Bargylia ( / ˌ b ɑːr ˈ dʒ ɪ l i ə / ; Ancient Greek : Βαργυλία ), was a city on the coast of ancient Caria in southwestern Anatolia (modern-day Turkey ) between Iasos and Myndus . Bargylia's location corresponds to the modern Turkish town of Boğaziçi in Muğla Province .
58-456: The city was said to have been founded by Bellerophon in honour of his companion Bargylos ( Greek : Βάργυλος ), who had been killed by a kick from the winged horse Pegasus . Near Bargylia was the Temple of Artemis Cindyas. Strabo reports the local belief that rain would fall around the temple but never touch it. Artemis Cindyas and Pegasus appear on coinage of Bargylia. In 201/200 BC during
116-543: A pitch accent . In Modern Greek, all vowels and consonants are short. Many vowels and diphthongs once pronounced distinctly are pronounced as /i/ ( iotacism ). Some of the stops and glides in diphthongs have become fricatives , and the pitch accent has changed to a stress accent . Many of the changes took place in the Koine Greek period. The writing system of Modern Greek, however, does not reflect all pronunciation changes. The examples below represent Attic Greek in
174-401: A Belleros killed by Bellerophon are two Byzantine scholars, John Tzetzes and Eustathius of Thessalonica , who both seem to be following Bellerophon's own name etymology. Bellerophon was the son of the mortal Eurynome (or Eurymede ) and Poseidon ; having been raised by his foster father Glaukos . He was the brother of Deliades (also named Peiren or Alcimenes ). Bellerophon was
232-479: A city of Asia. It is difficult to find, though only half an hour's sail from Gullük, up an inlet that opens among hills. Not a house was in sight when we sailed here nor any sign of animal life except some cattle grazing, and two boats fishing in the sound. The water grew too shallow for the Elfin, and the dinghy landed us in swamp among rushes as sharp and painful as miniature javelins. From tussock to tussock we gained
290-436: A double of Bellerophon: he was called the son of Glaucus (son of Sisyphus). Chrysaor has no myth besides that of his birth: from the severed neck of Medusa , who was with child by Poseidon, he and Pegasus were both born at the moment of her death. "From this moment we hear no more of Chrysaor, the rest of the tale concerning the stallion only... [who visited the spring of Pirene ] perhaps also for his brother's sake, by whom in
348-517: A guest (who is protected by xenia ), causing him to finally exile Bellerophon to King Iobates, his father-in-law from the plain of the River Xanthus in Lycia , bearing a sealed letter in a folded tablet which read: "Please remove this bearer from the world: he attempted to violate my wife, your daughter." Before opening the tablets, Iobates feasted with Bellerophon for nine days. On reading
406-477: A lack of contemporaneous evidence. Several theories exist about what Hellenic dialect groups may have existed between the divergence of early Greek-like speech from the common Proto-Indo-European language and the Classical period. They have the same general outline but differ in some of the detail. The only attested dialect from this period is Mycenaean Greek , but its relationship to the historical dialects and
464-514: A large block of lead and mounted it on his spear. He then flew head-on towards the Chimera, holding out the spear as far as he could. Before breaking off his attack, he lodged the block of lead inside the Chimera's throat. The beast's fire-breath melted the lead, which blocked its air passage, suffocating it. Some red-figure pottery painters show Bellerophon wielding Poseidon's trident instead. When Bellerophon returned victorious to King Iobates,
522-419: A lesser degree. Pamphylian Greek , spoken in a small area on the southwestern coast of Anatolia and little preserved in inscriptions, may be either a fifth major dialect group, or it is Mycenaean Greek overlaid by Doric, with a non-Greek native influence. Regarding the speech of the ancient Macedonians diverse theories have been put forward, but the epigraphic activity and the archaeological discoveries in
580-532: A pack horse for his thunderbolts. According to other narratives, on the Plain of Aleion ("Wandering") in Cilicia , Bellerophon, who had been blinded after falling into a thorn bush, lived out his life in misery, "devouring his own soul", until he died. Enough fragments of Euripides ' lost tragedy Bellerophon remain (as about thirty quotations in surviving texts) to give scholars a basis for assessing its theme:
638-550: A prefix /e-/, called the augment . This was probably originally a separate word, meaning something like "then", added because tenses in PIE had primarily aspectual meaning. The augment is added to the indicative of the aorist, imperfect, and pluperfect, but not to any of the other forms of the aorist (no other forms of the imperfect and pluperfect exist). The two kinds of augment in Greek are syllabic and quantitative. The syllabic augment
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#1732773131537696-608: A separate historical stage, though its earliest form closely resembles Attic Greek , and its latest form approaches Medieval Greek . There were several regional dialects of Ancient Greek; Attic Greek developed into Koine. Ancient Greek was a pluricentric language , divided into many dialects. The main dialect groups are Attic and Ionic , Aeolic , Arcadocypriot , and Doric , many of them with several subdivisions. Some dialects are found in standardized literary forms in literature , while others are attested only in inscriptions. There are also several historical forms. Homeric Greek
754-630: A standard subject of study in educational institutions of the Western world since the Renaissance . This article primarily contains information about the Epic and Classical periods of the language, which are the best-attested periods and considered most typical of Ancient Greek. From the Hellenistic period ( c. 300 BC ), Ancient Greek was followed by Koine Greek , which is regarded as
812-496: A temple, a theatre, a large defensive wall and a palaestra. The travel writer Freya Stark visited Bargylia when she was touring Caria in the 1950s. Below is an extract from an account of her travels that was published in The Geographical Journal . Even more remote, more uninhabited and more deeply forgotten is Bargylia, in which Philip V of Macedon spent a winter fighting, and Rome first gave its freedom to
870-510: A vowel or /n s r/ ; final stops were lost, as in γάλα "milk", compared with γάλακτος "of milk" (genitive). Ancient Greek of the classical period also differed in both the inventory and distribution of original PIE phonemes due to numerous sound changes, notably the following: The pronunciation of Ancient Greek was very different from that of Modern Greek . Ancient Greek had long and short vowels ; many diphthongs ; double and single consonants; voiced, voiceless, and aspirated stops ; and
928-570: Is a literary form of Archaic Greek (derived primarily from Ionic and Aeolic) used in the epic poems , the Iliad and the Odyssey , and in later poems by other authors. Homeric Greek had significant differences in grammar and pronunciation from Classical Attic and other Classical-era dialects. The origins, early form and development of the Hellenic language family are not well understood because of
986-418: Is added to stems beginning with consonants, and simply prefixes e (stems beginning with r , however, add er ). The quantitative augment is added to stems beginning with vowels, and involves lengthening the vowel: Some verbs augment irregularly; the most common variation is e → ei . The irregularity can be explained diachronically by the loss of s between vowels, or that of the letter w , which affected
1044-666: Is called 'East Greek'. Arcadocypriot apparently descended more closely from the Mycenaean Greek of the Bronze Age. Boeotian Greek had come under a strong Northwest Greek influence, and can in some respects be considered a transitional dialect, as exemplified in the poems of the Boeotian poet Pindar who wrote in Doric with a small Aeolic admixture. Thessalian likewise had come under Northwest Greek influence, though to
1102-448: Is considered by some linguists to have been closely related to Greek . Among Indo-European branches with living descendants, Greek is often argued to have the closest genetic ties with Armenian (see also Graeco-Armenian ) and Indo-Iranian languages (see Graeco-Aryan ). Ancient Greek differs from Proto-Indo-European (PIE) and other Indo-European languages in certain ways. In phonotactics , ancient Greek words could end only in
1160-409: Is obstructing archaeological work. However, the person or persons who acquire those sites can absolutely not conduct any construction activities." The agent promoting the ancient city's sale, Halil Okan Tavasli, said that it has already attracted a considerable number of potential buyers but no agreement has been signed up to the date of 20 January 2015. In 2018, newspaper reported that since no buyer
1218-642: The Cretan War King Philip V of Macedon wintered his fleet in Bargylia when he was blockaded by the Pergamene and Rhodian fleets. Protarchus the Epicurean philosopher, the mentor of Demetrius Lacon , was a native of Bargylia. On a headland next to the harbour at Bargylia there once stood a large tomb monument. Dating from the Hellenistic period (between 200-150 BC), the monument
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#17327731315371276-759: The Greek region of Macedonia during the last decades has brought to light documents, among which the first texts written in Macedonian , such as the Pella curse tablet , as Hatzopoulos and other scholars note. Based on the conclusions drawn by several studies and findings such as Pella curse tablet , Emilio Crespo and other scholars suggest that ancient Macedonian was a Northwest Doric dialect , which shares isoglosses with its neighboring Thessalian dialects spoken in northeastern Thessaly . Some have also suggested an Aeolic Greek classification. The Lesbian dialect
1334-561: The Scholia of Homer , he was named so after having slain a Corinthian citizen of that same name by accident, while practicing his knife throwing , which caused him to be exiled to Lycia ; this origin hypothesis would correspond to how Hermes got his epithet 'Argeiphontes' ( lit. 'slayer of Argus') after slaying Argus . According to some scholars, Belleros could have also been a local Lycian daimon , as Bellerophon's name "invited all sorts of speculation". The only other authors to mention
1392-501: The present , future , and imperfect are imperfective in aspect; the aorist , present perfect , pluperfect and future perfect are perfective in aspect. Most tenses display all four moods and three voices, although there is no future subjunctive or imperative. Also, there is no imperfect subjunctive, optative or imperative. The infinitives and participles correspond to the finite combinations of tense, aspect, and voice. The indicative of past tenses adds (conceptually, at least)
1450-1031: The 5th century BC. Ancient pronunciation cannot be reconstructed with certainty, but Greek from the period is well documented, and there is little disagreement among linguists as to the general nature of the sounds that the letters represent. /oː/ raised to [uː] , probably by the 4th century BC. Greek, like all of the older Indo-European languages , is highly inflected. It is highly archaic in its preservation of Proto-Indo-European forms. In ancient Greek, nouns (including proper nouns) have five cases ( nominative , genitive , dative , accusative , and vocative ), three genders ( masculine , feminine , and neuter ), and three numbers (singular, dual , and plural ). Verbs have four moods ( indicative , imperative , subjunctive , and optative ) and three voices (active, middle, and passive ), as well as three persons (first, second, and third) and various other forms. Verbs are conjugated through seven combinations of tenses and aspect (generally simply called "tenses"):
1508-495: The Archaic period of ancient Greek (see Homeric Greek for more details): Μῆνιν ἄειδε, θεά, Πηληϊάδεω Ἀχιλῆος οὐλομένην, ἣ μυρί' Ἀχαιοῖς ἄλγε' ἔθηκε, πολλὰς δ' ἰφθίμους ψυχὰς Ἄϊδι προΐαψεν ἡρώων, αὐτοὺς δὲ ἑλώρια τεῦχε κύνεσσιν οἰωνοῖσί τε πᾶσι· Διὸς δ' ἐτελείετο βουλή· ἐξ οὗ δὴ τὰ πρῶτα διαστήτην ἐρίσαντε Ἀτρεΐδης τε ἄναξ ἀνδρῶν καὶ δῖος Ἀχιλλεύς. The beginning of Apology by Plato exemplifies Attic Greek from
1566-477: The Chimera was said to dwell. Other accounts say that Athena brought Pegasus already tamed and bridled, or that Poseidon the horse-tamer, secretly the father of Bellerophon, brought Pegasus, as Pausanias understood. When Bellerophon arrived in Lycia to face the ferocious Chimera , he could not harm the monster even while riding Pegasus. But when he felt the Chimera's hot breath, he was struck with an idea. He got
1624-477: The Counselor and bore Sarpedon , but was slain by Artemis . As Bellerophon's fame grew, so did his hubris . Bellerophon felt that because of his victory over the Chimera, he deserved to fly to Mount Olympus , the home of the gods. This act angered Zeus and he sent a gadfly to sting Pegasus, causing Bellerophon to fall back to Earth and die. Pegasus completed the flight to Olympus, where Zeus used him as
1682-550: The aorist. Following Homer 's practice, the augment is sometimes not made in poetry , especially epic poetry. The augment sometimes substitutes for reduplication; see below. Almost all forms of the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect reduplicate the initial syllable of the verb stem. (A few irregular forms of perfect do not reduplicate, whereas a handful of irregular aorists reduplicate.) The three types of reduplication are: Irregular duplication can be understood diachronically. For example, lambanō (root lab ) has
1740-419: The augment when it was word-initial. In verbs with a preposition as a prefix, the augment is placed not at the start of the word, but between the preposition and the original verb. For example, προσ(-)βάλλω (I attack) goes to προσ έ βαλoν in the aorist. However compound verbs consisting of a prefix that is not a preposition retain the augment at the start of the word: αὐτο(-)μολῶ goes to ηὐ τομόλησα in
1798-438: The center of Greek scholarship, this division of people and language is quite similar to the results of modern archaeological-linguistic investigation. One standard formulation for the dialects is: West vs. non-West Greek is the strongest-marked and earliest division, with non-West in subsets of Ionic-Attic (or Attic-Ionic) and Aeolic vs. Arcadocypriot, or Aeolic and Arcado-Cypriot vs. Ionic-Attic. Often non-West
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1856-470: The city's slopes. Stone or marble showed it here and there, blanketed in grass among the yellow iris, with white columns laid on their sides by the Byzantines and used for a foundation. A Yurük came up with friendly manners to offer the hospitality of his tent. No one, said he, came to Bargylia, except the sister of the member for Milas, a good young archaeologist, who had looked – he waved his hand over
1914-537: The country's major newspaper Hürriyet , the city of Bargylia is on sale for the trifle of 22 million Turkish liras (around eight million euros). According to Hürriyet, a news Ancient Greek City of Bargylia in Turkey on Sale for Eight Million Euros dated on 13 January 2015 states Construction in first degree Archaeological site is not allowable as per Judicial system of Turkey , therefore advertisement highlights that no excavations have been performed on it till date, so
1972-930: The days of Heracles ". Among his greatest feats was killing the Chimera of the Iliad , a monster that Homer depicted with a lion's head, a goat's body, and a serpent's tail: "her breath came out in terrible blasts of burning flame." Bellerophon was also known for capturing and taming the winged horse Pegasus with the help of Athena 's charmed bridle, and earning the disfavour of the gods after attempting to ride Pegasus to Mount Olympus . One possible etymology that has been suggested is: Βελλεροφόντης (Bellerophóntēs) from Ancient Greek βέλεμνον (bélemnon), βελόνη (belóne) or βέλος (bélos, "projectile, dart, javelin, needle, arrow") and -φόντης (-phóntēs, "slayer") from φονεύω (phoneúō, "to slay"). However, Geoffrey Kirk says that "Βελλεροφόντης means 'slayer of Belleros ' ". According to
2030-615: The dialect of Sparta ), and Northern Peloponnesus Doric (including Corinthian ). All the groups were represented by colonies beyond Greece proper as well, and these colonies generally developed local characteristics, often under the influence of settlers or neighbors speaking different Greek dialects. After the conquests of Alexander the Great in the late 4th century BC, a new international dialect known as Koine or Common Greek developed, largely based on Attic Greek , but with influence from other dialects. This dialect slowly replaced most of
2088-437: The end he let himself be caught, the immortal horse by his mortal brother." Bellerophon's brave journey began in a familiar way, with an exile: in one narrative he had murdered his brother, whose name was given as Deliades, Peiren or Alcimenes; a more precise narrative involves him slaying a Corinthian citizen or nobleman called "Belleros" or "Belleron" by accident, while practicing knife-throwing with his friends, which caused
2146-430: The famous Corinthian fortune teller Polyeidos , who gave him advice on his upcoming battle, telling Bellerophon that in order to emerge victorious, he would be in need of the mythical Pegasus . To obtain the services of the untamed winged horse, Polyeidos told Bellerophon to sleep in the temple of Athena . While Bellerophon slept, he dreamed that Athena set a golden bridle beside him, saying "Sleepest thou, prince of
2204-470: The father of Isander ( Peisander ), Hippolochus , and Laodamia ( Deidamia or Hippodamia ) by Philonoe , daughter of King Iobates of Lycia . Philonoe was also known under several other names: Alkimedousa or Cassandra , Anticleia , or Pasandra . In some accounts, Bellerophon also fathered Hydissos by Asteria , daughter of Hydeus . The Iliad vi.155–203 contained an embedded narrative told by Bellerophon's grandson Glaucus (who
2262-526: The following periods: Mycenaean Greek ( c. 1400–1200 BC ), Dark Ages ( c. 1200–800 BC ), the Archaic or Epic period ( c. 800–500 BC ), and the Classical period ( c. 500–300 BC ). Ancient Greek was the language of Homer and of fifth-century Athenian historians, playwrights, and philosophers . It has contributed many words to English vocabulary and has been
2320-561: The historical Dorians . The invasion is known to have displaced population to the later Attic-Ionic regions, who regarded themselves as descendants of the population displaced by or contending with the Dorians. The Greeks of this period believed there were three major divisions of all Greek people – Dorians, Aeolians, and Ionians (including Athenians), each with their own defining and distinctive dialects. Allowing for their oversight of Arcadian, an obscure mountain dialect, and Cypriot, far from
2378-476: The historical circumstances of the times imply that the overall groups already existed in some form. Scholars assume that major Ancient Greek period dialect groups developed not later than 1120 BC, at the time of the Dorian invasions —and that their first appearances as precise alphabetic writing began in the 8th century BC. The invasion would not be "Dorian" unless the invaders had some cultural relationship to
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2436-494: The house of Aiolos ? Come, take this charm for the steed and show it to the Tamer thy father as thou makest sacrifice to him of a white bull." It was there when he awoke and understood that he had to approach Pegasus while it drank from a well. When asked, Polyeidos told him which well: the never-failing Pirene on the citadel of Corinth, the city of Bellerophon's birth. Bellerophon mounted his steed and flew off, back to Lycia where
2494-613: The king was unwilling to believe his story. A series of daunting quests ensued: Bellerophon was sent against the warlike Amazons , who fought like men, but he vanquished them by dropping boulders from his winged horse; in some narratives, this is preceded by Bellerophon facing off the Solymi . When he was sent against a Carian pirate, Cheirmarrhus , they tried to ambush him, but failed when Bellerophon killed everyone sent to assassinate him. The palace guards then were sent against him, but Bellerophon called upon his father Poseidon, who flooded
2552-685: The name change from Hipponous to Bellerophon. In atonement for this crime, he had to make a plea to Proetus , a king in Tiryns , one of the Achaean strongholds of the Argolid . Proetus, by virtue of his kingship, cleansed Bellerophon of his crime. But when the wife of king Proetus – whose name was either Anteia or Stheneboea , tried to make advances on him, he rejected her, causing her to accuse Bellerophon of attempting to make advances on her instead. Proetus dared not to satisfy his anger by killing
2610-486: The new owner(s) can enjoy an amphitheater hinted to be underground, an area that is believed to belong to the city's Temple , the remains of a Roman bath and a necropolis from the Byzantine era. Turkish archaeologists have called the country's Ministry of Culture and Tourism several times to expropriate numerous archaeological sites such as the one in Bargylia in order to ensure their protection on their behalf, due to
2668-508: The older dialects, although the Doric dialect has survived in the Tsakonian language , which is spoken in the region of modern Sparta. Doric has also passed down its aorist terminations into most verbs of Demotic Greek . By about the 6th century AD, the Koine had slowly metamorphosed into Medieval Greek . Phrygian is an extinct Indo-European language of West and Central Anatolia , which
2726-487: The perfect stem eilēpha (not * lelēpha ) because it was originally slambanō , with perfect seslēpha , becoming eilēpha through compensatory lengthening. Reduplication is also visible in the present tense stems of certain verbs. These stems add a syllable consisting of the root's initial consonant followed by i . A nasal stop appears after the reduplication in some verbs. The earliest extant examples of ancient Greek writing ( c. 1450 BC ) are in
2784-554: The plain of Xanthus behind Bellerophon as he approached. To defend themselves, the palace women rushed from the gates with their robes lifted high to expose themselves. Unwilling to confront them while they were undressed, Bellerophon withdrew. Iobates relented, produced the letter, and allowed Bellerophon to marry his daughter Philonoe, the younger sister of Anteia , and shared with him half his kingdom, with its fine vineyards and grain fields. The lady Philonoe bore him Isander (Peisander), Hippolochus and Laodamia, who slept with Zeus
2842-428: The prostrate temples, odeon, stoa, fluted columns, that lay as if asleep under the grass. The Elfin's engine was now beginning to splutter as she drew towards us, leaving a furrow in the sound scarcely bigger than that of the centuries before her; and we coasted south till the night came upon us in a landlocked bay, so still that one felt one could weigh the darkness, as if it lay soft and heavy in one's hand. According to
2900-498: The state's inability to guarantee the security. Binnur Celebi, a senior member of the Archaeologists Association said, “Unfortunately, due to an insufficient budget, archaeological sites are only expropriated during excavations or urban projects," and warned that some owners may not understand the historical value their site's status, aiming to open them for construction. He added, "Private ownership of such sites
2958-517: The syllabic script Linear B . Beginning in the 8th century BC, however, the Greek alphabet became standard, albeit with some variation among dialects. Early texts are written in boustrophedon style, but left-to-right became standard during the classic period. Modern editions of ancient Greek texts are usually written with accents and breathing marks , interword spacing , modern punctuation , and sometimes mixed case , but these were all introduced later. The beginning of Homer 's Iliad exemplifies
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#17327731315373016-483: The tablet's message Iobates too feared the wrath of the Erinyes if he murdered a guest; so he sent Bellerophon on a mission that he deemed impossible to survive: to kill the Chimera , living in neighboring Caria . The Chimera was a fire-breathing monster consisting of the body of a goat, the head of a lion and the tail of a serpent. This monster had terrorized the nearby countryside. On his way to Caria, he encountered
3074-409: The tragic outcome of his attempt to storm Olympus on Pegasus. An outspoken passage in which Bellerophon seems to doubt the gods' existence, due to the contrast between the wicked and impious, who live lives of ease, with the suffering of the good is apparently the basis for Aristophanes ' imputation of " atheism " to the poet. The replacement of Bellerophon by the more familiar culture hero Perseus
3132-480: Was Aeolic. For example, fragments of the works of the poet Sappho from the island of Lesbos are in Aeolian. Most of the dialect sub-groups listed above had further subdivisions, generally equivalent to a city-state and its surrounding territory, or to an island. Doric notably had several intermediate divisions as well, into Island Doric (including Cretan Doric ), Southern Peloponnesus Doric (including Laconian ,
3190-533: Was a development of Classical times that was standardized during the Middle Ages and has been adopted by the European poets of the Renaissance and later. Ancient Greek Ancient Greek ( Ἑλληνῐκή , Hellēnikḗ ; [hellɛːnikɛ́ː] ) includes the forms of the Greek language used in ancient Greece and the ancient world from around 1500 BC to 300 BC. It is often roughly divided into
3248-474: Was dedicated to the sea monster Scylla . The over life-size figure of Scylla, along with a group of deferential and expectant hounds, was originally located at the apex of the building. The remains of this sculptural group, along with other parts of the stone structure, can be found in the British Museum 's collection. There are currently reasonably extensive ruins at Bargylia, including the remnants of
3306-476: Was found the price has been dropped to £5.6 million. Bellerophon Bellerophon or Bellerophontes ( Ancient Greek : Βελλεροφών; Βελλεροφόντης ; lit. "slayer of Belleros") or Hipponous ( Ancient Greek : Ἱππόνοος; lit. "horse-knower"), was a divine Corinthian hero of Greek mythology , the son of Poseidon and Eurynome , and the foster son of Glaukos . He was "the greatest hero and slayer of monsters, alongside Cadmus and Perseus , before
3364-519: Was named after his great-grandfather), which recounted Bellerophon's myth. In this narrative, Bellerophon's father was Glaucus, who was the King of Potniae and son of Sisyphus ; Bellerophon's grandsons Sarpedon and the younger Glaucus fought in the Trojan War . In Stephanus of Byzantium 's Ethnica , a genealogy was given for a figure named Chrysaor ("of the golden sword"), which would make him
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