II in 1480. Eventually, however, Rhodes fell to the large army of Suleiman
5340-542: The River Strymon , in modern Bulgaria), 3,000 Thracians, 2,000 Gauls, 3,000 Macedonian cavalry, 1,000 Thracian cavalry, and 500 men from various Greek states. Perseus marched to Perrhaebi in the northernmost district of Thessaly and seized the main towns north of the River Peneus , which crosses northern Thessaly: Cyretiae , Mylae , Elatia and Gonnus . He encamped at Sycurium , between Mount Ossa and
5518-587: The Sporades islands. Thessaly is named after the Thessaloi , an ancient Greek tribe . The meaning of the name of this tribe is unknown, and many theories have been made about its etymology. According to the Dutch linguist Robert S. P. Beekes , the name predates Greek presence in the region and could come from the Pre-Greek form reconstructed as *Kʷʰeťťal-. The Greek linguist Georgios Babiniotis also assigns
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5696-646: The Turkish Consul Selahattin Ülkümen succeeded, at considerable risk to himself and his family, in saving 42 Jewish families, about 200 persons in total, who had Turkish citizenship or were members of Turkish citizens' families. On 8 May 1945, the Germans under Otto Wagener surrendered Rhodes as well as the Dodecanese as a whole to the British, who soon after then occupied the islands as
5874-779: The battle between the Titans and the Olympians . According to legend, Jason and the Argonauts launched their search for the Golden Fleece from the Magnesia Peninsula. Thessaly was home to extensive Neolithic and Chalcolithic cultures around 6000–2500 BC (see Cardium pottery , Dimini and Sesklo ). Mycenaean settlements have also been discovered, for example at the sites of Iolcos , Dimini and Sesklo (near Volos ). In Archaic and Classical times,
6052-649: The (supposed) initial settlement and intermittent uprisings. Being agriculturalists, the Slavs probably traded with the Greeks inside towns. It is likely that the re- Hellenization had already begun by way of this contact. This process would be completed by a newly reinvigorated Byzantine Empire. With the abatement of Arab-Byzantine Wars , the Byzantine Empire began to consolidate its power in those areas of mainland Greece occupied by Proto-Slavic tribes. Following
6230-619: The 11th century, in the Strategikon of Kekaumenos and Anna Komnene 's Alexiad ). In the 12th century, the Jewish traveller Benjamin of Tudela records the existence of the district of "Vlachia" near Halmyros in eastern Thessaly, while the Byzantine historian Niketas Choniates places " Great Vlachia " (Aromanian: Vlãhia Mari ) near Meteora . The term is also used by the 13th-century scholar George Pachymeres , and it appears as
6408-754: The Achaean council. He praised the Achaeans for retaining an old decree forbidding the Macedonian kings to approach their territories, and emphasized that Rome considered Perseus an enemy. Violent conflict erupted in Thessaly and Perrhaebia (the land of the Perrhaebi , a tribe in northern Thessaly). This was exacerbated by a debt problem. Rome sent an envoy to try to defuse the situation. He managed to do so by addressing indebtedness "swollen by illegal interest" in both areas. Eumenes II of Pergamon , who had been in conflict with Macedon and who disliked Perseus, made
6586-590: The Aegean and western Anatolia and Antiochus' plan for Egypt. Heading a coalition of small states, the Rhodians checked Philip's navy , but not his superior army. Without a third power to which to turn, the Rhodians (along with ambassadors from Pergamum, Egypt, and Athens) appealed in 201 BC to the Roman Republic . Despite being exhausted by the Second Punic War against Hannibal (218–201 BC)
6764-598: The Aegean was cemented through the organization of the Cyclades into the Second Nesiotic League under Rhodian leadership. The Romans withdrew from Greece after the end of the conflict, but the resulting power vacuum quickly drew in Antiochus III and subsequently the Romans. The Roman–Seleucid War lasted from 192 to 188 BC with Rome, Rhodes, Pergamon, and other Roman-allied Greek states defeated
6942-582: The Arabs in 673 as part of their first attack on Constantinople . When their fleet was destroyed by Greek fire before Constantinople and by storms on its return trip, however, the Umayyads evacuated their troops in 679/80 as part of the Byzantine–Umayyad peace treaty. In 715 the Byzantine fleet dispatched against the Arabs launched a rebellion at Rhodes, which led to the installation of Theodosios III on
7120-630: The Athenian architect Hippodamus . In 357 BC, the island was conquered by the king Mausolus of Caria ; then it fell again to the Persians in 340 BC. Their rule was also short. Rhodes then became a part of the growing empire of Alexander the Great in 332 BC, after he defeated the Persians. Following the death of Alexander, his generals ( Diadochi ) vied for control of the kingdom. Three — Ptolemy , Seleucus , and Antigonus — succeeded in dividing
7298-530: The Athenian rhetorician Aeschines , who formed a school at Rhodes; Apollonius of Rhodes , who wrote about Jason and Medea in the Argonautica ; the observations and works of the astronomers Hipparchus and Geminus ; and the rhetorician Dionysius Thrax . Its school of sculptors developed, under Pergamese influence, a rich, dramatic style that can be characterized as " Hellenistic Baroque ". Agesander of Rhodes , with two other Rhodian sculptors, carved
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7476-638: The Byzantine Empire, laying siege to Thessalonica and even the imperial capital Constantinople itself. By the 8th century, Slavs had occupied most of the Balkans from Austria to the Peloponnese, and from the Adriatic to the Black seas, with the exception of the coastal areas and certain mountainous regions of the Greek peninsula. Relations between the Slavs and Greeks were probably peaceful apart from
7654-711: The Byzantine throne. From the early 8th to the 12th centuries, Rhodes belonged to the Cibyrrhaeot Theme of the Byzantine Empire, and was a centre for shipbuilding and commerce. In c. 1090, it was occupied by the forces of the Seljuk Turks , after the long period of chaos resulting from the Battle of Manzikert . Rhodes was recaptured by the Emperor Alexios I Komnenos during the First Crusade . As Byzantine central power weakened under
7832-408: The Byzantine-Bulgarian border. In 1199–1201 another unsuccessful revolt was led by Manuel Kamytzes , son-in-law of Byzantine emperor Alexios III Angelos , with the support of Dobromir Chrysos , the autonomous ruler of Prosek . Kamytzes managed to establish a short-lived principality in northern Thessaly, before he was overcome by an imperial expedition. Following the siege of Constantinople and
8010-402: The Crusader principalities in southern Greece. Michael's work was completed by his half-brother and successor, Theodore Komnenos Doukas , who by 1220 completed the recovery of the entire region, and assigned pronoiai to aristocratic Greek families. The Vlachs (Aromanians) of Thessaly (originally a chiefly transhumant Romance-speaking population) first appear in Byzantine sources in
8188-425: The Enipeus to use it as a defence. Meanwhile, Quintus Marcius sent 2,000 men from Phila to seize Heracleum, halfway between Dium and the Vale of Tempe, and moved his quarters there, as if he intended to besiege Dium. Instead, he prepared for the winter and had roads built for the transport of supplies from Thessaly. Figulus sailed from Heracleum to Thessalonica. He pillaged the countryside and repulsed sorties from
8366-412: The Eumenes' men at the rear and their combined ranks provided a safe retreat for the allied cavalry. As the enemy's pursuit slackened, the Thessalians ventured forward to protect the retreat. The Macedonian forces, which had become spread out, did not close with the enemy, which was advancing in compact formation. The Macedonian phalanx now came forward without Perseus' orders. The Roman infantry came out of
8544-413: The Greek Orthodox community of ritually murdering a Christian boy. This became known as the Rhodes blood libel . Austria opened a post-office at RHODUS (Venetian name) before 1864, as witnessed by stamps with Franz Joseph 's head. In 1912, Italy seized Rhodes from the Ottomans during the Italo-Turkish War . Being under Italian administration, the island's population was thus spared the "exchange of
8722-432: The Greek states and cities. He gained the support of Greeks who were treated generously, saw Perseus as their kindred, were keen on revolutionary change, or did not want to be at Rome's mercy. Perseus' propaganda and political manoeuvres around Greece created bitter disputes between pro-Roman and pro-Perseus factions. At the beginning of 173 BC, the Romans sent commissioners to Aetolia and Macedonia, but they were not given
8900-436: The Greek states. They received the support of Epirus , in western Greece, and Aetolia and Thessaly, in central Greece. The main Boeotian cities, though divided between a pro-Roman and a pro-Perseus faction, decided to break the treaty with Perseus to side with Rome. This broke up the league of Boeotian cities as some of them supported Perseus. In Rhodes a new leader, and some locally notable citizens such as Astymedes , persuaded
9078-544: The Macedonian and Illyrian envoys reached Rhodes, the Rhodians thought that Perseus and Gentius were still allies and that the Gauls had been hired. This strengthened the leaders of the pro-Macedonian faction who declared that Rhodes had sufficient authority to put an end to the war and that the kings had to accede to peace. Thessaly Thessaly ( / ˈ θ ɛ s ə l i / THESS -ə-lee ; Greek : Θεσσαλία , romanized : Thessalía [θesaˈli.a] ; ancient Thessalian : Πετθαλία , Petthalía )
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#17327658391519256-407: The Macedonian border. Within that broken spur of mountains are several basins and river valleys. The easternmost extremity of the spur extends southeastward from Mount Olympus along the Aegean coast, terminating in the Magnesia Peninsula that envelops the Pagasetic Gulf (also called the Gulf of Volos), and forms an inlet of the Aegean Sea. Thessaly's major river, the Pineios , flows eastward from
9434-570: The Macedonians. After this Publius Licinius went to Boeotia, where Thebes was in trouble with another Boeotian city, Coronea, and asked for help. The commander sent to Illyria by the consul attacked two towns. He seized Cerenia and initially allowed the inhabitants to keep their belongings, in order to encourage the strongly fortified city of Carnuns to go over to him. However, he did not succeed and later sacked Cerenia. The other consul, Gaius Crassus, achieved little in northern Italy and unsuccessfully tried to go to Illyria and attack Macedon. The senate
9612-407: The Magnificent in December 1522. The Sultan deployed 400 ships delivering 100,000 men to the island (200,000 in other sources). Against this force the Knights, under Grand Master Philippe Villiers de L'Isle-Adam , had about 7,000 men-at-arms, with an English, Spanish, French, and Italian contingent each defending separate areas and their fortifications. The siege lasted six months, at the end of which
9790-441: The Mediterranean and Rhodian autonomy was ultimately dependent upon good relations with them. Those good graces soon evaporated in the wake of the Third Macedonian War (171–168 BC). In 169 BC, during the war against Perseus , Rhodes sent Agepolis as ambassador to the consul Quintus Marcius Philippus , and then to Rome in the following year, hoping to turn the Senate against the war. Rhodes remained scrupulously neutral during
9968-418: The Mediterranean and in use throughout Byzantine times (and influencing the development of admiralty law up to the present). In 622/3, during the climactic Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628 , Rhodes was captured by the Sasanian navy . Rhodes was occupied by the Islamic Umayyad forces of Caliph Muawiyah I in 654, who carried off the remains of the Colossus of Rhodes. The island was again captured by
10146-453: The Orientalizing Rhodian jewelry, dated in the 7th and early 6th centuries BC. The Persians invaded and overran the island, but they were in turn defeated by forces from Athens in 478 BC. The Rhodian cities joined the Athenian League . When the Peloponnesian War broke out in 431 BC, Rhodes remained largely neutral, although it remained a member of the League. The war lasted until 404 BC, but by this time Rhodes had withdrawn entirely from
10324-428: The Ottoman armies under Mehmed Reshid Pasha and Mahmud Dramali Pasha . After the establishment of the independent Kingdom of Greece , Greek nationalist agitation continued, with further revolts in 1841, in 1854 during the Crimean War , and again during the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878 . In 1880 Thessaly's population consisted of approximately 285,000 Greeks, 40,000 Turks, and 40,000 Jews. Thessaly became part of
10502-399: The Ottoman takeover of the region, they were an integral part of the military structures of Thessaly. Two of their military leaders known in Byzantine sources as Peter and John Sebastopoulos controlled the small towns of Pharsala and Domokos . In 1348, Thessaly was invaded and occupied by the Serbian Empire of Stefan Dušan , under the general Preljub . After the latter's death in 1356,
10680-430: The Peneus. He was joined by 4,000 infantry and 1,000 cavalry brought by Eumenes II of Pergamon and 1,500 infantry and 600 cavalry. A contingent of the Roman fleet went through the Gulf of Corinth and fought the Boeotians. It besieged Haliartus with 10,000 mariners and 2,000 troops under one of the brothers of Eumenes II. Eventually the city fell; 2,500 fighters who had taken refuge in the citadel were sold as slaves and
10858-414: The Persians subsequently. The following year, the Persians were decisively defeated at the Battle of Plataea and withdrew from all of their European possessions, including Thessaly. In the 4th century BC, after the Greco-Persian Wars had long ended, Jason of Pherae transformed the region into a significant military power, recalling the glory of Early Archaic times. Shortly after, Philip II of Macedon
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#173276583915111036-539: The Rhodians because the islanders were the only people they had encountered who were more arrogant than themselves. After surrendering its independence, Rhodes became a cultural and educational center for Roman noble families. It was especially noted for its teachers of rhetoric, such as Hermagoras and the unknown author of Rhetorica ad Herennium . At first, the state was an important ally of Rome and enjoyed numerous privileges, but these were later lost in various machinations of Roman politics. Cassius eventually invaded
11214-403: The Roman camp and was ready. The narrow ridge allowed for the deployment of only small numbers of light troops and so the engagement was limited to a skirmish. Perseus, who was not far, did not intervene or send more troops. Despite the presence of the enemy, Quintus Marcius had no choice but to persist. Leaving some troops to guard the summit, he marched across trackless places, having sent forward
11392-445: The Roman camp the Aetolians were blamed for beginning the panic that spread to the Greek troops, who fled following their example. Five Aetolian officers were sent to Rome. The Thessalians were commended for their bravery. Perseus moved his camp to Mopselus, a hill at the entrance of the Vale of Tempe that commanded the plain of Larissa. Meanwhile, Misagenes (the son of Masinissa , king of Numidia ) brought 1,000 Numidian cavalry,
11570-441: The Roman camp, but the Romans did not give battle. He returned several times to the same spot and at the same hour. He hoped that the Roman cavalry would pursue his troops, so that he could attack it with his superior cavalry while it was away from the Roman camp. As this failed, he moved his camp five miles away from the Roman camp. The next day, he lined up for battle at dawn. As this was earlier than he had usually done, it surprised
11748-422: The Roman detachment. Livy wrote that as the two forces were equal in numbers and "no fresh troops came up on either side, the engagement ended in a drawn battle". Perseus then returned to Sycurium. Neither side wanted a large-scale battle and for Perseus, this was something of a test. Moreover, his men had marched for twelve miles without water. Perseus returned the next day, bringing water carts. He lined up before
11926-432: The Romans agreed to intervene, still angry over the Macedonian alliance with Carthage that had led to the First Macedonian War from 214 to 205 BC. The Senate saw the appeal from Rhodes and her allies as the opportunity to pressure Philip. The result was the Second Macedonian War (200–196 BC), which Rome won and greatly reduced Macedon's power, prestige, and territory. Rhodian independence was preserved. Rhodian influence in
12104-469: The Romans. He reached Cephallania (Cephalonia, an island in the Ionic Sea) where he was joined by seven ships from Roman allies. He then went to Corfu . The consul crossed the sea from Italy and encamped with his force near Apollonia. Perseus assembled his whole army at Citium . He had 39,000 infantry, half of which were phalanxes (heavy infantry). The force included 3,000 Cretans, 3,000 men from Agrianes, Paeonia and Parstrymonia (a Thracian area around
12282-418: The Romans. Perseus engaged the Romans by a hill called Callinicus. Perseus' left wing included Thracians intermixed with cavalry and the right wing consisted of Cretan infantry intermixed with Macedonian cavalry. The wings were flanked by a mix of Macedonian cavalry and allied troops of various nationalities. The centre held the “sacred” cavalry fronted by slingers and javelin throwers. Publius Licinius lined up
12460-409: The Seleucids and their allies, the last Mediterranean power that might even vaguely threaten Roman dominance. Having provided Rome with valuable naval help in her first foray into Asia, the Rhodians were rewarded with territory and enhanced status by the Treaty of Apamea (188 BC). The Romans once again evacuated the east – the Senate preferred clients to provinces – but it was clear that Rome now ruled
12638-402: The Sun" due to its patron sun god Helios, "The Pearl Island", and "The Island of the Knights", named after the Knights of Saint John of Jerusalem , who ruled the island from 1310 to 1522. Historically, Rhodes was famous for the Colossus of Rhodes , one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World . The Medieval Old Town of the City of Rhodes has been declared a World Heritage Site . Today, it
12816-464: The Vale of Tempe was a difficult passage, dangerous even if not guarded. The precipices on both sides were steep and the passage was so narrow that it barely allowed a loaded horse. To make matters worse, guard detachments occupied four places along the pass. One was at the entrance, another in a thick forest and the third on the road where the valley was narrowest (Livy did not specify the characteristics of
12994-506: The area and its strong posts, leaving them to the Romans, even though the area was easily defensible. He ordered the inhabitants of Dium , where he was encamped, to move to Pydna and moved his statues there. Quintus Marcius advanced, facing a difficult decision. The Romans could leave the area only through two passes: through the Vale of Tempe to Thessaly or on to Macedon by way of Dium, and both were guarded. The Romans could not withdraw to Thessaly lest they cut their supply lines. Furthermore,
13172-462: The camp. The troops were not well organised, stretched out in a long and irregular line. They became separated in the dark. They did not see anyone on the walls as they approached. However, the defenders made a sortie, killing many of the Romans; only 1,000 escaped. Appius took the remains of his force to Lychnidus without taking care of the stragglers. This and other reverses were reported to Rome. The senate ordered two deputies to gather information on
13350-458: The campaigns of the Byzantine general Staurakios in 782–783, the Byzantine Empire recovered Thessaly, taking many Slavs as prisoners. Apart from military expeditions against Slavs, the re-Hellenization process begun under Nicephorus I involved (often forcible) transfer of peoples. Many Slavs were moved to other parts of the empire such as Anatolia and made to serve in the military. In return, many Greeks from Sicily and Asia Minor were brought to
13528-470: The capital of Thessaly, to prevent Perseus from garrisoning it. Perseus' ambassadors arrived in Rome to argue for peace. The senate was not persuaded and they were ordered to leave Rome. Fleet commander Gaius Lucretius set off with 40 ships. He received ten vessels from allies in southern Illyria at Dyrrhachium (modern Durrës , Albania) and 54 light vessels from Gentius, which he assumed had been assembled for
13706-447: The captured Romans and their carts in a narrow passage. Unable to get through, the men threw the carts down the hill. The king showed up and, to the soldiers’ dismay, ordered them to march back. Livy noted that according to some sources the consul returned to his camp, while according to others a big battle ensued in which 8,000 enemies were killed, including two commanders, and 2,800 were captured, while Romans lost 4,300 men. Perseus left
13884-539: The central Pindus Range just south of the spur, emptying into the Thermaic Gulf . The Trikala and Larissa lowlands form a central plain which is surrounded by a ring of mountains. It has distinct summer and winter seasons, with summer rains augmenting the fertility of the plains. This has led to Thessaly occasionally being called the "breadbasket of Greece". The region is well delineated by topographical boundaries. The Chasia and Kamvounia mountains lie to
14062-643: The city of Heliopolis and taught the Egyptians astrology . In the second half of the 8th century BC, the sanctuary of Athena received votive gifts that are markers for cultural contacts: small ivories from the Near East and bronze objects from Syria. At Kameiros on the northwest coast, a former Bronze Age site, where the temple was founded in the 8th century BC, there is another notable contemporaneous sequence of carved ivory figurines. The cemeteries of Kameiros and Ialyssos yielded several exquisite exemplars of
14240-478: The city of the Abderites when they endeavoured to avert, by entreaty, the intolerable burdens imposed on them". Perseus made an incursion against Dardania in southern Illyria, killed 10,000 and seized a large booty. An embassy from Chalcis (chief town of Euboea ) came to Rome to complain about Gaius Lucretius (for plundering the city, a friend of Rome), and the current commander, Lucius Hortensius, for keeping
14418-656: The collapse of Roman power in the west, and subsequently suffered many invasions, such as by the Slavic tribe of the Belegezites in the 7th century AD. The Avars had arrived in Europe in the late 550s. They asserted their authority over many Slavs, who were divided into numerous petty tribes. Many Slavs were galvanized into an effective infantry force, by the Avars. In the 7th century the Avar-Slav alliance began to raid
14596-520: The conflict and decided to go their own way. Being the eastern gate to the Aegean Sea, Rhodes was an important stopping point for Phoenician merchants, and prosperous trading colonies and Phoenician communities emerged there, some within the Greek cities. In 408 BC, the cities united to form one territory . They built the city of Rhodes , a new capital on the northern end of the island. Its regular plan was, according to Strabo , superintended by
14774-461: The country's 13 regions and is further (since the Kallikratis reform of 2011) sub-divided into five regional units and 25 municipalities . The capital of the region is Larissa . Thessaly lies in northern central Greece and borders the regions of Macedonia to the north, Epirus to the west, Central Greece to the south, and the Aegean Sea to the east. The Thessaly region also includes
14952-573: The death of John II, Thessalian independence came to an end, and the Almogavars occupied Siderokastron and southern Thessaly (1319) and formed the Duchy of Neopatria . The other parts of Thessaly either came under Byzantine rule or were ruled by their own nobility. These local magnates eventually started fighting amongst themselves. Those in the south, such as the Melissenos family of Volos, sought
15130-737: The dissolution of the Byzantine Empire by the Fourth Crusade in April 1204, Thessaly passed to Boniface of Montferrat 's Kingdom of Thessalonica in the wider context of the Frankokratia . With his Greek ties, Boniface won the support of the Greek population and of various important Greek families. In 1212, Michael I Komnenos Doukas , ruler of Epirus , led his troops into Thessaly. Larissa and much of central Thessaly came under Epirote rule, thereby separating Thessalonica from
15308-464: The famous Laocoön group , now in the Vatican Museums , and the large sculptures rediscovered at Sperlonga in the villa of Tiberius , probably in the early Imperial period . In 305 BC, Antigonus directed his son, Demetrius , to besiege Rhodes in an attempt to break its alliance with Egypt. Demetrius created huge siege engines , including a 180 ft (55 m) battering ram and
15486-409: The forts he had taken were stocked with corn. Quintus Marcius moved his headquarters to Phila to distribute corn to the soldiers. Livy noted allegations that he had withdrawn because of fear that had he stayed he would have had to risk battle, and that he let his gains slip. With his withdrawal Perseus marched back to Dium, rebuilt the fortifications the Romans had pulled down, and encamped on the bank of
15664-469: The fourth). The only way to retreat or receive supplies was to recross the mountains, but they were also difficult. It was also hard to pass unnoticed as the enemy was posted on the heights. The only option was the area between the bottom of Mount Olympus and the sea, but that was only one mile wide, half of which was the bog of the mouth of the River Baphirus and a large part of the remaining plain
15842-604: The gold mines of Mount Pangaeus . He was repulsed and then driven out of his territories by Perseus. This conflict contributed to the tensions that led to war, because Rome took issue with the ousting of its ally. Perseus made an alliance with Cotys IV , the king of the Odrysian kingdom , the largest state in Thrace . He enlarged his army. He also announced that he could carry out reforms in Greece and restore its previous strength and prosperity. Perseus sent agents to seek support in
16020-460: The hands of Rome and gave her the right to determine his future and that of Macedon. Perseus hoped to buy the peace by various offers of higher and higher sums of money, but Publius Licinius turned them down. Perseus returned to Sycurium, preparing to resume hostilities. Meanwhile, the Romans in Boeotia, having taken Haliartus, moved to Thebes, which surrendered without fighting. The city was given to
16198-432: The heavy infantry inside the rampart and the light infantry and the cavalry in front of it. The right wing had light infantry intermixed with Roman cavalry and the left wing had light infantry and cavalry of Greek allies. In the centre were select cavalry with Eumenes' troops, 200 Gauls and 300 Cyrtians. The Thessalian cavalry of 400 was a short distance in front of them. Eumenes, his brother Attalus, and their infantry were in
16376-766: The help of the Catalans, while those in the north, such as the Gavrilopoulos family of Trikala, turned towards Byzantium. At this time, some of Thessaly's ports came under Venetian rule. In 1332, most of Thessaly was taken by the Byzantines following a campaign by Andronikos III Paleologos . He left its administration to Michael Monomachos , who governed it for the next 10 years. Groups of Albanians moved into Thessaly as early as 1268 as mercenaries of Michael Doukas . The Albanian tribes of Bua , Malakasioi and Mazaraki were described as "unruly" nomads living in
16554-501: The hills overlooking the camp. As the Romans did not move, he returned to Sycurium. The Romans moved to Phalanna (the capital of the Perrhaebi of northern Thessaly) for further harvesting. Perseus learned that they were dispersed and that no one was guarding the camp. He hurried with 1,000 cavalry and 2,000 Thracian and Cretan light infantry and caught the Romans by surprise. He captured nearly 1,000 carts and 600 men. Then he attacked
16732-466: The hostages. Gentius sent an envoy of his to Perseus to get his sworn sword, the hostages and the talents, which was to be collected by men who accompanied him. After receiving all of these he was to travel to Rhodes with Macedonian envoys to deliver a plea by the two kings for Rhodes and her powerful navy to join them against the Romans. Perseus went to meet the Illyrians, the hostages were exchanged and
16910-718: The interior of Greece, to increase the number of defenders at the Emperor's disposal and dilute the concentration of Slavs. In 977 Byzantine Thessaly was raided by the Bulgarian Empire . In 1066 dissatisfaction with the taxation policy led the Aromanian and Bulgarian population of Thessaly to revolt against the Byzantine Empire under the leadership of a local lord, Nikoulitzas Delphinas . The revolt, which began in Larissa , soon expanded to Trikala and later northwards to
17088-536: The island and sacked the city. In the early Imperial period Rhodes became a favorite place for political exiles. In the 1st century AD, the Emperor Tiberius spent a brief term of exile on Rhodes. By tradition, Paul the Apostle evangelized and helped establish an early Christian church on the island during the first century. In ancient times there was a Roman saying: " Hic Rhodus, hic salta !"—"Here
17266-542: The island forms a separate municipality within the Rhodes regional unit , which is part of the South Aegean administrative region . The principal town of the island and seat of the municipality is the city of Rhodes , which had 50,636 inhabitants in 2011. In 2022, the island had a population of 125,113 people. It is located northeast of Crete and southeast of Athens . Rhodes has several nicknames, such as "Island of
17444-736: The island has been called Rodi in Italian , Rodos in Turkish , and רודי (Rodi) or רודיס (Rodes) in Ladino . Other ancient names were Ρόδη (Rodē), Τελχινίς ( Telchinis ) and Ηλιάς (Helias). The Travels of Sir John Mandeville incorrectly reports that Rhodes was formerly called "Collosus", through a conflation of the Colossus of Rhodes and Paul 's Epistle to the Colossians , which refers to Colossae . The island's name might be derived from erod , Phoenician for snake, since
17622-436: The island to ally with Rome. Gentius, the king of Illyria, remained non–committal. A commission was sent to Greece. Perseus invited one of the commissioners, Marcius, for a meeting. He denounced Eumenes' allegations and others and claimed that his international relations were not aimed at preparing for war. Marcius advised him to send an embassy to Rome and arranged an armistice to guarantee safe passage. He did this because Rome
17800-536: The island was given as a fief to Andrea Morisco , a Genoese adventurer who had entered Byzantine service. In 1306–1310, the Byzantine era of the island's history came to an end when the island was occupied by the Knights Hospitaller . Under the rule of the newly named "Knights of Rhodes", the city was rebuilt into a model of the European medieval ideal. Many of the city's famous monuments, including
17978-585: The island was home to many snakes in antiquity. The island was inhabited in the Neolithic period although little remains of this culture. In the 16th century BC, the Minoans came to Rhodes. Later Greek mythology recalled a Rhodian race called the Telchines and associated the island of Rhodes with Danaus ; it was sometimes nicknamed Telchinis . In the 15th century BC, Mycenaean Greeks invaded. After
18156-661: The island was the capital of the Roman province of the Islands , headed by a praeses ( hegemon in Greek), and encompassing most of the Aegean islands , with twenty cities. Correspondingly, the island was also the metropolis of the ecclesiastical province of Cyclades, with eleven suffragan sees. Beginning from ca. 600 AD, its influence in maritime issues was manifested in the collection of maritime laws known as " Rhodian Sea Law " ( Nomos Rhodion Nautikos ), accepted throughout
18334-441: The island, mainly in the capital "Rodi", while some of them founded farm villages (like "Peveragno Rodio" (1929), "Campochiaro" (1935), "San Marco" (1936) and "Savona" (1938): in 1940 the creation of the " Provincia italiana di Rodi " in the Dodecanese islands was officially proposed. In the late 1930s, Mussolini embarked on a program of Italianization , attempting to make the island of Rhodes a transportation hub that would facilitate
18512-517: The issue was uncertain." When they returned to Macedon they told Perseus that the Romans were not preparing for war, but they were so embittered with him that they might do so soon. Perseus thought that this might be possible. He was determined to begin the war by shedding the blood of Eumenes, whom he hated, and called for Euander, a leader of Cretan mercenaries, and three Macedonian killers to arrange Eumenes' assassination. The cities of Greece and western and central Anatolia became convinced that Eumenes
18690-580: The king of the Seleucid Empire . Perseus' daughter was set to marry Prusias II of Bithynia (in north-western Anatolia , modern Turkey ), who was an enemy of Eumenes II of Pergamon (in western Anatolia), an ally of Rome. Amid these alliances, Abrupolis , the king of the Thracian tribe of the Sapaei and an ally of the Romans attacked Macedon, laid it waste as far as Amphipolis , and overran
18868-705: The kingdom among themselves. Rhodes formed strong commercial and cultural ties with the Ptolemies in Alexandria , and together formed the Rhodo-Egyptian alliance that controlled trade throughout the Aegean in the 3rd century BC. The city developed into a maritime, commercial and cultural center; its coins circulated nearly everywhere in the Mediterranean. Its famous schools of philosophy, science, literature and rhetoric shared masters with Alexandria:
19046-483: The late 14th century with the capture of Larissa in 1392-93 and consolidated in the early 15th century. Nevertheless, Ottoman control was threatened throughout this era by groups of Greeks, Albanians and Aromanians who based themselves in the mountainous areas of Thessaly. At the time of the Ottoman conquest, the great Eastern plain of Thessaly was almost entirely depopulated as a result of the nearly continuous warfare of
19224-477: The lower Peneus. It overlooked the plains of Thessaly and was not far from Larissa. Meanwhile, Publius Licinius had marched from Epirus on the west coast of Greece through arduous mountain passes and through Athamania , a kingdom allied with Perseus. He was lucky that they were not attacked, otherwise the green troops tired from their journey would have been defeated. He reached Thessaly and encamped at Tripolis Larisaia , five kilometres north of Larissa and further up
19402-637: The lowlands of Thessaly became the home of baronial families, such as the Aleuadae of Larissa or the Scopads of Crannon. In the summer of 480 BC, the Persians invaded Thessaly . The Greek army that guarded the Vale of Tempe was alerted by Alexander I of Macedon and evacuated the road before the enemy arrived. Not much later, Thessaly surrendered to the Persians. The Thessalian family of Aleuadae joined
19580-402: The mainland) made up the so-called Dorian Hexapolis (Greek for six cities). In Pindar 's ode, the island was said to be born of the union of Helios the sun god and the nymph Rhodos , and the cities were named for their three sons. The rhoda is a pink hibiscus , native to the island. Diodorus Siculus added that Actis , one of the sons of Helios and Rhode, travelled to Egypt . He built
19758-399: The men and put the women and children in custody. He sent envoys to Gentius, to seek an alliance. Gentius said he did not have enough money for war. Perseus, who had a reputation as a miser, sent the envoys back but did not mention money, even though he had the proceeds from the slave sale. Perseus ravaged Ancrya, returned to Uscana, fortifying it, and then returned to Macedon. Lucius Coelius,
19936-661: The minorities" between Greece and Turkey . Rhodes and the rest of the Dodecanese Islands were assigned to Italy in the Treaty of Ouchy. Although the treaty stipulated that the islands were to be returned to Turkey, the advent of World War I prevented this from happening. Turkey ceded them officially to Italy with the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne . It then became the core of their possession of the Isole Italiane dell'Egeo . Thousands of Italian colonists settled in
20114-644: The modern Greek state in 1881, after the Convention of Constantinople except the area around the town of Elassona , which remained in Ottoman hands until 1912. It was briefly captured by Ottomans during the Greco-Turkish War of 1897 . After the Treaty of Constantinople (1897) , Greece was forced to cede minor border areas and to pay heavy reparations. The remaining part of Thessaly held by the Ottomans
20292-501: The money and told them to proceed slowly and to wait for his instructions when they reached the border. Gentius, who had received only a small part of the money, was urged to provoke the Romans into an attack. As a result, he imprisoned two Roman envoys. Perseus, believing that Gentius had now been pushed into war with Rome, told the couriers to take the money back to his treasury. Livy wrote that, through his avarice, Perseus had lost an alliance with Gentius backed by large army of Gauls. When
20470-570: The mountains of Thessaly in the early 14th century in Emperor John VI Kantakouzenos’ ‘History’. They numbered approximately 12,000. Kantakouzenos describes a pact they made to serve the Byzantine Emperor and pay tribute to him ca. 1332 in exchange for using the lowland areas of Thessaly in the summer months. Albanian groups were given military holdings Fanari in the 1330s and by the end of the 14th century and
20648-410: The nearest cities in Thessaly. Eumenes and Attalus returned to Pergamon. He then went with part of his army south to Achaean Phthiotis where he razed Pteleum . Antronae surrendered. Livy wrote that then he went to Larissa, that the Macedonian garrison had fled and that the inhabitants, who had taken refuge in the citadel, surrendered. Oddly, he had not previously mentioned that Larissa had been taken by
20826-566: The neighbouring states. He gathered 8,000 soldiers and sent them to Lychnidus , in the territory of the Dassaretians , a tribe in Epirus. Messengers from the nearby Uscana —a town allied with Perseus and garrisoned by Cretans—told Appius Claudius that some people in the town were willing to hand it over to him. He neither asked for hostages as a safeguard nor sent scouts. He encamped near the city and set out at night, leaving 1,000 men to guard
21004-777: The new Seleucid king, betrothed his daughter to Perseus as an example of Perseus gaining influence among kings in the east, even though Antiochus had just renewed his father's alliance with Rome. The Boeotians had never made an alliance with Macedon. Members of the Achaean council threatened to call on Rome in their opposition to an alliance with Perseus. If not for this, such an alliance might have happened. Perseus made preparations for war, storing corn for 30,000 troops. He had money to hire 10,000 mercenaries and could draw many soldiers from Thrace. He had been stocking weapons. He seized some places and persuaded others through favour. Eumenes II claimed that if Rome ignored these developments, Perseus might attack Italy. A few days after Eumenes' speech,
21182-595: The north coast of the Gulf of Corinth, in Boeotia) and marched to Thessaly. He immediately marched, but he was defeated. He gave up his useless attempts first to force his way through Elimea in south-western Macedon and secretly marched through Thessaly. Perseus anticipated his moves. Livy wrote that Gaius Hortensius did not conduct his naval operations “with sufficient skill or success, for none of his acts deserves better to be remembered than his cruel and perfidious plundering of
21360-473: The north of Thessaly a rare humid subtropical climate ( Cfa ) can be found, although it is different from a climate typically below or above the tropics, it also marks the limit of this rare Cf subtype on the European continent (e. g. the small village of Kalvia). The population of the region of Thessaly was 687,527 in 2021 census. The region has shrunk by 45,235 people between 2011 and 2021, experiencing
21538-559: The north, the Mount Olympus massif to the northeast. To the west lies the Pindus mountain range, to the southeast the coastal mountains of Óssa and Pelion . Several tributaries of the Pineios flow through the region. Most of the province has a hot summer Mediterranean climate ( Köppen : Csa ), but also found is a cold semi-arid climate ( BSk ) including the capital Larissa (on its Mediterranean edge of category). Even in
21716-525: The opportunity to meet Perseus. The Romans surmised that he was preparing for war. Aetolian cities experienced increasingly violent internal conflicts. A Roman envoy attended the session of the Aetolian council at Delphi . He asked both factions to abstain from war. This was agreed through an exchange of hostages, who were sent to Corinth . The envoy then went to the Peloponnese and called a meeting of
21894-515: The origin of the name of the Thessalians to pre-Greek times, although he does not try to explain its etymology. In Aromanian it is referred to as Tesalia . In Homer 's epic, the Odyssey , the hero Odysseus visited Aeolia, the kingdom of Aeolus , which was the old name for Thessaly. The Plain of Thessaly, which lies between Mount Oeta /Othrys and Mount Olympus , was the site of
22072-472: The plain. The pursuers were joined by an Epirot force that ravaged the area; 1,000 troops of the city of Antigonea were killed and 100 were captured in an ambush. They then encamped near Appius Claudius, who decided to go back to Illyria. He sent the soldiers to winter camps and returned to Rome. In early spring consul Quintus Marcius sailed with 5,000 men to reinforce his legions. They disembarked at Ambracia and moved towards Thessaly. Figulus took his fleet into
22250-588: The population of the Sanjak. Failed Greek uprisings occurred in 1600/1 and 1612, and during the Morean War (1684–1699) and the Orlov Revolt (1770). In 1780, Ali Pasha of Ioannina took over control of Thessaly, and consolidated his rule after 1808, when he suppressed a local uprising. Heavy taxation, however, ruined the province's commerce, and coupled with the outbreak of the plague in 1813, reduced
22428-542: The population to some 200,000 by 1820. Rigas Feraios , the important Greek intellectual and forerunner of the Greek War of Independence was from the region. He was born in Velestino , near the ancient town of Pherae . When the Greek War of Independence broke out in 1821, Greek risings occurred in the Pelion and Olympus mountains as well as the western mountains around Fanari, but they were swiftly suppressed by
22606-559: The present-day Dalyan , Turkey. Rhodes successfully carried on this policy through the course of the third century BC, an impressive achievement for what was essentially a democratic state. By the end of that period, however, the balance of power was crumbling, as declining Ptolemaic power made Egypt an attractive target for Seleucid ambitions. In 203/2 BC the young and dynamic kings of Antigonid Macedon and Seleucid Asia, Philip V and Antiochus III , agreed to accept—at least temporarily—their respective military ambitions: Philip's campaign in
22784-505: The previous decades. It was resettled by Turkish settlers from Western Anatolia and Greeks from Western Thessaly and the surrounding mountains. In the following decades, the population of this area grew very rapidly as a result of law and order. Thessaly was ruled through the Sanjak of Tirhala administrative division during the Ottoman period . In the 1520s, Muslims made up of 17.5% of
22962-457: The pro-Roman party and the property of the pro-Macedonians was sold. Perseus viewed the fact that the Romans were harvesting corn and dumping straw in front of their camp was a good opportunity to torch the camp. However, his night incursion was discovered. Perseus withdrew amidst skirmishes with pursuing Romans. The Romans moved to Crannon (modern Krannonas, to the south-east of Larissa) to reap more corn. They saw Perseus’ cavalry and infantry on
23140-412: The rampart. On seeing it advancing, Cretan commander Euander advised Perseus that continuing the battle was an unnecessary risk, and the king decided to withdraw. Despite this, the battle was considered a Macedonian victory because they lost 400 infantry and 20 cavalry, while the Romans lost 2,000 infantry and 200 cavalry. On Eumenes advice, Publius Licinius moved his camp across the river for protection. In
23318-441: The rear, just in front of the rampart. The armies' numbers were even. The battle was started by the slingers and javelin throwers. Then the Thracians attacked the Roman cavalry on the right wing, throwing it into confusion. The infantry on both sides cut the lances of the horsemen and stabbed the sides of the horses. Perseus’ centre pushed back the Greeks on the left wing. The Thessalian cavalry, which had been kept in reserve, joined
23496-503: The region was conquered by Nikephoros Orsini after he won the support of the local Greek population. After his death three years later, it was taken over by the self-proclaimed Serbian emperor Simeon Uroš . Simeon's son John Uroš succeeded in 1370 but abdicated in 1373, and Thessaly was administered by the Greek Angeloi-Philanthropenoi clan until the Ottoman conquest c. 1393. Ottoman control began in
23674-400: The rowdy sailors in the town. Lucretius was put on trial and fined by the plebeian tribunes; the senate ordered Hortensius to free the men enslaved by Lucretius and to move the sailors off the island. It was suspected that Gentius might side with Perseus. Therefore, the senate sent eight ships with 2,000 soldiers to Issa. Aulus Hostilius sent Appius Claudius to Illyria with 4,000 men to protect
23852-400: The same number of infantry and 22 elephants for the Romans. Perseus was advised to use the victory to secure an honourable peace. This would make him look moderate and if the Romans rejected it, they would look arrogant. Perseus approved. Envoys were sent to the consul. They promised to pay tribute which would be negotiated. The reply was that peace would be granted only if Perseus put himself in
24030-520: The semi-urban population. The metropolitan area of Larissa, the capital of Thessaly, is home to more than 230,000 people, making it the biggest city of the region. An Aromanian minority resides in Thessaly. This region, along with Epirus and Macedonia , are the regions with the biggest concentrations of Greek Aromanians . Another notable population group of Thessaly are the Karagounides , an ethnic Greek subgroup. The Aeolic dialect of Greek
24208-408: The senate received envoys from Perseus. They said that Perseus had not said or done anything hostile. However, the senators did not believe this and "their ears had been captured by Eumenes". They felt affronted when the leader of the embassy said that if Perseus saw that the Romans were bent on an excuse for war, he would respond with courage and that "the chances of war were the same for both sides and
24386-440: The senate replied that the Rhodians and Perseus had conspired against Rome and that the words of the ambassadors confirmed this. Once Perseus had been defeated, Rome would consider retribution. The consuls for 168 BC were Lucius Aemilius Paulus (for the second time) and Gaius Licinius Crassus. Macedon was assigned to Lucius Aemilius and the command of the fleet was assigned to the praetor Gnaeus Octavius. The praetor Lucius Anicius
24564-423: The siege. The Romans and Eumenes considered besieging Torone , but changed their minds because of its garrison. They went on Demetrias , but they saw that the walls were fully manned. Thus, they brought the fleet into harbour at Iolcos , after pillaging the countryside. To remain active, Quintus Marcius sent 5,000 men to Meliboea by Mount Ossa, where it stretches out into Thessaly to command Demetrias. Works for
24742-405: The situation in Greece. The deputies reported the successes of Perseus and the fear of the Greek allies about Perseus reducing many cities. They also reported that Publius Licinius' troops were, thin because he had granted leave to many of them, in order to gain popularity. The consuls for 169 BC were Quintus Marcius Philippus (for the second time) and Gnaeus Servilius Caepio . The Macedonian War
24920-479: The snow covered the mountains of Thessaly, thus protecting Macedon from Roman attacks, Perseus attacked the Illyrians, who had granted free passage to the Romans. King Gentius had been wavering about whom to support. Perseus moved to the land of the Penestae (in southern Illyria) and went on to Stubera with 10,000 infantry, 2,000 light infantry, and 500 cavalry. From there, he marched on Uscana. In his discussion of
25098-672: The spread of Italian culture in Greece and the Levant . The Fascist program coincided with improvements to infrastructure, building imposing buildings such as the Hotel Rodon, the Puccini Theater and many administrative buildings with master architects such as Armando Bernabiti and Florestano Di Fausto . While the government worked at modernization, they also obliterated many historical buildings that did not match their ideal of
25276-457: The surrender of Agasse. To get a good reputation he did not garrison it and did not ask for taxes. He moved on to the river Ascordus, but, as he got further away from the supplies from Thessaly, plunder became scant and provisions were scarce, so he returned to Dium. The Roman fleet arrived, but he was told that the transport ships were in Magnesia, further south. He was informed by Lucretius that
25454-527: The surviving defeated Hospitallers were allowed to withdraw to the Kingdom of Sicily . Despite the defeat, both Christians and Muslims seem to have regarded the conduct of Villiers de L'Isle-Adam as extremely valiant, and the Grand Master was proclaimed a Defender of the Faith by Pope Adrian VI (see Knights of Cyprus and Rhodes ). The knights would later move their base of operations to Malta and Gozo . Rhodes
25632-506: The town was razed. Perseus sent a detachment twenty miles southward, to ravage the fields of Pherae , in southern Thessaly. He hoped that this would draw the Romans forward, but they did not respond. Perseus then appeared just over a mile from the Roman camp and sent forward a reconnaissance unit of 100 cavalry and 100 slingers. The Romans sent out a detachment of some 380 Gallic, Mysian and Cretan light cavalry. Perseus deployed only four cavalry squadrons and four infantry cohorts, and engaged
25810-462: The towns, employing naval catapults. After this, the troops were re-embarked, and he made for Aenia , fifteen miles away, and pillaged its fertile countryside. He then sailed to Antigonea and did the same, but a Macedonian detachment intercepted the troops and killed 500 men. Another fight by the coast, assisted by men from the ships, had the Romans kill 200 enemies. The fleet sailed on to the district of Pallene ( Chalkidiki peninsula ), whose territory
25988-487: The treaty concluded. The men who were to receive the money were sent to the royal treasury in Pella. The Illyrian and Macedonian ambassadors were ordered to board a ship at Thessalonica, where they were joined by a Rhodian who stated that the Rhodians were ready for war; he was made head of the joint delegation. Perseus let the Illyrians in Pella take the talents and had 10 talents sent to Gentius. However, he got his men to carry
26166-539: The two legions there were to have 6,000 infantry each and the rest of the men were to be sent to the various garrisons. The forces of the Roman allies were to be 10,000 infantry and 800 cavalry. For the fleet 5,000 sailors were to be levied. A year earlier Gentius was invited to join Macedon in an alliance. He had told Perseus that he did not have money for war. When he felt pressured by the Romans, he offered Gentius 300 silver talents if hostages were exchanged. Perseus sent an envoy to Gentius who gave him his sworn sword and
26344-609: The walls of the city. Negotiations between Eumenes and Antimachus were rumoured, via the governor of the city and a Cretan, Cydas. Ultimately, the Romans left. Eumenes sailed to visit the consul and then returned to Pergamon. Figulus sent part of the fleet to winter at Sciatus and went to Oreum in Euboea with the rest of the fleet because it was a better base from which to supply Macedon and Thessaly. Livy noted different accounts about Eumenes. According to one he did not assist Figulus, even though he had asked for it. When he left for Pergamon he
26522-401: The war disrupted their trade, brought losses in port duties and in provisions and caused scarcity on the island. They said that they wanted peace and that they had also sent envoys to Perseus. They would consider what measures to take against either party who insisted on carrying on the war. This message was considered arrogant. Livy cited one source claiming it was ignored while others wrote that
26700-552: The war's third year, Livy stated that Uscana apparently switched allegiance to Rome. The mixed Roman and Illyrian garrison refused to surrender and Perseus besieged it. The defending commanders soon capitulated, and asked to be allowed to leave with their weapons. Perseus agreed, but then disarmed them. He moved the population to Stubera and sold them as slaves. The 4,000 enemy troops were sent to various towns. He then marched on Draudacum, whose garrison surrendered, and then took eleven forts, capturing 1,500 Romans. He seized Oaeneus, killed
26878-405: The war, but in the view of hostile elements in the Senate she had been a bit too friendly with the defeated King Perseus. Some actually proposed declaring war on the island republic, but this was averted. In 164 BC, Rhodes became a "permanent ally" of Rome, which was essentially a reduction to client state of nominal but meaningless independence. It was said that the Romans ultimately turned against
27056-411: The west of Ohrid in North Macedonia . The alluvial soils of the Pineios Basin and its tributaries make Thessaly a vital agricultural area, particularly for the production of grain , cattle , and sheep . Modernization of agricultural practices in the mid-20th century has controlled the chronic flooding that had restricted agricultural expansion and diversification in the low-lying plains. Thessaly
27234-428: The year's pay. Publius Licinius heard that Perseus had gone, and launched a failed attack on Gonnus in order to deny the Macedonians a convenient descent into Thessaly. He took towns in Perrhaebia, including Malloea and Tripolis , and returned to Larissa. The consul sent part of the army to various cities to winter, disbanded the forces of the Greek allies except for the Achaeans and sent Misagenes and his Numidians to
27412-419: Was appointed Archon of Thessaly, and Thessaly was thereafter associated with the Macedonian Kingdom for the next centuries. Thessaly later became part of the Roman Empire as part of the province of Macedonia ; when that was broken up, the name resurfaced in two of its late Roman successor provinces: Thessalia Prima and Thessalia Secunda . Thessaly remained part of the East Roman "Byzantine" Empire after
27590-454: Was assigned to Aulus Hostilius and the fleet and the coast of Greece to the praetor Gaius Hortensius. Aulus Hostilius was on his way to Macedon via Epirus. An Epirot leader wrote to Perseus to tell him to hurry there. However, the king was delayed. If he had attacked at the river passage, the newly recruited troops would have been defeated. In any case, Aulus Hostilius was informed and changed his route. He left Epirus and sailed to Anticyra (on
27768-428: Was assigned to Quintus Marcius and the command of the fleet to praetor Quintus Marcius Figulus. The troops allocated for Greece were 6,000 Roman infantry, 6,000 Latin infantry, 250 Roman cavalry and 300 allied cavalry. The old soldiers were discharged, so each legion had 6,000 soldiers. The soldiers granted leave were recalled. The recruitment for the fleet was 1,000 Roman freedmen and 500 Italians and 500 Sicilians. When
27946-455: Was astonished that he had left northern Italy exposed to possible attacks and sent envoys to warn him not to attack anyone without authorisation. Livy wrote that Publius Licinius, frustrated with his lack of success, turned against the Boeotians, mercilessly plundering several cities there, where he was wintering. The people of Coronea put themselves under the protection of the Senate, which ordered Licinius to release his captives. Gaius Lucretius
28124-403: Was away, the pro-Roman faction called in a Roman garrison. Dinarchus, the commander of the Aetolian cavalry, also arrived with 600 infantry and 100 cavalry to support Perseus, but when he saw the changed situation he switched allegiance to Rome. Due to the winter weather, Perseus abandoned Stratus, and went to Aperantia , which, through the influence of Archidamus, willingly surrendered. Archidamus
28302-437: Was by far the most plentiful. There, Figulus was joined by 20 ships from Eumenes II and five ships from Prusias I of Bithynia . This encouraged him to besiege Cassandrea , which connected the Pallene peninsula (one of the three long peninsulas that extend from the Chalkidiki peninsula) to the territory. An attack was repulsed by the city garrison. The arrival of a Macedonian ship from Thessalonica with Gallic auxiliaries ended
28480-406: Was elected in the second round of the 2023 regional election and took office on 1 January 2024. Rhodes Rhodes ( / r oʊ d z / ; Greek : Ρόδος , romanized : Ródos [ˈroðos] ) is the largest of the Dodecanese islands of Greece and is their historical capital; it is the ninth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea . Administratively,
28658-509: Was even more ruthless and rapacious, described by Livy as “oppressive to the allies, despicable in the sight of the enemy". Perseus, in a surprise attack on the Roman fleet stationed at Oreum on the island of Euboea , captured five warships and twenty transports laden with corn, and sunk the other ships. He then went to Thrace to help Cotys. Epirus , on the west coast of Greece, went over to the Macedonians. The consuls for 170 BC were Aulus Hostilius Mancinus and Aulus Atilius Serranus . Macedon
28836-434: Was finally regained by the Greeks during the First Balkan War in 1912. In 1923, the entire Muslim population was sent to Turkey following the population exchange between Greece and Turkey at the end of the Greco-Turkish War . During World War II , Thessaly was occupied by the Kingdom of Italy from April 1941 to September 1943. After the Armistice of Cassibile , Germany occupied Thessaly until October 1944. It became
29014-444: Was forbidden. Following the Italian Armistice of 8 September 1943 , the British attempted to get the Italian garrison on Rhodes to change sides. This was anticipated by the German Army , which succeeded in occupying the island with the Battle of Rhodes . In great measure, the German occupation caused the British failure in the subsequent Dodecanese Campaign . After September 1943, the Jews were sent to concentration camps. However,
29192-411: Was informed and he responded with a force of light infantry and cavalry, including the Numidians and the elephants, followed by more troops. Perseus called in the heavy infantry, but it was too late. They arrived in a hurry and were not properly arrayed. Publius Licinius attacked and Perseus lost 300 men and 24 of the “sacred” cavalry, including its commander. The heavy infantry fled, but got tangled with
29370-435: Was invited by the Epirots to attack Aetolia and marched on Stratus, the strongest Aetolian city, with 10,000 infantry and 300 cavalry. He could not pitch camp on the snow-covered Mount Citium and had to encamp elsewhere. He then was held up at the River Aracthus because of its deep water. He built a bridge, crossed, and then met Archidamus, a distinguished Aetolian, who had persuaded the nobles to betray Stratus. However, while he
29548-495: Was made its governor, while Perseus returned to Macedon. Appius Claudius was eager make up for his defeat in Illyria and attacked a stronghold in Epirus. He had a force of 6,000, Romans and contingents of Thesprotians and from Chaon (both from Epirus). He was repulsed by the garrison. He besieged the city, but then lifted it due to a report that Perseus was marching there. He was pursued up an almost impassable mountain and lost 1,000 men, in addition to 200 captured. He then encamped on
29726-446: Was made where the rocks were steep, in order to help the elephants. The Romans advanced only seven miles, and then waited for the troops at the camp to join them. On the fourth day they reached a pass and encountered similarly difficult terrain. As they approached the plain troops encamped between Heracleum and Libethrus, while some occupied a valley and part of the plain. The greater part was on hillsides. Perseus panicked. He evacuated
29904-400: Was manned by proverbially the finest sailors in the Mediterranean world: “If we have ten Rhodians, we have ten ships.” The Rhodians also established their dominance on the shores of Caria across from their island, which became known as the " Rhodian Peraia ". It extended roughly from the modern city of Muğla (ancient Mobolla ) in the north and Kaunos bordering Lycia in the south, near
30082-410: Was more oppressive than the Seleucid king. The senators resented this claim. Hostility towards Eumenes by various Greek states made Rome more determined to favour him. The plan to assassinate Eumenes failed during his visit to Delphi. Gaius Valerius Laevinus , who had been sent to investigate the situation in Greece and monitor Perseus, returned to Rome and supported Eumenes' allegations. He also bought
30260-484: Was not on good terms with the consul. Quintus Marcius could not get him to leave his Gallic cavalry behind. Ambassadors from Bithynia and from Rhodes went to Rome to propose peace. The Bithynians said that their king had promised Perseus to mediate for peace and asked the senate to give him this role. The Rhodians said that during the interwar period they had started a friendship with Perseus which they broke unwillingly because Rome wanted to draw them into an alliance. Now
30438-409: Was not ready for war. The army was preparing and had not yet gone to Greece. Many senators were pleased with the commissioners' diplomatic achievements. However, the older senators disapproved of the new policy of diplomacy, which they saw as not reflecting Romans' honour and courage and called for military action. As a result, 50 ships were sent to Greece and 2,000 troops were sent to occupy Larissa ,
30616-480: Was put in charge of Illyria. Aemilius carefully prepared his campaign. He asked for a commission to find out if the troops were still in the mountains or had descended to the plain, to inspect the armies and the fleet, to report on what was required, whether the allies were still loyal, which states were hostile, the status of Perseus’ troops, and the logistics. They reported that the Romans had advanced towards Macedon, but that travel mountains had proven costly. Perseus
30794-404: Was ruled by John II Doukas until his death in 1318. From 1306 to 1310, the Almogavars or Catalan Company of the East ( Societas Catalanorum Magna ), plundered Thessaly. In 1310, they occupied a series of forts in the south. From there they departed to the Duchy of Athens , called by the duke Walter I , whom they eventually killed in battle and took over the Duchy of Athens . In 1318, with
30972-427: Was spoken in Thessaly. This included several local varieties, in particular the variants of Pelasgiotis and Thessaliotis. The language was not written. Apart from Greek, Aromanian is also spoken in Thessaly. Some Aromanian dialects from the region have some unique peculiarities of their own, such as that of Krania , which is one of the few with differential object marking (DOM) along with those dialects spoken at
31150-436: Was steering Rome towards war. They sent emissaries to Rome. One of them was from Rhodes . It said that they felt sure that Eumenes had included Rhodes among those he accused of being friends of Perseus and, therefore, Rhodes had tried to confront Eumenes in the Roman senate. As this had failed, they accused Eumenes of trying to stir the Lycians (a people in western Anatolia under Eumenes' rule) against Rhodes and claimed that he
31328-591: Was still holding his country and the two forces were close to each other. The Romans had rations for only six days. The Roman position in Illyria was perilous and needed to be reinforced or withdrawn. A strong enough army there could open a second front. Some of the fleet's crew had died of disease and some had gone home, leaving the ships undermanned; also, the men did not have proper clothing and had not received their pay. The senate decided that two new legions of 5,000 infantry each were to be taken to Macedon. The men in Macedon who were unfit for service were to be discharged,
31506-479: Was taken up by the town. The small remaining space could easily closed by a short rampart with towers; construction material was abundant. Quintus Marcius ordered Spurius Lucretius, who was in Larissa, to capture the deserted forts around Vale of Tempe. He sent scouts to check the roads around Dium and then he marched to the city. It was so rich and well-fortified that Quintus Marcius could not believe his luck that it had been evacuated. He continued his march, forcing
31684-416: Was thereafter a possession of the Ottoman Empire (see Sanjak of Rhodes ) for nearly four centuries. In the 19th century the island was populated by ethnic groups from the surrounding nations, including Jews, whose presence goes back 2,300 years. Under Ottoman rule, they generally did fairly well, but discrimination and bigotry occasionally arose. In February 1840, the Jews of Rhodes were falsely accused by
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