50-463: Fyodor Fyodorovich Ushakov (Russian: Фёдор Фёдорович Ушаков , romanized : Fëdor Fëdorovič Ušakov , IPA: [ʊʂɐˈkof] ; 24 February [ O.S. 13 February] 1745 – 14 October [ O.S. 2 October] 1817) was a Russian naval commander and admiral . He won every engagement he participated in as the admiral of the Russian fleet, and is regarded as one of
100-791: A squadron which sailed to the Mediterranean via Constantinople , where it joined with a Ottoman squadron. The combined Russian-Ottoman fleet then operated under Ushakov's command in the War of the Second Coalition against the French Republic . The expedition started by conquering the Ionian islands , acquired by France the year before from the defunct Republic of Venice in the Treaty of Campo Formio . This action culminated in
150-509: A Latin alphabet for the Russian language was discussed in 1929–30 during the campaign of latinisation of the languages of the USSR , when a special commission was created to propose a latinisation system for Russian. The letters of the Latin script are named in Russian as following (and are borrowed from French and/or German ): Blockaded A blockade is the act of actively preventing
200-639: A Working Group of the United Nations , in 1987 recommended a romanization system for geographical names, which was based on the 1983 version of GOST 16876-71 . It may be found in some international cartographic products. American Library Association and Library of Congress (ALA-LC) romanization tables for Slavic alphabets are used in North American libraries and in the British Library since 1975. The formal, unambiguous version of
250-484: A battle. Distinguishing features of Ushakov's tactics were: use of unified marching and fighting orders; resolute closing to close quarters with the enemy forces without evolution of a fighting order; concentration of effort against enemy flagships ; maintaining a reserve ( Kaiser-flag squadrons ); combination of aimed artillery fire and maneuvering; and chasing the enemy to its total destruction or capture. Giving great value to sea and fire training of his staff, Ushakov
300-427: A blockaded area of water, but any ship can be inspected as soon as it is established that it is attempting to break the blockade. This inspection can occur inside the blockaded area or in international waters, but never inside the territorial waters of a neutral nation . A neutral ship must obey a request to stop for inspection from the blockading nation. If the situation so demands, the blockading nation can request that
350-402: A country or region from receiving or sending out food , supplies , weapons , or communications , and sometimes people, by military force . A blockade differs from an embargo or sanction , which are legal barriers to trade rather than physical barriers. It is also distinct from a siege in that a blockade is usually directed at an entire country or region, rather than a fortress or city and
400-717: A genealogical record. In 1807 his coat-of-arms was added to the General all-Russian book heraldry . In 1815 Fyodor Ushakov and his family were added to the part 6 (ancient nobility) of the Yaroslavl genealogical book. On 15 February 1761, he signed up for the Imperial Russian Navy in Saint Petersburg . After training , he served on a galley in the Baltic Fleet . In 1768 he was transferred to
450-554: A military target. In such case, they are a war crime and potentially a crime against humanity . Although primitive naval blockades had been in use for millennia, they were limited by the time ships were able to stay at sea uninterruptedly. The first successful attempts at establishing a full naval blockade were made by the British Royal Navy during the Seven Years' War (1754–1763) against France . Following
500-620: A numerically superior enemy. This medal was one of several which was preserved in Russia upon the dissolution of the Soviet Union , thus remaining one of the highest military awards in the Russian Federation . The Ushakov Medal was established simultaneously for servicemen who had risked their life in naval theatres defending the Soviet Union. In May 2014, the medal was presented to 19 surviving British sailors who had served on
550-453: A system of transliteration fitted for their keyboard layout , such as for English QWERTY keyboards, and then use an automated tool to convert the text into Cyrillic. There are a number of distinct and competing standards for the romanization of Russian Cyrillic , with none of them having received much popularity, and, in reality, transliteration is often carried out without any consistent standards. Scientific transliteration, also known as
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#1732790921315600-479: Is an adoption of an ICAO standard for travel documents. It was used in Russian passports for a short period during 2010–2013 ( see below ). The standard was substituted in 2013 by GOST R ISO/ IEC 7501-1-2013, which does not contain romanization, but directly refers to the ICAO romanization ( see below ). Names on street and road signs in the Soviet Union were romanized according to GOST 10807-78 (tables 17, 18), which
650-753: Is an equivalent of GOST 16876-71 and was adopted as an official standard of the COMECON . GOST 7.79-2000 System of Standards on Information, Librarianship, and Publishing–Rules for Transliteration of the Cyrillic Characters Using the Latin Alphabet is an adoption of ISO 9:1995 . It is the official standard of both Russia and the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). GOST 52535.1-2006 Identification cards. Machine readable travel documents. Part 1. Machine readable passports
700-423: Is based on its predecessor ISO/R 9:1968, which it deprecates; for Russian, the two are the same except in the treatment of five modern letters. ISO 9:1995 is the first language-independent, univocal system of one character for one character equivalents (by the use of diacritics) that faithfully represents the original and allows for reverse transliteration for Cyrillic text in any contemporary language. The UNGEGN ,
750-566: The Arctic convoys during World War II in a ceremony aboard HMS Belfast . The Baltic Naval Institute in Kaliningrad also carries his name. The minor planet 3010 Ushakov , discovered by Soviet astronomer Lyudmila Ivanovna Chernykh in 1978, is named after him. In 1953 two Soviet films were released portraying his career: Attack from the Sea and Admiral Ushakov . In both films he
800-633: The Battle of Trafalgar . Until 1827, blockades, as part of economic warfare , were always a part of a war. This changed when France, Russia and Britain came to the aid of the Greek rebels against Turkey . They blockaded the Turkish-occupied coast, which led to the battle of Navarino . War was never declared, however, so it is considered the first pacific — i.e. peaceful — blockade. The first truly pacific blockade , involving no shooting at all,
850-619: The Cathedral of St. Theodore Ushakov in Saransk (Mordovia), Patriarch Alexius II declared Saint Feodor (Theodore) Ushakov the patron saint of Russian nuclear-armed strategic bombers. His feast days are 2 October ( day of death ), 23 July ( glorification ) and 23 May (saints of Yaroslavl and Rostov ). Bibliography: Romanization of Russian The romanization of the Russian language (the transliteration of Russian text from
900-536: The Cyrillic script into the Latin script ), aside from its primary use for including Russian names and words in text written in a Latin alphabet, is also essential for computer users to input Russian text who either do not have a keyboard or word processor set up for inputting Cyrillic, or else are not capable of typing rapidly using a native Russian keyboard layout ( JCUKEN ). In the latter case, they would type using
950-906: The Don Flotilla ( Azov Flotilla ) in Taganrog , and served in the Russo-Turkish War (1768–74) . He commanded Catherine II 's own yacht , and was active in protecting Russian merchant ships in the Mediterranean during the First League of Armed Neutrality . After the Russian Empire conquered the Crimean Khanate in 1783, Ushakov personally supervised the construction of a naval base in Sevastopol and
1000-815: The International Scholarly System , is a system that has been used in linguistics since the 19th century. It is based on the Czech alphabet and formed the basis of the GOST and ISO systems. OST 8483 was the first Soviet standard on romanization of Russian, introduced on 16 October 1935. Developed by the National Administration for Geodesy and Cartography at the USSR Council of Ministers , GOST 16876-71 has been in service since 1973. Replaced by GOST 7.79-2000. This standard
1050-637: The Siege of Corfu (1798–1799) , and led to the subsequent creation of the Septinsular Republic . In establishing this republic, Ushakov proved himself to be a skilful politician and diplomat. Ushakov's squadron then blockaded French bases in Italy , notably Genoa and Ancona , and successfully assaulted Naples ( Henry Baillie's landing party of 600 men) and Rome (the detachments of Pyotr Balabin and Colonel Skipor, 800 men). The Italians greeted
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#17327909213151100-473: The military , his family had not been officially confirmed in the so-called ' dvoryanstvo ', yet they surely belonged to serving gentry. In the submission Ushakov stated that he neither had a coat-of-arms, nor a royal patent for a landed estate, and had no way to prove nobility. In 1798, Ushakov, as a vice-admiral of the Black Sea Fleet , submitted a request for official nobility and an arms providing
1150-571: The 20th century, air power has also been used to enhance the effectiveness of blockades by halting air traffic within the blockaded airspace. Close patrol of hostile ports, in order to prevent naval forces from putting to sea, is also referred to as a blockade. When coastal cities or fortresses were besieged from the landward side, the besiegers would often blockade the seaward side as well. Most recently, blockades have sometimes included cutting off electronic communications by jamming radio signals and severing undersea cables . Blockades often result in
1200-612: The British naval victory at Quiberon Bay , which ended any immediate threat of a major invasion of Britain , Britain established a close blockade on the French coast. This starved French ports of commerce, weakening France's economy. Admiral Edward Hawke took command of the blockading fleet off Brest and extended the blockade to cover the entire French Atlantic coast from Dunkirk to Bordeaux , and also to Marseilles on France's Mediterranean coast. The strategic importance of blockade
1250-619: The Oxford University Press, and a variation was used by the British Library to catalogue publications acquired up to 1975. The Library of Congress system (ALA-LC) is used for newer acquisitions. The BGN/PCGN system is relatively intuitive for Anglophones to read and pronounce. In many publications, a simplified form of the system is used to render English versions of Russian names, typically converting ë to yo , simplifying -iy and -yy endings to -y , and omitting apostrophes for ъ and ь . It can be rendered using only
1300-513: The Russians as liberators : according to Balabin's report, with the words Vivat Pavlo primo , vivat moscovito! The seizures of Naples and Rome became possible for Russia because the local French were forced to meet the Coalition towards Trebbia . Shortly after the capture of Rome, the Russian detachments returned to the squadron. Ferdinand IV asked Ushakov at the very end of 1799, during
1350-542: The Security Council to ensure the maintenance of international peace. According to the not ratified document San Remo Manual on International Law Applicable to Armed Conflicts at Sea, 12 June 1994, a blockade is a legal method of warfare at sea but is governed by rules. The manual describes what can never be contraband. The blockading nation is free to select anything else as contraband in a list, which it must publish. The blockading nation typically establishes
1400-622: The basic letters and punctuation found on English-language keyboards: no diacritics or unusual letters are required, although the interpunct character (·) may be used to avoid ambiguity. This particular standard is part of the BGN/PCGN romanization system which was developed by the United States Board on Geographic Names and by the Permanent Committee on Geographical Names for British Official Use . The portion of
1450-579: The building of docks in Kherson . During the Russo-Turkish War (1787–92) , he defeated the Ottomans at Fidonisi under Marko Voinovich 's leadership (1788), the Kerch Strait (1790), Tendra (1790), and Cape Kaliakra (1791). In these battles, he demonstrated the ingenuity of his innovative doctrines in the art of naval warfare. In 1798 Ushakov was promoted to full admiral and given command of
1500-611: The departure of the Russian squadron, to leave Baillie and his party in Naples for some time. Tsar Paul , in his capacity as the Grand Master of the Order of St. John , ordered Ushakov to proceed to Malta , which a British fleet under Nelson was assisting in besieging . However, after rendezvousing with the Coalition forces on Malta, Ushakov was almost immediately recalled back home to Russia in 1800 (along with his fleet), where
1550-654: The greatest naval commanders in history, and one of the most capable naval commanders of Russia of all time. Ushakov was born in the village of Burnakovo in the Yaroslavl province , Moscow Gubernia , to a modest family of the minor nobility. His father, Fyodor Ignatyevich Ushakov, was a retired sergeant of the Preobrazhensky Regiment of the Russian Imperial guards. By the time Fyodor Ushakov submitted his statement of background ( skaska ) to
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1600-496: The introduction of a dedicated Latin alphabet for writing the Russian language. Such an alphabet would not necessarily bind closely to the traditional Cyrillic orthography. The transition from Cyrillic to Latin has been proposed several times throughout history (especially during the Soviet era), but was never conducted on a large scale, except for informal romanizations in the computer era. The most serious possibility of adoption of
1650-587: The most difficult form of blockade to implement. Difficulties arise because the blockading ships must remain continuously at sea, exposed to storms and hardship, usually far from any support, and vulnerable to sudden attack from the blockaded side, whose ships may stay safe in harbor until they choose to come out. In a distant blockade, the blockaders stay well away from the blockaded coast and try to intercept any ships going in or out. This may require more ships on station, but they can usually operate closer to their bases, and are at much less risk from enemy raids. This
1700-536: The new Emperor , Alexander I , failed to appreciate his victories. Ushakov resigned command in 1807 and withdrew into the Sanaksar Monastery in modern-day Mordovia . He was asked to command the local militia during the Patriotic War of 1812 . He declined due to ill-health, but donated his savings. In the course of 43 naval battles under his command he did not lose a single ship and never lost
1750-484: The new system and the old one, citizens who wanted to retain the old version of a name's transliteration, especially one that had been in the old pre-2010 passport, could apply to the local migration office before they acquired a new passport. The standard was abandoned in 2013. In 2013, Order No. 320 of the Federal Migration Service of Russia came into force. It states that all personal names in
1800-442: The objective may not always be to conquer the area. A blockading power can seek to cut off all maritime transport from and to the blockaded country, although stopping all land transport to and from an area may also be considered a blockade. Blockades restrict the trading rights of neutrals, who must submit for inspection for contraband, which the blockading power may define narrowly or broadly, sometimes including food and medicine. In
1850-459: The passports must be transliterated by using the ICAO system , which is published in Doc 9303 " Machine Readable Travel Documents, Part 3 ". The system differs from the GOST R 52535.1-2006 system in two things: ц is transliterated into ts (as in pre-2010 systems), ъ is transliterated into ie (a novelty). In a second sense, the romanization or Latinization of Russian may also indicate
1900-483: The ship divert to a known place or harbour for inspection. If the ship does not stop, then the ship is subject to capture. If people aboard the ship resist capture, they can be lawfully attacked. Whether or not a blockade was seen as lawful depended on the laws of the nations whose trade was influenced by the blockade. The Brazilian blockade of Río de la Plata in 1826 during the Cisplatine War , for instance,
1950-480: The starvation of the civilian population, notably during the blockade of Germany during World War I and the blockade of Biafra during the Nigerian Civil War . According to modern international law, blockades are an act of war. When used as a part of an effort to starve the civilian population, they are illegal as part of a war of aggression or when used against a civilian population, instead of
2000-410: The system for bibliographic cataloguing requires some diacritics, two-letter tie characters , and prime marks. The standard is also often adapted as a "simplified" or "modified Library of Congress system" for use in text for a non-specialized audience, omitting the special characters and diacritics, simplifying endings, and modifying iotated initials. British Standard 2979:1958 is the main system of
2050-502: The system pertaining to the Russian language was adopted by BGN in 1944 and by PCGN in 1947. In Soviet international passports , transliteration was based on French rules but without diacritics and so all names were transliterated in a French-style system . In 1997, with the introduction of new Russian passports , a diacritic-free English-oriented system was established by the Russian Ministry of Internal Affairs , but
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2100-447: The system was also abandoned in 2010. In 2006, GOST R 52535.1-2006 was adopted, which defines technical requirements and standards for Russian international passports and introduces its own system of transliteration. In 2010, the Federal Migration Service of Russia approved Order No. 26, stating that all personal names in the passports issued after 2010 must be transliterated using GOST R 52535.1-2006. Because of some differences between
2150-583: Was a supporter of generalissimo Suvorov 's principles of training for sailors and officers. Ushakov's innovations were among the first successful developments of naval tactics, from its " line " to maneuvering concepts. Several warships have been named after Admiral Ushakov . On 3 March 1944 the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR established the Order of Ushakov for Navy officers who showed outstanding achievement leading to victory over
2200-506: Was almost impossible prior to the 16th century due to the nature of the ships used. A loose blockade is a close blockade where the blockading ships are withdrawn out of sight from the coast (behind the horizon) but no farther. The object of loose blockade is to lure the enemy into venturing out but to stay close enough to strike. British admiral Horatio Nelson applied a loose blockade at Cádiz in 1805. The Franco-Spanish fleet under Pierre-Charles Villeneuve then came out, resulting in
2250-497: Was amended by newer Russian GOST R 52290-2004 (tables Г.4, Г.5), the romanizations in both the standards are practically identical. ISO/R 9, established in 1954 and updated in 1968, was the adoption of the scientific transliteration by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). It covers Russian and seven other Slavic languages. ISO 9:1995 is the current transliteration standard from ISO. It
2300-413: Was considered lawful according to British law but unlawful according to French and American law. The latter two countries announced they would actively defend their ships against Brazilian blockaders, while Britain was forced to steer for a peaceful solution between Brazil and Argentina . Blockades depend on four general factors Blockade running is the practice of delivering cargo (food, for example) to
2350-670: Was played by Ivan Pereverzev . Ushakov is one of the eight patrons depicted in the Cathedral of the Resurrection of Christ at Patriot Park , Moscow. On 7 August 2001 the Russian Orthodox Church glorified Ushakov as a Saint and declared him the patron of the Russian Navy. His relics are enshrined in Sanaksar Monastery , Temnikov , Russia . State Corporation Rostec implemented a project to bring Ushakov's relics from Mordovia to Russia. In 2005, in
2400-460: Was repeated in World War II . Naval strategic thinkers, such as Sir Julian Corbett and Alfred Thayer Mahan , wrote that naval conflicts were won primarily by decisive battles, but also by blockade. A close blockade entails placing warships within sight of the blockaded coast or port, to ensure the immediate interception of any ship entering or leaving. It is both the most effective and
2450-853: Was shown during the French Revolutionary Wars and Napoleonic Wars , when the Royal Navy successfully blockaded France, leading to major economic disruptions. The Union blockade of southern ports was a major factor in the American Civil War . During World War I , the Allies blockaded the Central Powers , depriving them of food and other strategic materials. Germany's attempted U-boat blockade caused some shortages in Britain, but ultimately failed. This outcome
2500-621: Was the British blockade of the Republic of New Granada in 1837, established to compel New Granada to release an imprisoned British consul. Since 1945, the United Nations Security Council determines the legal status of blockades and by article 42 of the UN Charter , the council can also apply blockades. The UN Charter allows for the right of self-defense but requires that this must be immediately reported to
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