An adept is an individual identified as having attained a specific level of knowledge, skill, or aptitude in doctrines relevant to a particular occult discipline, such as alchemy or magic .
141-414: According to magical tradition, adepts stand out from others due to their enhanced abilities. All human qualities are developed in them, including intelligence and spirituality. According to Theosophist Charles Leadbeater , anyone can become an adept through spiritual development and self-improvement, though others insist that initiation or esoteric transmission into a magical organization or tradition
282-593: A new religious movement and a form of occultism from within Western esotericism . As presented by Blavatsky, Theosophy teaches that there is an ancient and secretive brotherhood of spiritual adepts known as the Masters , who are found around the world but primarily centered in Tibet . These Masters were alleged by Blavatsky to have cultivated great wisdom and supernatural powers, and Theosophists believe they initiated
423-452: A "secret doctrine" that was known to Plato and early Hindu sages and which continues to underpin the center of every religion. She promoted the idea that ancient societies exhibited a unity of science and religion that humanity has since lost, with their achievements and knowledge being far in excess of what modern scholars believe about them. Blavatsky also taught that a secret brotherhood has conserved this ancient wisdom religion throughout
564-440: A "universally eclectic religious movement", while scholar J. Jeffrey Franklin characterized Theosophy as a "hybrid religion" for its syncretic combination of elements from various other sources. More specifically, Theosophy has been categorized as a new religious movement . Scholars have also classified Theosophy as a form of Western esotericism . Campbell for instance referred to it as "an esoteric religious tradition", while
705-675: A campaign for Indian Home Rule, founding a group called the Home Rule League. She established the New India newspaper, and after continuing to promote Indian independence in the paper's pages during the First World War she was interned for several months. This helped to boost her status within the independence movement, and at the age of 70 she was appointed President of the Indian National Congress ,
846-649: A dozen scholarly organizations and committees were formed by 1983, and a scholarly quarterly, the Journal of Law and Religion first published that year and the Ecclesiastical Law Journal opened in 1999. Many departments and centers have been created around the world during the last decades. As of 2012, major Law and Religion organizations in the U.S. included 500 law professors, 450 political scientists, and specialists in numerous other fields such as history and religious studies. Between 1985 and 2010,
987-444: A fraternity of human men who are highly evolved, in terms of having both moral development and intellectual attainment. They are said to have achieved extra-long life spans, and to have gained supernatural powers, including clairvoyance and the ability to instantly project their soul out of their body to any other location . These are powers that they have allegedly attained through many years of training. According to Blavatsky, by
1128-521: A key, essential element which all religions share, which can be used to define "religion" as a category, and which must be necessary in order for something to be classified as a "religion". There are two forms of monothetic definition; the first are substantive , seeking to identify a specific core as being at the heart of religion, such as a belief in a God or gods, or an emphasis on power. The second are functional , seeking to define "religion" in terms of what it does for humans, for instance defining it by
1269-676: A largely honorary position. In December 1908, Leadbeater was readmitted to the Society; this generated a wave of resignations, with the Sydney branch seceding to form the Independent Theosophical Society. Leadbeater traveled to Adyar, where he met a young boy living there, Jiddu Krishnamurti , and pronounced him to be the next incarnation of a figure called the World Teacher . He subsequently took control of
1410-462: A literal account of history, "we may be doing it a disservice." He instead suggested that it could be read as Blavatsky's attempt to formulate "a new myth for the modern age, or as a huge, fantastic science fiction story". Blavatsky taught that Lord Maitreya—a figure she borrowed from Buddhism—would come to Earth as a messianic figure. Her ideas on this were expanded upon by Besant and Leadbeater. They said that Maitreya had previously incarnated onto
1551-464: A major figure in sociology , he has no doubt influenced later sociologists of religion. Émile Durkheim also holds continuing influence as one of the fathers of sociology. He explored Protestant and Catholic attitudes and doctrines regarding suicide in his work Suicide . In 1912, he published his most memorable work on religion, The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life . Interest in
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#17327824295841692-509: A means to engage in cross-cultural studies. In doing so, we can take the beliefs, symbols, rituals etc. of the other from within their own perspective, rather than imposing ours on them. Another earlier scholar who employs the phenomenological method for studying religion is Gerardus van der Leeuw . In his Religion in Essence and Manifestation (1933), he outlines what a phenomenology of religion should look like: The subjectivity inherent to
1833-437: A method which is more complex and claims rather more for itself than did Chantepie’s mere cataloguing of facts." (Partridge) Husserl argued that the foundation of knowledge is consciousness . He recognized "how easy it is for prior beliefs and interpretations to unconsciously influence one’s thinking, Husserl’s phenomenological method sought to shelve all these presuppositions and interpretations." (Partridge) Husserl introduced
1974-447: A new field by Eboo Patel , Jennifer Howe Peace, and Noah Silverman. There are many approaches to the study of sacred texts. One of these approaches is to interpret the text as a literary object. Metaphor, thematic elements, and the nature and motivations of the characters are of interest in this approach. An example of this approach is God: A Biography , by Jack Miles . The temporal lobe has been of interest which has been termed
2115-400: A phenomenon or phenomena from a neutral standpoint, instead of with our own particular attitudes. In performing this reduction, whatever phenomenon or phenomena we approach are understood in themselves, rather than from our own perspectives. In the field of religious studies, a contemporary advocate of the phenomenological method is Ninian Smart. He suggests that we should perform the epoche as
2256-498: A philosophical method by Edmund Husserl , who is considered to be its founder. In the context of Phenomenology of religion however, the term was first used by Pierre Daniel Chantepie de la Saussaye in his work "Lehrbuch der Religiongeschichte" (1887). Chantepie's phenomenology catalogued observable characteristics of religion much like a zoologist would categorize animals or an entomologist would categorize insects. In part due to Husserl's influence, "phenomenology" came to "refer to
2397-400: A prior life. In Blavatsky's words, karma and reincarnation were "inextricably interwoven". However, she did not believe that karma had always been the system that governed reincarnation; she believed that it came into being when humans developed egos, and that one day will also no longer be required. Besant and Leadbeater said they were able to investigate people's past lives through reading
2538-783: A process which is sometimes equated with " Knowledge and Conversation of the Holy Guardian Angel ." To undertake this process the Adeptus Minor must reconfirm the work of earlier grades (Zelator through Philosophus) with their newfound knowledge before passing to the Adeptus Major degree, as a full-fledged adept. Aleister Crowley , who formed the A∴A∴ , restructured the Golden Dawn system. This system still holds to three forms of adept. Theosophist Theosophy
2679-507: A religion. In his history of the Theosophical movement, Bruce F. Campbell noted that Theosophy promoted "a religious world-view" using "explicitly religious terms" and that its central tenets are not unequivocal fact, but rather rely on belief. Olav Hammer and Mikael Rothstein termed it "one of the modern world's most important religious traditions". Various scholars have pointed to its eclectic nature; Joscelyn Godwin described it as
2820-667: A seemingly logical theology based on pseudoscience." At a meeting of the Miracle Club in New York City on 7 September 1875, Blavatsky, Olcott, and Judge agreed to establish an organisation, with Charles Sotheran suggesting that they call it the Theosophical Society . Prior to adopting the name "Theosophical", they had debated various potential names, among them the Egyptological Society,
2961-428: A structure for the analysis of religious phenomena. Phenomenology is "arguably the most influential approach to the study of religion in the twentieth century." (Partridge) The term is first found in the title of the work of the influential philosopher of German Idealism , Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel , entitled The Phenomenology of Spirit . Phenomenology had been practiced long before its being made explicit as
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#17327824295843102-439: A successive order on each planet; thus when mineral evolution ends on the first planet and it proceeds on to vegetable evolution, then mineral evolution begins on the second planet. Theosophy teaches that human evolution is tied in with this planetary and wider cosmic evolution. In The Secret Doctrine , Blavatsky advocated the idea of seven " Root Races ", each of which was divided into seven Sub-Races. In Blavatsky's cosmogony,
3243-478: A theological project which actually imposes views onto the people it aims to survey. Their areas of research overlap heavily with postcolonial studies . In 1998, Jonathan Z. Smith wrote a chapter in Critical Terms for Religious Studies which traced the history of the term religion and argued that the contemporary understanding of world religions is a modern Christian and European term, with its roots in
3384-705: A year. Olcott then sent Besant to the United States to gain support for the Adyar-based Society. In this she was successful, gaining thousands of new members and establishing many new branches. Besant had developed a friendship with the Theosophist Charles Webster Leadbeater , and together they co-wrote a number of books. Leadbeater was controversial, and concerns were raised when he was found to have instructed two boys in masturbation . The American Section of
3525-421: Is "derived primarily from the writings" of Blavatsky, however revisions and innovations have also been produced by subsequent Theosophists such as Annie Besant and Charles Leadbeater. Blavatsky said that these Theosophical doctrines were not her own invention, but had been received from a brotherhood of secretive spiritual adepts whom she referred to as the "Masters" or "Mahatmas". Central to Theosophical belief
3666-483: Is "open to many approaches", and thus it "does not require either a distinctive method or a distinctive explanation to be worthy of disciplinary status." Different scholars operating in the field have different interests and intentions; some for instance seek to defend religion, while others seek to explain it away, and others wish to use religion as an example with which to prove a theory of their own. Some scholars of religious studies are interested in primarily studying
3807-591: Is a religious and philosophical system established in the United States in the late 19th century. Founded primarily by the Russian Helena Blavatsky , and based largely on her writings, it draws heavily from both older European philosophies such as Neoplatonism and Indian religions such as Hinduism and Buddhism . Although many adherents maintain that Theosophy is not a religion, it is variably categorized by religious scholars as both
3948-503: Is a necessary preliminary. The word "adept" is derived from Latin adeptus 'one who has attained' (the secret of transmuting metals). A. E. Waite recounts the use of the term in alchemy in his 1926 book, The Secret Tradition of Alchemy . Madame Blavatsky makes liberal use of the term adept in her works to refer to their additional function as caretaker of ancient occult knowledge. She also mentions their great compassionate desire to help humanity and also documents other powers of
4089-418: Is concerned with the psychological principles operative in religious communities and practitioners. William James 's The Varieties of Religious Experience analyzed personal experience as contrasted with the social phenomenon of religion. Some issues of concern to the psychologist of religions are the psychological nature of religious conversion , the making of religious decisions, religion and happiness , and
4230-415: Is contrasted by the average of 47% from the richest countries, with incomes over $ 25,000 (with the United States breaking the trend by reporting at 65%). Social scientists have suggested that religion plays a functional role (helping people cope) in poorer nations. The history of religions is not concerned with theological claims apart from their historical significance. Some topics of this discipline are
4371-407: Is expanding to include many topics and scholars. Western philosophy of religion, as the basic ancestor of modern religious studies, is differentiated from theology and the many Eastern philosophical traditions by generally being written from a third party perspective. The scholar need not be a believer. Theology stands in contrast to the philosophy of religion and religious studies in that, generally,
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4512-408: Is the analysis of religions and their various communities of adherents using the functions of particular religious phenomena to interpret the structure of religious communities and their beliefs. The approach was introduced by British anthropologist Alfred Radcliffe-Brown . A major criticism of functionalism is that it lends itself to teleological explanations. An example of a functionalist approach
4653-547: Is the idea that a group of spiritual adepts known as the Masters not only exist but were responsible for the production of early Theosophical texts. For most Theosophists, these Masters are deemed to be the real founders of the modern Theosophical movement. In Theosophical literature, these Masters are also referred to as the Mahatmas, Adepts, Masters of Wisdom, Masters of Compassion, and Elder Brothers. They are perceived to be
4794-658: Is the meetings of the United Lodge of Theosophy, which has been characterized as having a "quasi-sacred and quasi-liturgical" character. The American social situation from which the Theosophical Society emerged was one of great upheaval, and the religious situation was one of challenge to orthodox Christianity. The forces that had surfaced in spiritualism included anticlericalism, anti-institutionalism, eclecticism, social liberalism, and belief in progress and individual effort. Occultism, mediated to America in
4935-476: Is understanding the dietary restrictions contained in the Pentateuch as having the function of promoting health or providing social identity ( i.e. a sense of belonging though common practice). Lived religion is the ethnographic and holistic framework for understanding the beliefs, practices, and everyday experiences of religious and spiritual persons in religious studies. The name lived religion comes from
5076-512: Is useful in appreciating and understanding sectarian tensions and religious violence . The term " religion " originated from the Latin noun religio , that was nominalized from one of three verbs: relegere (to turn to constantly/observe conscientiously); religare (to bind oneself [back]); and reeligere (to choose again). Because of these three different potential meanings, an etymological analysis alone does not resolve
5217-617: The Renaissance period , possibly originating in the 1575 Arbatel De Magia Veterum , a Latin grimoire and the first work to draw a dualism between what it calls "anthroposophia" (human knowledge) and "theosophia" (divine knowledge). It had consequently been used in various esoterics contexts for example by the Philaletheians and by the Christian mystic Jakob Böhme . In her book The Key to Theosophy , Blavatsky claims that
5358-685: The Treatise on the Religious and Philosophical Sects (1127 CE), written by the Muslim scholar Muhammad al-Shahrastani . Peter the Venerable , also working in the twelfth century, studied Islam and made possible a Latin translation of the Qur'an . Notwithstanding the long interest in the study of religion, the academic discipline Religious Studies is relatively new. Christopher Partridge notes that
5499-627: The akashic record , an etheric store of all the knowledge of the universe. They, for instance, stated to have attained knowledge of their own past lives as monkey-like creatures residing on the moon, where they served as pets to the "Moon-man" (a prior incarnation of the Master Morya), his wife (Koot Humi), and their child (the Lord Maitreya). When they were attacked by "savages" and animals "resembling furry lizards and crocodiles", Besant sacrificed herself to save Morya, and for that act made
5640-416: The historicity of religious figures, events, and the evolution of doctrinal matters. Interreligious studies is an emerging academic field that is focused on interactions among religious groups, including but not limited to interfaith dialogue . Journals and interdisiplinary organizing efforts grew especially in the 2010s. A pivotal anthology for the field is Interreligious/interfaith studies: Defining
5781-476: The transcendent or supernatural according to traditional religious accounts, religious studies takes a more scientific and objective approach, independent of any particular religious viewpoint. Religious studies thus draws upon multiple academic disciplines and methodologies including anthropology , sociology , psychology , philosophy , and history of religion . Religious studies originated in 19th-century Europe , when scholarly and historical analysis of
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5922-490: The "God center" of the brain. (Ramachandran, ch. 9) Neurological findings in regard to religious experience is not a widely accepted discipline within religious studies. Scientific investigators have used a SPECTscanner to analyze the brain activity of both Christian contemplatives and Buddhist meditators, finding them to be quite similar. The "origin of religion" refers to the emergence of religious behavior in prehistory , before written records. The psychology of religion
6063-469: The "essential foundations for much of twentieth-century esotericism". Although Theosophy draws upon Indian religious beliefs, the sociologist of religion Christopher Partridge observed that "Theosophy is fundamentally Western. That is to say, Theosophy is not Eastern thought in the West, but Western thought with an Eastern flavour." According to Maria Carlson, Theosophy is a "positivistic religion" "offering
6204-498: The "first professorships were established as recently as the final quarter of the nineteenth century." In the nineteenth century, the study of religion was done through the eyes of science. Max Müller was the first professor of comparative philology at Oxford University , a chair created especially for him. In his Introduction to the Science of Religion (1873) he wrote that it is "the duty of those who have devoted their life to
6345-464: The (Western) philosophy of religion are the existence of God , belief and rationality, cosmology , and logical inferences of logical consistency from sacred texts. Although philosophy has long been used in evaluation of religious claims ( e.g. Augustine and Pelagius 's debate concerning original sin), the rise of scholasticism in the eleventh century, which represented "the search for order in intellectual life" (Russell, 170), more fully integrated
6486-601: The 1980s led to cut backs affecting religious studies departments." (Partridge) Later in the decade, religious studies began to pick up as a result of integrating religious studies with other disciplines and forming programs of study that mixed the discipline with more utilitarian study. Philosophy of religion uses philosophical tools to evaluate religious claims and doctrines. Western philosophy has traditionally been employed by English speaking scholars. (Some other cultures have their own philosophical traditions including Indian , Muslim , and Jewish .) Common issues considered by
6627-560: The 20th century had tens of thousands of adherents. Theosophical ideas have also inspired over 100 esoteric movements and philosophies, among them Anthroposophy , the Church Universal and Triumphant , and the New Age . Theosophy's founder, the Russian Helena Blavatsky , insisted that it was not a religion, although she did refer to it as the modern transmission of the "once-universal religion" that she said had existed deep into
6768-580: The Asian traditions. Theosophy promotes an emanationist cosmology, promoting the belief that the universe is an outward reflection from the Absolute. Theosophy presents the idea that the world as humans perceive it is illusory, or maya , an idea that it draws from Asian religions. Accordingly, Blavatsky taught that a life limited by the perception of this illusory world was ignorant and deluded. According to Blavatsky's teaching, every solar system in
6909-601: The Bible had flourished, as Hindu and Buddhist sacred texts were first being translated into European languages. Early influential scholars included Friedrich Max Müller in England and Cornelis Petrus Tiele in the Netherlands. However, Max Müller was a philologist, not a professor of religion; Cornelis Tiele was. Today, religious studies is an academic discipline practiced by scholars worldwide. In its early years, it
7050-770: The Body ( Rupa ), Vitality ( Prana-Jiva ), the Astral Body ( Linga Sarira ), the Animal Soul ( Kama-Rupa ), the Human Soul ( Manas ), the Spiritual Soul ( Buddhi ), and the Spirit ( Atma ). According to Theosophical teaching, it is the latter three of these components that are immortal, while the other aspects perish following bodily death. Theosophy teaches that the Spiritual Soul and the Spirit do not reside within
7191-531: The Earth as Krishna , a figure from Hinduism. They also said that he had entered Jesus of Nazareth at the time of the latter's baptism , and that henceforth Maitreya would be known as "the Christ". Besant and Leadbeater said that Maitreya would again come to Earth by manifesting through an Indian boy named Jiddu Krishnamurti , whom Leadbeater had encountered playing on a beach at Adyar in 1909. The introduction of
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#17327824295847332-700: The Fraternisation movement. During its first century, Theosophy established itself as an international movement. Campbell believed that from its foundation until 1980, Theosophy had gained tens of thousands of adherents. He noted that in that latter year, there were about 35,000 members of the Adyar-based Theosophical Society (9000 of whom were in India), c. 5,500 members of the Theosophical Society in America, c. 1,500 members of
7473-471: The French tradition of sociology of religion "la religion vécue". The concept of lived religion was popularized in the late twentieth century by religious study scholars like Robert A. Orsi and David Hall . The study of lived religion has come to include a wide range of subject areas as a means of exploring and emphasizing what a religious person does and what they believe. Today, the field of lived religion
7614-614: The Hermetic Society, and the Rosicrucian Society. The term was not new; originally it appeared in the works of early Church Fathers , as a synonym for theology . It derives from Ancient Greek : θεός , romanized : theós , lit. 'god' and Ancient Greek : σοφῐ́ᾱ , romanized : sophíā , lit. 'wisdom'; thus meaning "god-wisdom", "divine wisdom", or "wisdom of God". Its esoteric meaning emerged during
7755-656: The Krishnamurti belief into Theosophy has been identified as a millenarian element. According to Theosophy, the purpose of human life is the spiritual emancipation of the soul. The human individual is described as an "Ego" or "Monad" and believed to have emanated from the Solar Deity, to whom it will also eventually return. The human being is presented as composed of seven parts, while operating on three separate planes of being. As presented by Sinnett and often repeated in Theosophical literature, these seven parts are
7896-483: The Masters had revealed to him a plot that Olcott was orchestrating to kill her. In 1893, Besant came down on Olcott's side in the argument and backed the internal proceedings that Olcott raised against Judge. A two-stage enquiry took place, which concluded that because the Society took no official stance on whether the Masters existed or not, Judge could not be considered guilty of forgery and would be allowed to retain his position. The details of this trial were leaked to
8037-472: The Society was taken over by George Arundale , who led it until 1945; the group's activities were greatly curtailed by World War II . Judge left no clear successor as leader of the Theosophical Society in America, but the position was taken by Katherine Tingley , who said that she remained in mediumistic contact with Judge's spirit. Tingley launched an international campaign to promote her Theosophical group, sending delegations to Europe, Egypt, and India. In
8178-672: The Theosophical Society International (Pasadena), and about 1200 members of the United Lodge of Theosophy. Membership of the Theosophical Society reached its highest peak in 1928, when it had 45,000 members. The HPB Lodge in Auckland, New Zealand, was one of the world's largest, with over 500 members in 1949. Theosophical groups consist largely of individuals as opposed to family groups. Campbell noted that these members were alienated in ways from conventional social roles and practices. As noted by Dixon, in
8319-450: The Theosophical Society raised internal charges against him, although Besant came to his defense. In a move probably designed to limit negative publicity for the Society, they accepted his resignation rather than expelling him. On Olcott's death in 1907, he had nominated Besant to be his successor, and she was then elected to the position with a large majority in June. In her first years as
8460-468: The Theosophical Society was involved in projects connected to a range of progressive political causes. In England, there were strong links between Theosophy and first-wave feminism . Based on a statistical analysis, Dixon noted that prominent English feminists of the period were several hundred times more likely to join the Theosophical Society than was the average member of the country's population. Theosophical contingents took part in feminist marches of
8601-531: The Theosophical movement. The Adyar Society membership later peaked at 40,000 in the late 1920s. The Order of the Star had 30,000 members at its height. Krishnamurti himself repudiated these beliefs, insisting that he was not the World Teacher, and then resigned from the Society; the effect on the society was dramatic, as it lost a third of its membership over the coming few years. Besant died in 1933, when
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#17327824295848742-453: The Theosophist Charles Webster Leadbeater said that it was only 200. Theosophy espouses the existence of karma as a system which regulates the cycle of reincarnation, ensuring that an individual's actions in one life affect the circumstances of their next one. This belief therefore seeks to explain why misery and suffering exist in the world, attributing any misfortune that someone suffers as punishment for misdeeds that they perpetrated in
8883-579: The United States was experiencing challenges in the second half of the nineteenth century, a result of rapid urbanization and industrialization, high rates of immigration, and the growing understanding of evolutionary theory which challenged traditional Christian accounts of history. Various new religious communities were established in different parts of the country, among them the Free Religious Association , New Thought , Christian Science , and Spiritualism . Theosophy would inherit
9024-461: The Western philosophical tradition (with the introduction of translations of Aristotle ) in religious study. There is some amount of overlap between subcategories of religious studies and the discipline itself. Religious studies seeks to study religious phenomena as a whole, rather than be limited to the approaches of its subcategories. The anthropology of religion is principally concerned with
9165-472: The adept such as being able to take active control of elemental spirits as well as the physical and astral conditions of non-adepts. In Alice Bailey 's body of writing she outlines a hierarchy of spiritual evolution and an initiatory path along which an individual may choose to advance. In her works an Adept is defined as a being who has taken five of the seven initiations . Those who practice esoteric arts such as theurgy and Kabbalah are familiar with
9306-472: The ambiguity of defining religion, since each verb points to a different understanding of what religion is. During the Middle Ages , the term "religious" was used as a noun to describe someone who had joined a monastic order (a "religious"). Throughout the history of religious studies, there have been many attempts to define the term "religion". Many of these have been monothetic , seeking to determine
9447-483: The argument that it exists to assuage fear of death, unite a community, or reinforce the control of one group over another. Other forms of definition are polythetic , producing a list of characteristics that are common to religion. In this definition there is no one characteristic that need to be common in every form of religion. Causing further complications is the fact that there are various secular world views, such as nationalism and Marxism , which bear many of
9588-414: The beliefs regarding the existence of the Masters are among the weakest made by the movement. Such statements are open to examination and potential refutation, with challenges to the existence of the Masters therefore undermining Theosophical beliefs. The idea of a brotherhood of secret adepts had a long pedigree stretching back several centuries before the foundation of Theosophy; such ideas can be found in
9729-631: The boy's instruction for two years. With Besant, Leadbeater established a group known as the Order of the Star in the East to promote the idea of Krishnamurti as World Teacher. Leadbeater also wanted more ritual within Theosophy, and to achieve this he and J. I. Wedgwood became bishops in the Old Catholic Church . They then split from that to form their own Liberal Catholic Church , which
9870-426: The centuries, and that members of this fraternity hold the key to understanding miracles, the afterlife, and psychic phenomena, and that moreover, these adepts themselves have paranormal powers. She stated that this ancient religion would be revived and spread throughout humanity in the future, replacing dominant world religions such as Christianity , Islam , Buddhism , and Hinduism . Theosophy tended to emphasize
10011-514: The common basic human needs that religion fulfills. The cultural anthropology of religion is principally concerned with the cultural aspects of religion. Of primary concern to the cultural anthropologist of religions are rituals, beliefs, religious art, and practices of piety. Gallup surveys have found that the world's poorest countries may be the most religious. Of those countries with average per-capita incomes under $ 2000, 95% reported that religion played an important role in their daily lives. This
10152-567: The creation of gorillas and chimpanzees . The Atlanteans were decadent and abused their power and knowledge, so Atlantis sank into the sea, although various Atlanteans escaped, and created new societies in Egypt and the Americas. The fifth Root Race to emerge was the Aryans, and was found around the world at the time she was writing. She believed that the fifth Race would come to be replaced by
10293-615: The earliest academic institutions where Religious Studies was presented as a distinct subject was University College Ibadan, now the University of Ibadan , where Geoffrey Parrinder was appointed as lecturer in Religious Studies in 1949. In the 1960s and 1970s, the term "religious studies" became common and interest in the field increased. New departments were founded and influential journals of religious studies were initiated (for example, Religious Studies and Religion ). In
10434-584: The early Theosophists is "not as obvious as one might think". As used by Olcott, the term "Theosophy" appeared to be applied to an approach that emphasized experimentation as a means of learning about the "Unseen Universe"; conversely, Blavatsky used the term in reference to gnosis regarding said information. Although the writings of prominent Theosophists lay out a set of teachings, the Theosophical Society itself states that it has no official beliefs with which all members must agree. It therefore has doctrine but does not present this as dogma. The Society stated that
10575-453: The exceptionally wealthy U.S. is so inefficient that it is experiencing a much higher degree of societal distress than are less religious, less wealthy prosperous democracies. Conversely, how do the latter achieve superior societal health while having little in the way of the religious values or institutions?" Vogel reports that in the 1970s a new "law and religion" approach has progressively built its own contribution to religious studies. Over
10716-497: The family, and human rights. Moving beyond Christianity, scholars have looked at law and religion interrelations in law and religion in the Muslim Middle East, and pagan Rome. The earliest serious writing on the interface between religion and cinema appeared in the work of film critics like Jean Epstein in the 1920s. The subject has grown in popularity with students and is cited as having particular relevance given
10857-588: The field saw the publication of some 750 books and 5000 scholarly articles. Scholars are not only focused on strictly legal issues about religious freedom or non establishment but also on the study of religions as they are qualified through judicial discourses or legal understanding on religious phenomena. Exponents look at canon law, natural law, and state law, often in comparative perspective. Specialists have explored themes in western history regarding Christianity and justice and mercy, rule and equity, discipline and love. Common topics on interest include marriage and
10998-542: The first Root Race were created from pure spirit, and lived on a continent known as the "Imperishable Sacred Land". The second Root Race, known as the Hyperboreans, were also formed from pure spirit, and lived on a land near to the North Pole , which then had a mild climate. The third lived on the continent of Lemuria , which Blavatsky alleged survives today as Australia and Rapa Nui. Blavatsky alleged that during
11139-569: The first Scottish lodge, in Edinburgh. In 1980, Campbell noted that Theosophical books were selling at record levels. In the United States, Judge had been devoting himself to the promotion of Theosophy with little success. During her lifetime, Blavatsky had suggested to many different people that they would be her successor. Three of the most prominent candidates – Olcott, Judge, and Besant – all met in London shortly after her death to discuss
11280-477: The form of Mesmerism, Swedenborgianism, Freemasonry, and Rosicrucianism, was present. Recent developments in science led by the 1870s to renewed interest in reconciling science and religion. There was present also a hope that Asian religious ideas could be integrated into a grand religious synthesis. — Bruce F. Campbell, 1980 The Theosophical Society was largely the creation of two individuals: Helena Blavatsky and Henry Steel Olcott. Established Christianity in
11421-556: The forward to Approaches to the Study of Religion , Ninian Smart wrote that "in the English-speaking world [religious studies] basically dates from the 1960s, although before then there were such fields as 'the comparative study of religion', the 'history of religion', the 'sociology of religion' and so on ..." In the 1980s, in both Britain and America , "the decrease in student applications and diminishing resources in
11562-414: The founding of the Theosophical Society by Blavatsky and Americans Henry Olcott and William Quan Judge . In the early 1880s, Blavatsky and Olcott relocated to India, where they established the Society's headquarters at Adyar , Tamil Nadu . Blavatsky described her ideas in two books, Isis Unveiled and The Secret Doctrine , which became key texts within Theosophy. Following her death in 1891, there
11703-484: The fourth Round of the Earth, higher beings descended to the planet, with the beginnings of human physical bodies developing, and the sexes separating. At this point, the fourth Root Race appeared, living on the continent of Atlantis ; they had physical bodies but also psychic powers and advanced technology. She said that some Atlanteans were giants, and built such ancient monuments as Stonehenge in southern England, and that they also mated with "she-animals", resulting in
11844-399: The general study of religion dates back to at least Hecataeus of Miletus ( c. 550 BCE – c. 476 BCE ) and Herodotus ( c. 484 BCE – c. 425 BCE ). Later, during the Middle Ages , Islamic scholars such as Ibn Hazm (d. 1064 CE) studied Persian , Jewish , Christian , and Indian religions , among others. The first history of religion was
11985-637: The head of the Society, Besant oversaw a dramatic growth in its membership, raising it by 50%, to 23,000. She also oversaw an expansion of the Adyar property, from 27 to 253 acres. Besant was involved in various activist causes, promoting women's rights in India through the Women's Indian Association and helping to establish both the Central Hindu College and a Hindu girls' school. Besant also began
12126-562: The higher self is made; this is then followed by the Vale of Bliss. At this point the human soul can merge into the One. Throughout her writings, Blavatsky made a variety of statements about rebirth and the afterlife, and there is a discrepancy between her earlier and later teachings on the subject. Between the 1870s and c. 1882 , Blavatsky taught a doctrine called "metempsychosis". In Isis Unveiled , Blavatsky stated that on bodily death,
12267-477: The historian Joy Dixon called it an "esoteric religion". More specifically, it is considered a form of occultism. Along with other groups such as the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn , the Theosophical Society has been seen as part of an "occult revival" that took place in Western countries during the late 19th century. The historian of religion Wouter Hanegraaff noted that Theosophy helped to establish
12408-536: The human body alongside the other components, but that they are connected to it through the human soul. In The Voice of the Silence , Blavatsky said that within each individual human there is an eternal, divine facet, which she referred to as "the Master", the "uncreate", the "inner God", and the "higher self". She promoted the idea that uniting with this "higher self" results in wisdom. In that same book, she compared
12549-567: The human past. Theosophical organizations have maintained the belief that Theosophy should not be labeled a religion; instead, they regard it as a system that embraces what they see as the "essential truth" underlying religion, philosophy, and science. As a result, Theosophical groups allow their members to hold other religious allegiances, resulting in Theosophists who also identify as Christians, Buddhists, or Hindus. Scholars of religion who have studied Theosophy have characterized it as
12690-576: The human soul progresses through more spiritual planes. Two years later, she introduced the idea of reincarnation into Theosophical doctrine, using it to replace her metempsychosis doctrine. In The Secret Doctrine , she stated that the spirit was immortal and would repeatedly incarnate into a new, mortal soul and body on Earth. According to Theosophical teaching, human spirits will always be reborn into human bodies, and not into those of any other life forms. Blavatsky stated that spirits would not be reborn until some time after bodily death, and never during
12831-453: The idea – then popular in the United States – that emphasized the idea of free will and the inevitability of progress , including on a spiritual level. It was also influenced by a growing knowledge about Asian religions in the United States. Prior to her arrival in the United States, Blavatsky had experience with esoteric currents such as Spiritualism. It was through Spiritualism that Blavatsky and Olcott met. In 1884, Olcott established
12972-400: The importance of ancient texts over the popular ritual and custom found within various religious traditions. The Theosophical depiction of Buddhism and Hinduism, however, drew criticism both from practitioners of orthodox Buddhist and Hindu traditions, as well as from Western scholars of these traditions, such as Max Müller , who believed that Theosophists such as Blavatsky were misrepresenting
13113-614: The journalist F. Edmund Garrett , who used them as the basis of his critical book, Isis Very Much Unveiled . Judge then announced that the Masters had informed him that he should take sole control of the Esoteric Section, deposing Besant; she rejected his beliefs. Amid calls from Olcott that Judge should stand down, in April 1895 the American section voted to secede from the main Society. Judge remained its leader, but died within
13254-444: The karmic evolutionary leap to becoming a human in her next incarnation. Theosophy does not express any formal ethical teaching, a situation that generated ambiguity. However, it has expressed and promoted certain values, such as brotherhood and social improvement. During its early years, the Theosophical Society promoted a puritanical attitude toward sexuality, for instance by encouraging chastity even within marriage. By 1911,
13395-680: The late 1920s, before going into decline after the Great Depression. TSA has since been reincorporated as a national section of the global Theosophical Society, which has a global membership of roughly 26,606 across 70 countries, including over 3,550 in the United States. Theosophy played a significant role in bringing knowledge of Eastern religions to the West and encouraging cultural pride in South Asia. Many prominent artists and writers have also been influenced by Theosophical teachings. Theosophy has an international following, and during
13536-732: The late 19th century their chief residence was in the Himalayan kingdom of Tibet . She also said that these Masters were the source of many of her published writings. The Masters are believed to preserve the world's ancient spiritual knowledge, and to represent a Great White Brotherhood or White Lodge which watches over humanity and guides its evolution. Among those whom the early Theosophists believed as Masters were Biblical figures such as Abraham , Moses , Solomon , and Jesus , Asian religious figures such as Gautama Buddha , Confucius , and Laozi , and modern individuals such as Jakob Bohme , Alessandro Cagliostro , and Franz Mesmer . However,
13677-423: The late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the Theosophical Society "appealed above all to an elite, educated, middle- and upper-middle-class constituency". It was, in her words, "a religion for the 'thinking classes'." Campbell stated that Theosophy attracted "unconventional, liberal-minded Westerners", and according to Dixon they were among those "who constituted themselves as the humanitarian conscience of
13818-510: The latter country they clashed with the Adyar-based Theosophical Society, and were unsuccessful in gaining converts. Her leadership would be challenged by Ernest T. Hargrove in 1898, and when he failed he split to form his own rival group . In 1897, Tingley had established a Theosophical community, Lomaland , at Point Loma in San Diego , California. Various Theosophical writers and artists congregated there, while horticultural development
13959-440: The lifetime of the deceased's relatives. Blavatsky taught that on the death of the body, the astral body survives for a time in a state called kama-loka , which she compared to limbo , before also dying. According to this belief, the human then moves into its mental body in a realm called devachan , which she compared to Heaven or paradise . Blavatsky taught that the soul remained in devachan for 1000 to 1500 years, although
14100-550: The middle classes, a dissident minority who worked in a variety of parallel organizations to critique the dominant bourgeois values and culture." Religious studies Religious studies , also known as the study of religion , is the scientific study of religion . There is no consensus on what qualifies as religion and its definition is highly contested. It describes, compares, interprets, and explains religion, emphasizing empirical , historically based, and cross-cultural perspectives. While theology attempts to understand
14241-405: The modern Theosophical movement through disseminating their teachings via Blavatsky. Theosophists believe that these Masters are attempting to revive knowledge of an ancient religion once found around the world that will again come to eclipse existing world religions . Theosophy holds a monist position that there exists a single divine Absolute and articulates an emanationist cosmology in which
14382-492: The most prominent Masters to appear in Theosophical literature are Koot Hoomi (sometimes spelled Kuthumi) and Morya , with whom Blavatsky said to be in contact. According to Theosophical belief, the Masters approach those deemed worthy to embark on an apprenticeship or chelaship . The apprentice would then undergo several years of probation, during which they must live a life of physical purity, remaining chaste, abstinent, and indifferent to physical luxury. Blavatsky encouraged
14523-638: The oath of the 5–6 grade and has been granted the title Adeptus Minor. Symbolically this degree represents a spiritual aspirant who, having mastered the union of the four elements under an upright and balanced spirit, is allowed passage from the Portal of the Vault of the Adepti into the tomb of Christian Rosenkreutz in the center of the Rosicrucian Mountain of Initiation, Abiegnus, at the center of
14664-410: The older Christian theosophy movement. The term " Neo-Theosophy " would later be adopted within the modern Theosophical movement itself, where it was used—largely pejoratively—to describe the teachings promoted by Annie Besant and Charles Webster Leadbeater by those who opposed their innovations. According to the scholar of religion James A. Santucci, discerning what the term "Theosophy" meant to
14805-503: The only tenet to which all members should subscribe was a commitment "to form a nucleus of the Universal Brotherhood of Humanity without distinction of race, creed, sex, caste or color". This means that there are members of the Theosophical Society who are skeptical about many, or even all, of the Theosophical doctrines, while remaining sympathetic to its basic aim of universal brotherhood. As noted by Santucci, Theosophy
14946-602: The organization. In retaliation, a "Back to Blavatsky" movement emerged within the Society. Its members pejoratively referred to Besant and her followers as practitioners of "Neo-Theosophy", objecting to the Liberal Catholic Church's allegiance to the Pope, and to the prominence that they were according to Besant and Leadbeater's publications. The main benefactor of the disquiet within the Back to Blavatsky movement
15087-399: The people" - the idea that religion has become a way for people to deal with their problems. At least one comprehensive study refutes this idea. Research has found that secular democracies like France or Scandinavia outperform more theistic democracies on various measures of societal health. The authors explains, "Pressing questions include the reasons, whether theistic or non-theistic, that
15228-484: The peoples that we study by means of this category have no equivalent term or concept at all". There is, for instance, no word for "religion" in languages like Sanskrit . Religious studies became a field in its own right in The Netherlands by promulgating the so called 'duplex ordo' law in 1876. Before that, several key intellectual figures explored religion from a variety of perspectives. One of these figures
15369-482: The period; for instance, a Theosophical group operating under the banner of Universal Co-Freemasonry marched as part of the Women's Coronation Procession in 1911. The Theosophical Society did not prescribe any specific rituals for adherents to practice. However, ritualized practices have been established by various Theosophical groups; one such group is the Liberal Catholic Church . Another
15510-427: The pervasiveness of film in modern culture. Approaches to the study of religion and film differ among scholars; functionalist approaches for instance view film as a site in which religion is manifested, while theological approaches examine film as a reflection of God's presence in all things. A number of methodologies are used in Religious Studies. Methodologies are hermeneutics , or interpretive models, that provide
15651-545: The phenomenological study of religion makes complete and comprehensive understanding highly difficult. However, phenomenologists aim to separate their formal study of religion from their own theological worldview and to eliminate, as far as possible, any personal biases (e.g., a Christian phenomenologist would avoid studying Hinduism through the lens of Christianity). There are a number of both theoretical and methodological attitudes common among phenomenologists: source Many scholars of religious studies argued that phenomenology
15792-523: The practices, historical backgrounds, developments, universal themes and roles of religion in society. There is particular emphasis on the recurring role of religion in all societies and throughout recorded history. The sociology of religion is distinguished from the philosophy of religion in that it does not set out to assess the validity of religious beliefs, though the process of comparing multiple conflicting dogmas may require what Peter L. Berger has described as inherent "methodological atheism". Whereas
15933-424: The production of images of the Masters. The most important portraits of the Masters to be produced were created in 1884 by Hermann Schmiechen . According to scholar of religion Massimo Introvigne , Schmiechen's images of Morya and Koot Humi gained "semi-canonical status" in the Theosophical community, being regarded as sacred objects rather than simply decorative images. Campbell noted that for non-Theosophists,
16074-453: The progress of the human soul to a transition through three halls; the first was that of ignorance, which is the state of the soul before it understands the need to unite with its higher self. The second is the Hall of Learning, in which the individual becomes aware of other facets of human life but is distracted by an interest in psychic powers. The third is the Hall of Wisdom, in which union with
16215-401: The psychological factors in evaluating religious claims. Sigmund Freud was another figure in the field of psychology and religion. He used his psychoanalytic theory to explain religious beliefs, practices, and rituals, in order to justify the role of religion in the development of human culture. The sociology of religion concerns the dialectical relationship between religion and society ;
16356-403: The purpose of the discipline as to provide "training and practice ... in directing and conducting inquiry regarding the subject of religion". At the same time, Capps stated that its other purpose was to use "prescribed modes and techniques of inquiry to make the subject of religion intelligible." Religious studies scholar Robert A. Segal characterised the discipline as "a subject matter" that
16497-530: The religion to which they belong. Other scholars take a more unbiased approach and broadly examine the historical interrelationships among all major religious ideologies through history, focusing on shared similarities rather than differences. Scholars of religion have argued that a study of the subject is useful for individuals because it will provide them with knowledge that is pertinent in inter-personal and professional contexts within an increasingly globalized world . It has also been argued that studying religion
16638-553: The religious commitments. However, many contemporary scholars of theology do not assume such a dichotomy. Instead, scholars now understand theology as a methodology in the study of religion, an approach that focuses on the religious content of any community they might study. This includes the study of their beliefs, literatures, stories and practices. Scholars, such as Jonathan Z. Smith , Timothy Fitzgerald, Talal Asad , Tomoko Masuzawa , Geoffrey A. Oddie, Richard E. King , and Russell T. McCutcheon , have criticized religious studies as
16779-496: The same characteristics that are commonly associated with religion, but which rarely consider themselves to be religious. Conversely, other scholars of religious studies have argued that the discipline should reject the term "religion" altogether and cease trying to define it. In this perspective, "religion" is argued to be a Western concept that has been forced upon other cultures in an act of intellectual imperialism. According to scholar of religion Russell T. McCutcheon , "many of
16920-417: The same space. According to Blavatsky, evolution occurs on descending and ascending arcs, from the first spiritual globe on to the first mental globe, then from the first astral globe to the first physical globe, and then on from there. She said that there were different levels of evolution, from mineral on to vegetable, animal, human, and then to superhuman or spiritual. Different levels of evolution occur in
17061-428: The scholar is first and foremost a believer employing both logic and scripture as evidence. Theology according to this understanding fits with the definition which Anselm of Canterbury gave to it in the eleventh century, credo ut intelligam , or faith seeking understanding (literally, "I believe so that I may understand"). The theologian was traditionally seen as having the task of making intelligible, or clarifying,
17202-540: The scholar of esotericism Wouter J. Hanegraaff distinguished the Blavatskian movement from its older namesake by terming it "modern Theosophy". Followers of Blavatsky's movement are known as Theosophists, while adherents of the older tradition are termed theosophers. Causing some confusion, a few Theosophists – such as C. C. Massey – were also theosophers. In the early years of Blavatsky's movement, some critics referred to it as "Neo-Theosophy" to differentiate it from
17343-428: The second half of the twentieth century the study of religion had emerged as a prominent and important field of academic enquiry." He cites the growing distrust of the empiricism of the nineteenth century and the growing interest in non-Christian religions and spirituality coupled with convergence of the work of social scientists and that of scholars of religion as factors involved in the rise of Religious Studies. One of
17484-415: The situation. Judge said that he too was in contact with the Masters, and that they had provided him with a message instructing him to co-delegate the Society's Esoteric Section with Besant. Olcott, however, suspected that the notes from the Masters which Judge was producing were forged, exacerbating tensions between them. Besant attempted to act as a bridge between the two men, while Judge informed her that
17625-400: The sixth, which would be heralded by the arrival of Maitreya , a figure from Mahayana Buddhist mythology. She further believed that humanity would eventually develop into the final, seventh Root Race. At this, she stated that humanity will have reached the end of its evolutionary cycle and life will withdraw from the Earth. Lachman suggested that by reading Blavatsky's cosmogonical beliefs as
17766-408: The sociology of religion broadly differs from theology in assuming the invalidity of the supernatural, theorists tend to acknowledge socio-cultural reification of religious practise. The sociology of religion also deals with how religion impacts society regarding the positive and negatives of what happens when religion is mixed with society. Theorist such as Marx states that "religion is the opium of
17907-485: The study of the principal religions of the world in their original documents, and who value and reverence it in whatever form it may present itself, to take possession of this new territory in the name of true science." Many of the key scholars who helped to establish the study of religion did not regard themselves as scholars of religious studies, but rather as theologians, philosophers, anthropologists, sociologists, psychologists, and historians. Partridge writes that "by
18048-477: The term Theosophy had been coined by "the Alexandrian philosophers", especially Ammonius Saccas . Blavatsky's Theosophy is not the only movement to use the term "theosophy" and this has resulted in scholarly attempts to differentiate the different currents. Godwin drew a division by referring to Blavatskian Theosophy with a capital letter and older, Boehmian theosophy with a lower-case letter. Alternately,
18189-454: The term "eidetic vision" to describe the ability to observe without "prior beliefs and interpretations" influencing understanding and perception. His other main conceptual contribution is the idea of the epoche : setting aside metaphysical questions and observing phenomena in and of themselves, without any bias or commitments on the part of the investigator. The epoche, also known as phenomenological reduction or bracketing, involves approaching
18330-400: The universe is perceived as outward reflections from this Absolute. The purpose of human life is spiritual emancipation and the human soul undergoes reincarnation upon bodily death according to a process of karma . Universal brotherhood and social improvement are guiding principles, although there is no particular ethical framework. Theosophy was established in New York City in 1875 with
18471-501: The universe is the expression of what is termed a "Logos" or "Solar Deity". Ranked below this Solar Deity are seven ministers or planetary spirits, with each of these celestial beings being in control of evolution on a particular planet. In The Secret Doctrine , Blavatsky stated that each planet had a sevenfold constitution, known as the "Planetary Chains"; these consist not only of a physical globe but also of two astral bodies, two mental bodies, and two spiritual bodies, all overlapping in
18612-551: The universe. The grade of Adeptus Minor and subsequent grades, Adeptus Major, and Adeptus Exemptus form the Second Order of the Golden Dawn, also called the Rosæ Rubeæ et Aureæ Crucis (The Ruby Rose and Golden Cross). These grades correspond to the kabbalistic sephirah of Tiphereth , Geburah , and Chesed respectively. The oath of the Adeptus Minor includes a provision to "unite myself with my higher and Divine Genius",
18753-400: The word 'adept.' In the traditions of esoteric Christianity and ceremonial magic , an adept is one who is skilled or profound, but not a master in these arts. Various magical organizations have steps in which an initiate may ascend in their own system. Some call these steps degrees or grades. In the initiatory system of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn , an adept is one who has taken
18894-535: The work of the Rosicrucians , and was popularized in the fictional literature of Edward Bulwer-Lytton . The idea of having messages conveyed to a medium through spiritually advanced entities had also been popularized at the time of Theosophy's foundation through the Spiritualist movement. According to Blavatsky's teachings, many of the world's religions have their origins in a universal ancient religion,
19035-426: Was "the distinctive method of the discipline". In 2006, the phenomenologist of religion Thomas Ryba noted that this approach to the study of religion had "entered a period of dormancy". Phenomenological approaches were largely taxonomical, with Robert A. Segal stating that it amounted to "no more than data gathering" alongside "the classification of the data gathered". Functionalism , in regard to religious studies,
19176-635: Was a rival group called the United Lodge of Theosophists . One of the most prominent figures to switch allegiance was B. P. Wadia . The United Lodge of Theosophists had been established in Los Angeles in 1909, when it had split from Judge's Theosophical Society in America, seeking to minimize formal organization. It focused on publishing new editions of Blavatsky and Judge's writings, as well as other books, which were usually released anonymously so as to prevent any personality cults developing within
19317-465: Was a schism in the Society, with Judge leading the Theosophical Society in America (TSA) to split from the international organization. Under Judge's successor Katherine Tingley , a Theosophical community named Lomaland was established in San Diego , California. At its height in 1895, there were 102 American branches with nearly 6,000 members. The Adyar -based Society was later taken over by Annie Besant , under whom it grew to its largest extent during
19458-423: Was also emphasized. In 1919, the community helped establish a Theosophical University. Longstanding financial problems coupled with an aging population resulted in the Society selling Lomaland in 1942. Meanwhile, Tingley's death in 1929 had resulted in the Theosophical Society in America being taken over by Gottfried de Purucker , who promoted rapprochement with other Theosophical groups in what came to be known as
19599-454: Was independent from the Theosophical Society (Adyar) while retaining an affiliation with it. The Church drew most of its membership from the Society and heavily relied upon its resources. However, in 1919 the Church was marred by police investigations into allegations that six of its priests had engaged in acts of pedophilia and Wedgewood — who was implicated in the allegations — resigned from
19740-403: Was known as " comparative religion " or the science of religion and, in the United States , there are those who today also know the field as the "History of religion" (associated with methodological traditions traced to the University of Chicago in general, and in particular Mircea Eliade , from the late 1950s through to the late 1980s). The religious studies scholar Walter Capps described
19881-513: Was the famous pragmatist William James . His 1902 Gifford lectures and book The Varieties of Religious Experience examined religion from a psychological-philosophical perspective and is still influential today. His essay The Will to Believe defends the rationality of faith. Max Weber studied religion from an economic perspective in The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (1904–1905), his most famous work. As
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