A presidium or praesidium is a council of executive officers in some countries' political assemblies that collectively administers its business, either alongside an individual president or in place of one. The term is also sometimes used for the governing body of European non-state organisations .
180-847: In Communist states the presidium is the permanent committee of the legislative body. The Presidium of the Supreme Soviet existed after 1936, when the Supreme Soviet of the USSR supplanted the Congress of Soviets of the USSR , as a replacement for the Central Executive Committee which was headed by "the Presidium of the Central Executive Committee ". In its place was the Presidium of
360-447: A Soviet economy that remained capitalist to a significant degree ." This changed with the introduction of the command economy , and the term socialist law was conceived to reflect this in the 1930s. Hungarian legal theorist Imre Szabó acknowledged similarities between socialist law and civil law, but he noted that "four basic types of law may be distinguished: the laws of the slave, feudal, capitalist, and socialist societies." Using
540-545: A civil law system . The countries of Eastern Europe had formally been governed by the Austro-Hungarian Empire , German Empire , and Russian Empire —all of whom had a civil law legal system. Cuba had a civil law system imposed on them by Spain, while China introduced civil law to overlay with Confucian elements, and Vietnam used French law. Since the establishment of the Soviet Union, there has been
720-637: A communist society . Other terms used by communist states include national-democratic , people's democratic , socialist-oriented , and workers and peasants' states. Academics, political commentators, and other scholars tend to distinguish between communist states and democratic socialist states, with the first representing the Eastern Bloc and the latter representing Western Bloc countries that have been democratically governed by socialist parties such as France , Sweden , and Western social-democracies in general, among others. During
900-433: A "great number of legal institutions and legal relations remain the same in socialist law", further stating that it is "necessary and justified" to put them to use if they are "in conformity with the corresponding interests of the ruling class in the state in question." Importantly, socialist law had retained civil law institutions, methodology, and organisation. This can be discerned by the fact that East Germany retained
1080-431: A 12-member committee of MPs shall be appointed and a date shall be set to determine the deadline by which the committee should produce a written report on its findings. In the report all relevant evidence must be attached. Ad hoc preliminary committees are vested with all the powers of the public prosecutor when conducting a preliminary investigation. The committee's report on its findings must be reasoned and should contain
1260-463: A broader 'segment of society' [...] than the court itself." Despite this, it does not mean that the communist states use legislatures to strengthen their communication with the populace—the party, rather than the legislature, could take that function. Ideologically, it has another function, namely, to prove that communist states do not only represent the interests of the working class but all social strata. Communist states are committed to establishing
1440-576: A classless society and use legislatures to show that all social strata, whether bureaucrat, worker, or intellectual, are committed and have interests in building such a society. As is the case in China, national institutions such as the legislature "must exist which brings together representatives of all nationalities and geographic areas." It does not matter if the legislatures only rubber stamp decisions because by having them, it shows that communist states are committed to incorporating minorities and areas of
1620-421: A committee, the parliament also determines its subject and the deadline for submitting a report on its findings. Investigation committees are established for the assessment of issues of general interest, following the proposal of one fifth of the total number of MPs (60 MPs) and the vote of the plenary session, which is determined by the absolute majority of the present MPs and cannot be smaller than two fifths of
1800-403: A decision has been reached, all people have a duty to account to that decision. When used within a political party, democratic centralism is meant to prevent factionalism and splits. When applied to an entire state, democratic centralism creates a one-party system . The constitutions of most communist states describe their political system as a form of democracy. They recognize the sovereignty of
1980-624: A few days. When the unitary legislature is not in session, its powers are transferred to a smaller council (often called a presidium ) which acts as a collective head of state . In some systems, the presidium is composed of crucial communist party members who vote the resolutions of the communist party into law. A feature of communist states is the existence of numerous state-sponsored social organisations (associations of journalists, teachers, writers and other professionals, consumer cooperatives , sports clubs , trade unions , youth organisations , and women's organisations ) which are integrated into
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#17327655993112160-684: A final decision on the bills and law proposals for which they were established. Special permanent committees are established at the onset of each regular session, except for the Special Permanent Committee on Institutions and Transparency , which is established at the onset of the parliamentary term and operates at the entire duration of the term. There are eight special permanent committees on institutions and transparency; Greeks abroad; environmental protection; research and technology; equality, youth and human rights; regions; road safety; and parliamentary ethics. In addition, there are
2340-421: A four-year term through a system of 'reinforced' proportional representation in 56 constituencies, 48 of which are multi-seat and 8 single-seat. Of the 300 seats, 250 are always elected proportionally , with voters selecting the candidate (or candidates depending on the size of the constituency ) of their choice by marking their name on the party ballot . If the party with the most votes receives 25% or more of
2520-602: A four-year term. In 1844–1863 and 1927–1935, the parliament was bicameral with an upper house (the Senate ; Greek: Γερουσία , romanized: Gerousía ) and a lower house (the Chamber of Deputies; Βουλή των Αντιπροσώπων , Voulí ton Antiprosópon ). Several important Greek statesmen have served as the speaker of the Hellenic Parliament . The first national parliament of the independent Greek state
2700-486: A given country. It deals with states that define themselves either as a socialist state or as a state led by a governing Marxist–Leninist party in their constitutions. For this reason alone, these states are often called communist states. All communist political systems practice unitary state power . This means that the legislature, usually defined as the highest organ of state power, has executive, legislative and judicial power and can interfere in these organs as long as
2880-540: A head of state that the parliament and the Senate would elect to serve a five-year term. This "President of the Republic" would be held unaccountable from a political point of view; he would not possess any legislative powers and could only dissolve the parliament with the senate's approval. It also recognized the status of political parties as organic elements of the polity and established their proportional representation in
3060-788: A lesser extent, North Korea . During the later part of the 20th century, before the Revolutions of 1989, around one-third of the world's population lived in communist states. Communist states are typically authoritarian and are typically administered through democratic centralism by a single centralised communist party apparatus. These parties are usually Marxist–Leninist or some national variation thereof such as Maoism or Titoism . There have been several instances of communist states with functioning political participation (i.e. Soviet democracy ) processes involving several other non-party organisations such as direct democratic participation, factory committees , and trade unions , although
3240-643: A majority of 69.18%, the Greeks decided against a constitutional monarchy and for a parliamentary republic . The constitution of 1975 was drafted using those of 1952 and 1927, as well as the draft constitutional revision proposals of 1963, while numerous clauses were also based on the West German constitution of 1949 and the French constitution of 1958. It included various clauses on individual and social rights, in line with developments at that time, and introduced
3420-409: A member of the cabinet or an under-secretary. While the speaker and the deputy speakers are elected at the beginning of each parliamentary term and for the entire duration of that term, the tenure of the deans and of the secretaries lasts for the duration of one regular session of the parliament for which they were elected. The presidium's fundamental feature is its multi-partisan composition. Among
3600-527: A path for China, recording what has been won in China and what is yet to be conquered." A constitution in a communist state has an end. The preamble of the 1954 Chinese constitution outlines the historical tasks of the Chinese communists, "step by step, to bring about the socialist industrialisation of the country and, step by step, to accomplish the socialist transformation of agriculture, handicraft and capitalist industry and commerce." In communist states,
3780-513: A president, elected together quinquennially, governs the International Association of Wagner Societies . Communist states Former parties Former parties Former parties A communist state , also known as a Marxist–Leninist state , is a one-party state in which the totality of the power belongs to a party adhering to some form of Marxism–Leninism , a branch of the communist ideology . Marxism–Leninism
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#17327655993113960-465: A presidential/parliamentary democracy, wherein the head of state (president) maintained the right to interfere in politics. Greece's current constitution has been revised three times, with the first one taking place in 1986 , when the responsibilities of the president were significantly curtailed. In 2001 , a very extensive revision took place as a total of 79 articles were amended. The new, revised constitution introduced new individual rights, such as
4140-490: A reprobate category, the Romanist laws and the common law, is the fact that they reason less as jurists and more as philosophers and Marxists; it is in taking a not strictly legal viewpoint that they affirm the originality of their socialist law." However, some socialist legal theorists, such as Romanian jurist Victor Zlatescu differentiated between type of law and family of law. According to Zlatescu, "[t]he distinction between
4320-440: A review on the proposed provisions. In most cases, the bill is first examined and amended by the appropriate committee in two stages taking place at least seven days apart. At the first stage a debate in principle and on the articles is conducted and at the second stage a second reading takes place followed by debate and vote by article. During the legislative elaboration of every bill from the competent standing committee and until
4500-455: A scholarly debate on whether socialist law is a separate legal system or is a part of the civil law tradition. Legal scholar Renè David wrote that the socialist legal system "possesses, in relation to our French law, particular features that give it a complete originality, to the extent that it is no longer possible to connect it, like the former Russian law, to the system of Roman law ." Similarly, Christoper Osakwe concludes that socialist law
4680-475: A simple majority vote (50% plus one), provided that at least one quarter of all MPs are present. The Conference of Presidents ( Διάσκεψη των Προέδρων , Diaskepsi ton Proedron ), introduced by the parliament's standing orders in 1987 and sanctioned by the 2001 constitutional revision, decides the weekly agenda, determines the procedure and duration for the discussion of bills (both in committee and in plenary), and may decide to conduct an organized discussion on
4860-412: A single-chamber (unicameral) parliament, elected for a four-year term, and abolished the senate. Moreover, the king preserved the right to convoke ordinary and extraordinary parliamentary sessions, and dissolve parliament at his discretion, as long as the cabinet signed and endorsed the dissolution decree. With the revisions of 1911 and 1952, it lasted more than a century; one of its most important elements
5040-413: A socialist state. A socialist state is more than a form of government and can only exist in countries with a socialist economy . There are examples of several states that have instituted a socialist form of government before achieving socialism. The former socialist states of Eastern Europe were established as people's democracies (a developmental stage between capitalism and socialism ). Regarding
5220-472: A speaker requires an absolute parliamentary majority (151 votes). Should a majority not be attained, there is a new round of voting to elect the candidate who achieves most of the votes cast by relative majority. Deputy speakers fill in for the speaker in managing and discharging parliamentary duties. Moreover, deputy speakers often fill in for the speaker and stand for parliament in Greece and abroad. Finally,
5400-457: A specific topic or topics. The speaker and all former speakers (who have been elected MPs), all seven deputy speakers, the presidents of the six standing committees, the President of the special committee on institutions and transparency, the presidents of the parliamentary groups and one independent MP (to represent any independents, provided there are at least five), make up the composition of
5580-428: A succinct proposal to open criminal proceedings. The committee is responsible for auditing the finances of parties, political party alliances and of candidates for parliamentary office, as well as ensuring compliance to the obligations arising from law 3023/2002 on political party financing. It is also responsible for auditing asset declarations made by the prime minister, the leaders of political parties represented in
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5760-419: A tool to defend the socialist nature of the state and attack its enemies. This contrasts with the liberal conception of constitutionalism that "law, rather than men, is supreme." Unlike the relatively constant (and, in some instances, permanently fixed ) nature of democratic constitutions, a Marxist–Leninist constitution is ever-changing. Andrey Vyshinsky , a Procurator General of the Soviet Union during
5940-427: Is "an autonomous legal system to be essentially distinguished from the other contemporary families of law." Proponents of socialist law as a separate legal system have identified the following features: Legal officials argue differently for their cases compared to Westerners. For instance, "[t]he predominant view among Soviet jurists in the 1920s was that Soviet law of that period was Western-style law appropriate for
6120-772: Is also why amendments to constitutions are not enough and major societal changes need a novel constitution which corresponds with the reality of the new class structure. With Nikita Khrushchev 's repudiation of Stalin's practices in the " Secret Speech " and the Chinese Communist Party's repudiation of certain Maoist policies, Marxist–Leninist legal theories began to emphasise "the formal, formerly neglected constitutional order." Deng Xiaoping , not long after Chairman Mao Zedong 's death, noted that "[d]emocracy has to be institutionalised and written into law, to make sure that institutions and laws do not change whenever
6300-518: Is being formed. During its special sessions, the parliament deals exclusively with the matter for which it was convoked. When the parliament is in recess, usually in the summer, legislative work and parliamentary control is exercised by the recess section. Each recess section is composed of one third of all MPs (100). There are three recess sections, one for each month in July, August and September, where all MPs participate at least once. The speaker of
6480-442: Is different from country to country. In the Soviet Union, the Supreme Soviet did "little more than listen to statements from Soviet political leaders and to legitimate decisions already made elsewhere" while in the legislatures of Poland, Vietnam, and Yugoslavia it has been more active and had an impact on rule-making. Marxist–Leninists view the constitution as a fundamental law and as an instrument of force. The constitution
6660-516: Is discussed (usually a bill also includes other, miscellaneous, provisions or even provisions from other government ministries that have no relation to the bill's main theme), then per article (when amendments may be proposed and either approved or rejected) and finally as a whole. The government may designate a draft bill or law proposal as "very urgent" and request from parliament for the voting to take place after limited debate in one sitting. Bills designated as "very urgent" are immediately sent to
6840-427: Is exercised are submitted to parliament and ought to mention which minister they are addressed to. Should ministers to whom the document is addressed deem it is not within their competence to reply, they should transmit the aforementioned document, within the deadlines set in the standing orders, to the competent minister. Parliamentary control means must be processed within the regular session they were presented, but in
7020-876: Is led by a Presidium composed of the Speaker , 7 deputies, 3 deans and 6 secretaries. In Poland , the Sejm is led by the Prezydium , made up of the Marshal and the Deputy Marshals of the Sejm. The Head of the Chancellery of the Sejm also attends the meetings of the Presidium in an advisory capacity. The Presidium of the Senate of the Republic of Poland is similarly made up of the Marshal and Deputy Marshals of
7200-517: Is provision for four special standing committees, which are regulated in the same way as the standing committees. These are the committees on the financial statement and the general balance sheet and the implementation of the state budget, European affairs, monitoring of the social security system, and armament programs and contracts Special committees are established by the speaker upon government request in order to elaborate and examine specific bills or law proposals. They are functioning until they reach
7380-440: Is ruled by the bourgeoisie class, and socialism, where the proletariat leads, the socialist-oriented state represents a broad and heterogeneous group of classes that seek to consolidate national independence. Since peasants were usually the largest class in socialist-oriented states, their role was emphasised—similar to the working class in other socialist states. However, Marxist–Leninists admitted that these states often fell under
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7560-405: Is sufficient for a vote to pass provided there are at least 75 MPs present in the plenum, with the exception of certain bills for which the constitution requires for a higher threshold. These include treaties that transfer sovereignty to international bodies (at least 180 MPs) or changes to the electoral law so that it cannot be abused by the party in government (at least 200 MPs). Custom, namely
7740-642: Is that the socialist-oriented state was divided into two stages: a national-democratic socialist-oriented state and a people's democratic socialist-oriented state. Countries belonging to the national-democratic socialist-oriented state category were also categorised as national-democratic states. Examples of national-democratic socialist-oriented states are Algeria , ruled by the National Liberation Front , Ba'athist Iraq , and Socialist Burma . In contrast, people's democratic socialist-oriented states had to be guided by Marxism–Leninism and accept
7920-539: Is the most common and is currently in use in China. Marxism–Leninism was mentioned in the Soviet constitution . Article 6 of the 1977 Soviet constitution stated: "The Communist Party, armed with Marxism–Leninism, determines the general perspective of the development of society and the course of the domestic and foreign policy of the USSR." This contrasts with the 1976 Albanian constitution which stated in Article 3: "In
8100-637: Is the source of law and legality. Unlike in liberal democracies , the Marxist–Leninist constitution is not a framework to limit the power of the state. To the contrary, a Marxist–Leninist constitution seeks to empower the state—believing the state to be an organ of class domination and law to be the expression of the interests of the dominant class. Marxist–Leninists believe that all national constitutions do this to ensure that countries can strengthen and enforce their own class system. In this instance, it means that Marxist–Leninists conceive of constitutions as
8280-433: Is to create the conditions for socialism in countries where the social, political, and economic conditions for socialism do not exist. The second feature to be met is the establishment of a revolutionary-democratic party which has to establish itself as the leading force and guide the state by using Marxist–Leninist ideology. While introduced in these states, democratic centralism is rarely upheld. Unlike capitalism which
8460-553: The 1896 German civil code until 1976 while Poland used existing Austrian, French, German, and Russian civil codes until adoption of its own civil code in 1964. Scholar John Quigley wrote that "[s]ocialist law retains the inquisitorial style of trial, law-creation predominantly by legislatures rather than courts, and a significant role for legal scholarship in construing codes." Communist states have established two types of civil-military systems. The armed forces of most socialist states have historically been state institutions based on
8640-630: The Government Gazette . The countersignature of the appropriate government minister(s) is required along with that of the minister responsible for justice. Since 2010, all legislation is available freely through the National Typography Office website. The plenum exercises parliamentary control at least twice a week, which includes petitions, written and oral questions, applications to submit documents and interpellations. Documents by means of which parliamentary control
8820-625: The Hellenic Parliament ( Greek : Ελληνικό Κοινοβούλιο , romanized : Ellinikó Koinovoúlio ), is the unicameral legislature of Greece , located in the Old Royal Palace , overlooking Syntagma Square in Athens . The parliament is the supreme democratic institution that represents the citizens through an elected body of Members of Parliament (MPs). It is a unicameral legislature of 300 members, elected for
9000-604: The Iron Curtain broke under public pressure during a wave of mostly non-violent movements as part of the Revolutions of 1989 which led to the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. China's socio-economic structure has been referred to as "nationalistic state capitalism" and the Eastern Bloc ( Eastern Europe and the Third World ) as "bureaucratic-authoritarian systems." Today, the existing communist states in
9180-681: The June 2023 Greek legislative election . All Greek citizens aged 25 or over on the date of the election are eligible to sit in parliament , provided they are eligible to vote and do not fall under any of the disqualification criteria provided by the constitution . With the exception of university professors, public servants (including members of the Armed Forces ) are barred from running for parliament, unless they permanently resign their office before promulgation . Οnce MPs assume office, they form parliamentary groups. A parliamentary group in
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#17327655993119360-712: The Narodniks in Russia, it is now associated with communist states. A number of the short-lived communist states which formed during World War I and its aftermath called themselves people's republics. Many of these sprang up in the territory of the former Russian Empire following the October Revolution . Additional people's republics emerged following the Allied victory in World War II, mainly within
9540-514: The Presidium of the Bundestag consists of a president , who traditionally represents the largest party group, and at least one vice president from each party group. It is responsible for the legislature's routine administration, nowadays including its clerical and research activities. The Bundesrat of Germany is also led by a Presidium , of a President and 2 deputies. Earlier German states also had parliaments led by Presidiums; see Presidium of
9720-797: The Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic and the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic , whose chairmen were the de facto head of state in those republics. From 1952 to 1966, the Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union was known as the Presidium of the Central Committee of the Communist Party, but despite
9900-514: The mass line and learning from the people." This reasoning gives communist legislatures the right to interfere in every state institution unless the legislature itself has made a law that bars it from it. This also means there are no limits to politicisation, unlike in liberal democracies, where politicians are legally barred from interfering in judicial work. This is a firm rejection of the separation of powers found in liberal democracies since no institution can legally enforce checks and balances on
10080-605: The 1930s, notes that the "Soviet constitutions represent the total of the historical path along which the Soviet state has travelled. At the same time, they are the legislative basis of subsequent development of state life." That is, the constitution sums up what has already been achieved. This belief is also shared by the Chinese Communist Party , which argued that "the Chinese Constitution blazes
10260-664: The 1986–2006 period, active military figures sitting in the CPV Central Committee stood at an average of 9,2 per cent. Military figures are also represented in the national legislature (the National Assembly ) and other representative institutions. In China, the two CMC vice chairmen have had by right office seats in the CCP Politburo since 1987. A Marxist–Leninist party has led every communist state. This party seeks to represent and articulate
10440-600: The 20th century, the world's first constitutionally communist state was Soviet Russia at the end of 1917. In 1922, it joined other former territories of the empire to become the Soviet Union . After World War II , the Soviet Army occupied much of Eastern Europe and helped bring the existing communist parties to power in those countries. Originally, the communist states in Eastern Europe were allied with
10620-730: The CPSU Central Committee was responsible for implementing the party personnel policies and supervised the KGB , the Ministry of Internal Affairs and the Ministry of Defense. In the Chinese party-state model, the People's Liberation Army (PLA) is a party institution. In the preamble of the Constitution of the Chinese Communist Party , it is stated: "The Communist Party of China (CPC) shall uphold its absolute leadership over
10800-573: The Chairman of the Council for National Defense and Security of Vietnam), National Supervisory institutions (such as the Director of China's National Supervisory Commission ) and other institutions if they exist. Moreover, in all communist states, the ruling party has either had a clear majority, such as China or held every seat as they did in the Soviet Union, in their Supreme Soviet. A majority in
10980-523: The Chinese Communist Party general secretary Xi Jinping , who stated in 2013 that "[n]o organisation or individual has the privilege to overstep the Constitution and law." After Soviet Union general secretary Joseph Stalin 's death, several communist states have experimented with some sort of constitutional supervision. These organs were designed to safeguard the supreme power of the legislature from circumvention by political leaders. Romania
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#173276559931111160-640: The Chinese word for presidium is 主席团 while standing committee is 常务委员会 ). In the same way, the Workers' Party of Korea is led by the Presidium of the Politburo of the Workers' Party of Korea , made up of 5 members or fewer. In the Bangladeshi political party Awami League , the Presidium is the innermost or topmost circle of members who are of highest importance within the party. In Germany ,
11340-463: The Chinese working class, the Chinese people, and the Chinese nation." As noted by both communist parties, the ruling parties of communist states are vanguard parties . Vladimir Lenin theorised that vanguard parties were "capable of assuming power and leading the whole people to socialism, of directing and organising the new system, of being the teacher, the guide, the leader of all the working and exploited people in organising their social life without
11520-511: The Communist ideology." Therefore, the sole ideological purpose of communist states is to spread socialism and to reach that goal these states have to be guided by Marxism–Leninism. The communist states have opted for two ways to achieve this goal, namely govern indirectly by Marxism–Leninism through the party (Soviet model), or commit the state officially through the constitution to Marxism–Leninism (Maoist China–Albania model). The Soviet model
11700-632: The Council of State, the Court of Cassation and the Court of Audit, including the general prosecutor of the Court of Cassation. The Scientific Council has ten members, nine of whom are university professors, whilst the tenth is a high-ranking public officer. The president of the Scientific Council is mainly responsible for approving and distributing draft laws and law proposals to the appropriate directorate for scientific elaboration, coordinating
11880-513: The Dedilomeni Principle, dictates that there are always 75 MPs present in the plenum and that the government has the majority of MPs inside the plenum at all times, even if on occasion there are in reality more opposition MPs and less than a quarter of all 300 MPs present in the plenum. However, at any time the opposition may challenge the government by calling for a roll call vote provided that at least 15 MPs (one-twentieth) submit to
12060-515: The General Accounting Office's report estimating its effect on the state budget. Bills originating from an MP are called law proposals ( Πρόταση Νόμου , Protasi Nomou ) and must not include provisions benefiting a particular person or persons, such as increases in salaries or pensions, that would lead to a decrease in government revenue. It is also mandatory that an explanatory report is attached to all bills, elaborating on
12240-456: The Hellenic Parliament should consist of at least ten MPs who are members of the same party. Five MPs should also suffice provided the party they belong to had ballots in at least two thirds (2/3) of the constituencies and got at least three percent (3%) of the total number of valid ballots in the country. Provided they are an elected MP, a party leader presides over the respective parliamentary group. They may appoint up to two substitutes, though
12420-596: The Hellenic or the European Parliament, members of the cabinet (including deputy ministers and undersecretaries), MPs and MEPs, political party financial managers, as well as those of their spouses and under-age offspring of the aforementioned in order to corroborate verity and ensure that new assets acquired or a possible rise in current asset value is attributable to incoming revenue of all types taking into account living expenses of persons who have to submit
12600-511: The Main Political Directorate supervises not only the military, but also intelligence, the security services, and counterespionage work. Unlike in liberal democracies, active military personnel are members and partake in civilian institutions of governance. This is the case in all communist states. The Communist Party of Vietnam (CPV) has elected at least one active military figure to its CPV Politburo since 1986. In
12780-463: The Marxist theory of historical materialism , Szabó argues that socialist law cannot belong to the same law family since the material structure is different from the capitalist countries as their superstructure (state) has to reflect these differences. In other words, law is a tool by the ruling class to govern. As Renè David notes, socialist jurists "isolate their law, to put into another category,
12960-545: The Marxist–Leninist-ruled countries of Africa and the Middle East, the Soviet Union deemed none of them socialist states—referring to them as socialist-oriented states. While many countries with constitutional references to socialism and countries ruled by long-standing socialist movements exist, within Marxist–Leninist theory a socialist state is led by a communist party that has instituted a socialist economy in
13140-573: The People's Liberation Army and other people's armed forces." The PLA carries out its work in accordance with the instructions of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party . Mao Zedong described the PLA's institutional situation as follows: "Every communist must grasp the truth, ' Political power grows out of the barrel of a gun .' Our principle is that the party commands the gun, and
13320-433: The People's Socialist Republic of Albania the dominant ideology is Marxism–Leninism. The entire social order is developing on the basis of its principles." The 1975 Chinese constitution had a similar tone, stating in Article 2 that "Marxism–Leninism–Mao Zedong Thought is the theoretical basis guiding the thinking of our nation." The 1977 Soviet constitution did also use phrases such as "building socialism and communism", "on
13500-648: The Reichstag (German Empire) , Presidium of the Reichstag (Weimar Republic) , Presidium of the Reichstag (Nazi Germany) and Presidium of the Volkskammer in East Germany . Similarly, Norway's Parliament, the Storting is led by a Presidium , with a President and 5 vice-presidents. The Swedish Riksdag is also led by a Presidium of a Speaker and 3 deputies. The Hellenic Parliament in Greece
13680-511: The Senate. The Senate may elect no more than 4 Deputy Marshals, whilst in the Sejm the number of Deputy Marshals is determined at the pleasure of the house. The Presidium of the Socialist International advises its president and prepares questions for consideration. In Flemish and Scandinavian student organisations, presidium is an umbrella term for all the chairmen in the organisations' administration. A Presidium headed by
13860-507: The Soviet Union's Eastern Bloc . In Asia, China became a people's republic following the Chinese Communist Revolution and North Korea also became a people's republic. During the 1960s, Romania and Yugoslavia ceased to use the term people's republic in their official name, replacing it with the term socialist republic as a mark of their ongoing political development. Czechoslovakia also added
14040-482: The Soviet Union. Yugoslavia would declare itself non-aligned , and Albania later took a different path. After a war against Japanese occupation and a civil war resulting in a Communist victory, the People's Republic of China was established in 1949. Communist states were also established in Cambodia , Cuba , Laos , North Korea , and Vietnam . In 1989, the communist states in Eastern Europe collapsed after
14220-441: The Soviet government was known as the Council of Ministers and identical names were used for the governments of Albania , East Germany , Hungary , Poland , and Romania . It was independent of the other central agencies such as the legislature and its standing committee, but the Supreme Soviet was empowered to decide on all questions it wished. The Soviet government was responsible to the legislature, and in between sessions of
14400-404: The Soviet model, but in China, Laos, North Korea, and Vietnam, the armed forces are party-state institutions. However, several differences exist between the statist (Soviet) and the party-state models (China). In the Soviet model, the Soviet armed forces was led by the Council of Defense (an organ formed by the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union ) while the Council of Ministers
14580-998: The Soviet one, the NPC is the highest organ of the state and elects a Standing Committee (the Soviets had a Presidium ), the government (named the State Council in China and the Council of Ministers in the Soviet Union), the Supreme Court (such as the Supreme Court of East Germany), the Supreme Procuratorate (such as the Supreme People's Procuracy of Vietnam ), the Chairman of the National Defence Council (for example,
14760-521: The Special Highest Court's case law. The most recent revision took place in 2008 and introduced several reforms and amendments; it abrogated professional incompatibility and as for growth and development measures extending on insular and mountainous areas, the central administration now assumed special responsibility thereof. It also bestowed the parliament with the power to proceed with proposals should certain preconditions apply, to amend
14940-595: The Standing Orders, Committee on Parliament Finances and Committee on the Parliament's Library. The Committee on the Standing Orders is established at the onset of each parliamentary term, while the Committee on Parliament Finances and the Committee on the Parliament's Library are established at the onset of each regular session. All three deal with standing internal issues of the workings of Parliament. At
15120-575: The Supreme Soviet alone, no Central Executive Committee, and from 1938 to 1989, the Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet was the formal title of the head of state of the USSR until the office of Chairman of the Supreme Soviet was introduced in 1989, later to be replaced by the President of the Soviet Union in March 1990. The Republics of the Soviet Union were each led by Presidiums, such as
15300-515: The Supreme Soviet's Presidium, union republic constitutions and laws, some central administrative decrees, Supreme Court explanations, and other central normative documents." If the committee deemed the legislature to have breached legality, the legislature was obliged to discuss the issue, but it could reject it if more than two-thirds voted against the findings of the Constitutional Supervision Committee. While it
15480-473: The aforementioned individuals for a hearing six months after they have been appointed or a semester after they last appeared before it. Such committees are instituted by means of decisions Parliament makes upon the government's suggestion or following a proposal by the speaker of the parliament or the presidents of the parliamentary groups. The committees' task is to elaborate on issues of general importance or national significance. Upon deciding to establish such
15660-410: The agency in question failed to heed its advice, it needed to petition the legislature. In 1989, the Soviets established the Constitutional Supervision Committee, which "was subordinate only to the USSR constitution." It was empowered "to review the constitutionality and legality of a range of state acts of the USSR and its republics. Its jurisdiction included laws [passed by the legislature], decrees of
15840-618: The armed forces through the Main Political Directorate (MPD) of the Ministry of Defense , a state organ that functioned "with the authority of a department of the CPSU Central Committee ." The MPD organised political indoctrination and created political control mechanisms at the centre to the company level in the field. Formally, the MPD was responsible for organising party and Komsomol organs as well as subordinate organs within
16020-440: The armed forces; ensuring that the party and state retain control over the armed forces; evaluates the political performance of officers; supervising the ideological content of the military press; and supervising the political-military training institutes and their ideological content. The head of the MPD was ranked fourth in military protocol, but it was not a member of the Council of Defense. The Administrative Organs Department of
16200-410: The beginning of the 1950s. The constitution of 1952 consisted of 114 articles and to a large extent was strongly attached to the constitutions of 1864 and 1911. Its central innovations were the explicit institutionalization of parliamentarianism and the consolidation for the first time of the voting rights of women, as well as of their right to stand as candidates for parliamentary office. In February 1963
16380-506: The bourgeoisie." This idea eventually evolved into the concept of the party's leading role in leading the state as seen in the CCP's self-description and Vietnam's constitution. Hellenic Parliament Official Opposition (31) Minor Opposition (114) The Parliament of the Hellenes ( Greek : Βουλή των Ελλήνων , romanized : Voulí ton Ellínon ), commonly known as
16560-410: The budget as well as an ad hoc procedure for the Parliament to oversee the budget's implementation. The Greek parliament currently has 300 members. Although the constitution does not determine the total number of parliamentarians, it does stipulate that there shall be no less than two hundred (200) or no more than three hundred (300), and since 1952 their number has been set to 300. MPs are elected for
16740-429: The cabinet (including non-MPs) or the president of the republic are first investigated by an ad hoc parliamentary committee, with MPs then voting on the committee's recommendations. Should parliament determine that there is sufficient evidence for prosecution, an ad hoc special court is set up. The plenum is composed of all 300 MPs elected in the general elections, which are normally held every four years unless
16920-438: The communist legislature. The legislature passes the constitution, which can only be amended by the legislature. Soviet legal theorists denounced judicial review and extra-parliamentary review as bourgeoisie institutions. They also perceived it as a limitation of the people's supreme power. The legislature, together with its suborgans, oversaw the constitutional order. Since the legislature is the supreme judge of constitutionality,
17100-412: The communist party remained the centre of power. As a term, communist state is used by Western historians, political scientists, and media to refer to these countries. However, these states do not describe themselves as communist nor do they claim to have achieved communism — they refer to themselves as socialist states that are in the process of constructing socialism and progressing toward
17280-618: The communist party. This shows that legislatures are tools to garner popular support for the government in which leading figures campaign and spread information about the party's policies and ideological development. Furthermore, Western researchers have devoted little attention to legislatures in communist states. The reason is that there are no significant bodies of political socialisation compared to legislatures in liberal democracies. While political leaders in communist states are often elected as members of legislatures, these posts are not relevant to political advancement. The role of legislatures
17460-429: The competent minister or the representative of the agency along with the competent minister before the conclusion of public contracts of considerable value (over 20 million Euros). There are currently six standing committees: cultural and educational affairs, national defence and foreign affairs, economic affairs, social affairs, public administration, public order and justice, and production and trade. Moreover, there
17640-491: The competent standing committee which must first decide whether to accept or reject the government's request. If it accepts the request, it examines the bill in one sitting and must submit its report within the time constraints set by the speaker (usually within 6–8 hours). After the committee stage, the bill is immediately sent for discussion in the plenum (usually the next day) where discussion takes place in one sitting which cannot last longer than ten hours. During debate only
17820-616: The composition of parliamentary committees. This reform of the constitution is also a part of the Second Hellenic Republic , in reference to the Greek state using a republican democracy as a form of governance. This constitutional change was initiated in January 1924 and initiated on 13 April 1924 by the fourth national assembly. Following World War II, the development of parliamentary institutions resumed in 1948 and in
18000-435: The concept of the national-democratic state "never received full theoretical elaboration as a political system." However, one feature was clearly defined, namely, that these states did not need to be led by a Marxist–Leninist party. A socialist-oriented state seeks to reach socialism by non-capitalist development. As a term, it substantially differs from the concept of the national-democratic state. The singular difference
18180-478: The conduct of processes of production. The state is not 'abolished'. It dies out." In "The Tax in Kind", Vladimir Lenin argued: "No one, I think, in studying the question of the economic system of Russia, has denied its transitional character. Nor, I think, has any Communist denied that the term Soviet Socialist Republic implies the determination of the Soviet power to achieve the transition to socialism, and not that
18360-480: The conference. Following the constitutional revision of 2001, the conference has been entrusted with the power to select, either unanimously or with the concurrence of 4/5 of its members, the board members of all independent regulatory authorities provided for by the constitution, the president, the vice-president and two members of the Statistics Authority, and the presidents and vice-presidents of
18540-413: The constitution was a tool to analyse the development of society. The Marxist–Leninist party in question would have to study the correlation of forces, literally society's class structure, before enacting changes. Several terms were coined for different developmental states by Marxist–Leninist legal theorists, including new democracy , people's democracy , and the primary stage of socialism . This
18720-414: The constitution: 1) elect the president of the republic, 2) decide whether to elect a new president in the event of a prolonged incapacity hindering the president of the republic from the discharge of his duties, 3) adopt a presidential decree imposing a state of siege (state of emergency) or prolonging the state of siege, and 4) resolve on a motion of confidence which is mandatory whenever a new government
18900-433: The constitutional revision of 2001 and the respective amendments made to the parliament's standing orders, standing committees may also exercise both legislative work and parliamentary control. To the extent provided by law and the standing orders, they may also discuss issues that fall within their competence and give opinions on forthcoming appointments to certain public posts. Moreover, the standing committees are informed by
19080-460: The control of certain cliques such as the military in Ethiopia . The establishment of a legal system and coercive institutions are also noted to safeguard the socialist-oriented nature of the state. The fifth feature is that the socialist-oriented state must take over the media and educational system while establishing mass organisations to mobilize the populace. Unlike the Soviet economic model,
19260-445: The cooperation and supervision of the work and studies undertaken by the scientific service, evaluating the work by the research fellows of the scientific service and carrying out seminars for the dissemination of scientific information to MPs. Both the government and MPs may submit bills, amendments and additions to parliament. Government bills are called draft laws ( Σχέδιο Νόμου , Skhedio Nomou ) and must always be accompanied by
19440-470: The country by including them in the composition of the legislature. In communist states, there is usually a high proportion of members who are government officials. In this instance, it might mean that it is less important what legislatures do and more important who its representatives are. The members of such legislatures at central and local levels are usually either government or party officials, leading figures in their community, or national figures outside
19620-452: The country was re-unified under the communist party in 1976 and the 1992 Constitution of the Republic of Cuba states that the role of the communist party is to "guide the common effort toward the goals and construction of socialism." The DPRK's constitution outlines a socialist economy and the ruling Workers' Party of Korea remains ideologically committed to communism. Communist states share similar institutions, which are organised on
19800-410: The deans assist the speaker in managing organizational and executive affairs or perform duties the speaker assigns to them. Secretaries assist the speaker during parliamentary sessions and carry out duties the speaker assigns to them. The presidium ( Προεδρείο της Βουλής , Proedrio tis Voulis ) consists of the speaker, seven deputy speakers, three deans and six secretaries. It is responsible for
19980-468: The discussion if they so wish. Once the list of speakers is exhausted or the ten-hour constraint has elapsed, voting takes place on the bill's principle and articles and as a whole. Until recently, the use of this procedure was very rare. During 1993–2009, it was used for less than 0.5% of the draft laws discussed and voted in parliament, however, following the 2009 election, this percentage increased to 3.73% and since 2012 to 4.91%. Given that around 40% of
20160-451: The economy of the socialist-oriented states are mixed economies that seek to attract foreign capital and which seeks to maintain and develop the private sector . In the words of Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev , these states were in the process of taking over the commanding heights of the economy and instituting a state-planned economy. According to Soviet sources, Laos was the one socialist-oriented state that has managed to develop into
20340-418: The election process by "universal suffrage in the various wards and towns." While the institution of such a legislature might not be important in itself, they "have a place in the literature and rhetoric of the ruling parties which cannot be ignored—in the language of the party's intimacy with working masses, of its alleged knowledge about interests of working people, of social justice and socialist democracy, of
20520-415: The event that this is not possible, they may be submitted anew. Parliamentary control means, other than a censure motion include) petitions, written questions, oral questions, applications to submit documents, interpellations, and investigation committees. The parliament assumes legislative work and enforces parliamentary control. It is for this purpose that committees of MPs are established, depending on
20700-516: The exception of crimes committed in flagrante delicto . They are also immune from having to provide any information to any authority regarding their legislative functions and deliberations. However, both the constitution and the standing orders allow for the Public Prosecutor's Office to request the parliament to lift an MP's immunity for a particular crime, with MPs deciding through open balloting. Alleged crimes committed by members of
20880-461: The existing economic system is recognised as a socialist order." The introduction of the first five-year plan in the Soviet Union got many communists to believe that the withering away of the state was imminent. However, Joseph Stalin warned that the withering away of the state would not occur until after the socialist mode of production had achieved dominance over capitalism. Soviet jurist Andrey Vyshinsky echoed this assumption and said that
21060-558: The existing framework until 2018, when the Constitution and Law Committee of the National People's Congress was bestowed the right of constitutional review. The government of communist states is usually defined as the "executive organ of the highest state organ of power" or as the "highest administrative agency of state power". It functions as the executive organ of the legislature. This model has been introduced with variations in all communist states. For most of its existence,
21240-601: The following subcommittees to the special permanent committees: the Special Permanent Committee on Environmental Protection has a subcommittee on water resources, the Special Permanent Committee on Equality, Youth and Human Rights has a subcommittee for people with disabilities, and the Special Permanent Committee of the Regions also has a subcommittee on insular and mountainous areas. Committees on parliament's internal affairs are as follows: Committee on
21420-442: The form of a powerful All-Russian Soviet power; the object of which is to secure complete suppression of the bourgeoisie, the abolition of exploitation of man by man, and the establishment of Socialism, under which there shall be neither class division nor state authority". The communist state is the dictatorship of the proletariat , where the advanced elements of the proletariat are the ruling class. In Marxist–Leninist thinking,
21600-402: The government of Konstantinos Karamanlis submitted a proposal for an extensive revision of the constitution, yet the proposal was never put into practice because only a few months after its submission, the government resigned and parliament dissolved. After seven years of military dictatorship , on 8 December 1974, a referendum was conducted to decide the nature of the form of government. By
21780-552: The gun must never be allowed to command the Party." The Central Military Commission (CMC) is both an organ of the state and the party—it is an organ of the CCP Central Committee and an organ of the national legislature, the National People's Congress. The CCP General Secretary is ex officio party CMC Chairman and the President of the People's Republic of China is by right state CMC Chairman. The composition of
21960-470: The inauguration of the July Theses . Hungary and Poland experimented with constitutional supervision in the early 1980s. Hungary established the Council of Constitutional Law, which was elected by the legislature and consisted of several leading jurists. It was empowered to review the constitutionality and legality of statutes, administrative regulations, and other normative documents; however, if
22140-426: The interests of the classes exploited by capitalism . It seeks to lead the exploited classes to achieve communism. However, the party cannot be identified with the exploited class in general. Its membership comprises members with advanced consciousness above sectional interests. Therefore, the party represents the advanced section of the exploited classes and, through them, leads the exploited classes by interpreting
22320-556: The law does not illegalise it. This is because both Marx and Lenin abhorred the parliamentary systems of bourgeois democracy , but neither sought to abolish the legislature as an institution. Lenin wrote that it would be impossible to develop proletarian democracy "without representative institutions." Both of them considered the governing model of the Paris Commune of 1871 , in which executive and legislative were combined in one body, to be ideal. More importantly, Marx applauded
22500-457: The law of the socialist countries and the law of the capitalist countries is not of the same nature as the difference between Roman-German law and the common law, for example. Socialist law is not a third family among the others, as in certain writings of Western comparatists." In other words, socialist law is civil law, but it is a different type of law for a different society. Yugoslav jurist Borislav Blagojević [ sr ] noted that
22680-415: The laws passed concern the enactment of international and bilateral treaties which are generally adopted by unanimity or broad consensus, the actual percentage of laws passed using the urgent legislature procedure is 6.1% since 2009 and 9.4% since 2012. In other words, since 2012 one in every 10 laws passed by parliament was debated and enacted within 2 days. In most cases an absolute majority (50% plus one)
22860-464: The leadership changes or whenever the leaders change their views. [...] The trouble now is that our legal system is incomplete. [...] Very often what leaders say is taken as law and anyone who disagrees is called a lawbreaker." In 1986, Li Buyan wrote that "the policies of the Party usually are regulations and calls which to a certain extent are only principles. The law is different; it is rigorously standardised. It explicitly and concretely stipulates what
23040-418: The leadership of the communist party. In communist states, the government may not tolerate criticism of policies that have already been implemented in the past or are being implemented in the present. According to Marxist–Leninist thought, the state is a repressive institution led by a ruling class . This class dominates the state and expresses its will through it. By formulating law, the ruling class uses
23220-462: The legislature ensures the centralised and unitary leadership of the central committee of the ruling Marxist–Leninist party over the state. By having legislatures, the Marxist–Leninist parties try to keep ideological consistency between supporting representative institutions and safeguarding the party's leading role. They seek to use the legislatures as a linkage between the rulers and the ruled. These institutions are representative and usually mirror
23400-402: The legislature's acts cannot be unconstitutional. Moreover, this means that judicial independence in communist states does not mean the same as in liberal democracies. In communist states, judicial independence means stopping all interference not granted by law, but interference in itself is not barred. The Supreme Soviet was the first socialist legislature, and the Soviet legislative system
23580-557: The legislature, it reported to the legislature's standing committee. The standing committee could reorganise and hold the Soviet government accountable, but it could not instruct the government. In communist states, the government was responsible for the overall economic system, public order, foreign relations, and defense. The Soviet model was more or less identically implemented in Bulgaria , Czechoslovakia , East Germany, Hungary, Poland, and Romania, with few exceptions. One exception
23760-453: The members of the presidium, three deputy speakers, two deans and four secretaries come from the largest parliamentary group. The fourth deputy speaker, a secretary and a dean come from the second largest parliamentary group and the fifth deputy speaker and one secretary from the third largest. Finally, the sixth and seventh deputy speakers come from the fourth and fifth largest parliamentary groups, respectively. All positions to be filled require
23940-557: The monarch who was appointing and suspending them. In October 1862, a rising wave of discontent led the people and the military to rebel again against King Otto and oust him along with the Wittelsbach dynasty. The revolt marked the beginning of a new dynasty, with George Christian Wilhelm of the Schleswig-Holstein-Sønderburg-Glücksburg dynasty as monarch. The constitution of 1864 created
24120-479: The name of the" National People's Congress , and through it, the Chinese Communist Party . These bodies are responsible to and report on their work to the legislature. For instance, the Prosecutor-General of Vietnam's Supreme People's Procuracy delivers an annual Work Report to the legislature, the National Assembly , every year. Moreover, all communist states have been established in countries with
24300-463: The national liberation movements took power and instituted an anti-imperialist foreign policy and sought to construct a form of socialism were considered national-democratic states by Marxist–Leninists. An example of a national-democratic state is Egypt under Gamal Abdel Nasser which was committed to constructing Arab socialism . Except Cuba, none of these states developed socialism. According to scholar Sylvia Woodby Edington, this might explain why
24480-505: The number of revocable staff working for parliamentary groups depend on their respective size and electoral strength. The president of the parliamentary group with the second highest proportion of MPs, i.e. head of the political party that is not in government, is referred to as the leader of the major opposition, and enjoys special prerogatives, such as extra time to speak before the assembly. Members of parliament are immune from criminal prosecution, arrest or detention while in office, with
24660-457: The onset of each parliamentary term the speaker institutes the committee which operates for the entire duration of the parliamentary term, including the period between sessions. The committee gives its opinion on the suitability of nominations or renewal of terms in office for chairmen and managing directors serving at public enterprises, banking institutions, public utilities enterprises and social security agencies. The committee may invite anyone of
24840-477: The parliament is dissolved at an earlier date. The plenum must convene within 30 days from the date of the general election. The period for regular plenary session starts on the first Monday in October of each year and cannot last less than five months. The interval between two elections is called a parliamentary term. Consecutive parliamentary terms have been listed on a continuous number sequence since 1975 with
25020-453: The parliament presides over parliamentary sittings and represents parliament in international parliamentary organizations and bilateral inter-parliamentary sittings. By virtue of the Greek constitution, the speaker shall temporarily exercise the office of president of the republic should the latter be absent abroad for more than ten days, passes away, resigns, is deposed or hindered from performing his duties for any reason whatsoever. Electing
25200-565: The party CMC and the state CMC are identical. The CMC is responsible for the command of the PLA and determines national defence policies. fifteen departments report directly to the CMC and that are responsible for everything from political work to administration of the PLA. Of significance is that the CMC eclipses by far the prerogatives of the CPSU Administrative Organs Department while the Chinese counterpart to
25380-508: The people as embodied in a series of representative parliamentary institutions. Such states do not have a separation of powers and instead have one national legislative body (such as the Supreme Soviet in the Soviet Union), which is bestowed with unitary power and is often defined as the highest organ of state power. Unitary power means that the legislature has the power of the judiciary, legislature and executive but chooses to delegate these powers to other institutions. In communist states,
25560-483: The people should, can, or cannot do." These legal developments were echoed in later years in Cuba, Laos, and Vietnam. This has led to the development of the communist concept of socialist rule of law, which runs parallel to, and is distinct from, the liberal term of the same name. In the last years, this emphasis on the constitution as both a legal document and a paper which documents society's development has been noted by
25740-596: The political system. In communist states, the social organisations are expected to promote social unity and cohesion, to serve as a link between the government and society and to provide a forum for the recruitment of new communist party members. Historically, the political organisation of many socialist states has been dominated by a one-party monopoly. Some communist governments such as those in China , Czechoslovakia , or East Germany have or had more than one political party, but all minor parties are or were required to follow
25920-466: The population in areas such as ethnicity and language , "yet with occupations distributed in a manner skewed towards government officials." Unlike in liberal democracies, legislatures of communist states are not to act as a forum for conveying demands or interest articulation—they meet too infrequently for this to be the case. This might explain why communist states have not developed terms such as delegates and trustees to give legislature representatives
26100-462: The power of parliamentary groups and independent MPs. Committees engage in legislative work or parliamentary control or special matters. Pursuant to the constitution and the standing orders the following categories of committees are currently at work. Standing committees are instituted and composed at the onset of every regular session by a decision of the speaker of the parliament, in order to elaborate and examine draft laws or law proposals. Following
26280-503: The power to vote according to their best judgement or in the interest of their constituency. Scholar Daniel Nelson has noted: "As with the British parliament before the seventeenth-century turmoil secured its supremacy, legislative bodies in communist states physically portray the 'realm' ruled by (to stretch an analogy) 'kings'. Members of the assemblies 'represent' the population to whom the rulers speak and over whom they govern, convening
26460-436: The premise that the communist party is a vanguard of the proletariat and represents the long-term interests of the people. The doctrine of democratic centralism , developed by Vladimir Lenin as a set of principles to be used in the internal affairs of the communist party, is extended to society at large. According to democratic centralism, the people must elect all leaders, and all proposals must be debated openly, but once
26640-455: The present being the 18th parliamentary term. Parliament holds regular Sessions during a parliamentary term, and there may also be extraordinary and special sessions. The president of the republic may call an extraordinary session "whenever he may deem it reasonable" and also decide upon its duration and purpose. On occasion, should specific conditions apply, the parliament has to call a special session and perform its special duties by virtue of
26820-429: The president of the largest parliamentary group, the one which is actually in government, as well as the president of the major opposition party, may appoint up to three substitutes each. There are parliament premises meant for the exclusive use of parliamentary groups and independent MPs and parliamentary groups have their own administrative secretariats composed of revocable personnel. Surface area, number of offices, and
27000-418: The proper application of the standing orders (which include all necessary provisions for the organization and day-to-day business of the parliament), with the constitution guaranteeing the parliament's independence by giving the presidium complete and absolute authority over all matters related to it, such as its budget, services and staff. A member of the presidium, who must be a member of parliament, cannot be
27180-543: The protection of genetic data and identity or the protection of personal data from electronic processing, and new rules of transparency in politics (on political party financing, electoral expenditures, the relations of media owners with the state, etc.). It modernized parliamentary functions, propped up decentralization, elevated the status of fundamental independent authorities into constitutional institutions, and adopted its provisions on MPs' disqualifications and incompatibilities to current reality after taking into consideration
27360-415: The purpose of the proposed legislation and indicating the exact wording of current legislation to be amended or repealed. Draft laws (but not law proposals) must also be accompanied by an impact assessment report and by a report on the results of the public consultation that took place prior to the submission of the bill. Finally, all bills are examined by the parliament's own scientific agency, which submits
27540-403: The rapporteurs (one from each parliamentary group), the prime minister, the minister(s) responsible, the leaders of the parliamentary groups and/or their representatives, one MP from each parliamentary group and one independent MP (provided that there are at least ten) are allowed to participate. Former prime ministers or speakers of the parliament who have been elected MPs, may also participate in
27720-454: The right to assemble and the inviolability of the domicile. Furthermore, the constitution facilitated expropriation so that land be allocated to poor farmers, while at the same time guaranteeing judicial protection of property rights. Finally, it was the first time that the constitution made provision for mandatory and free education for all, while the process of constitutional revision was simplified. The constitution of 1927 made provisions for
27900-416: The road to communism", "to build the material and technical basis of communism" and "to perfect socialist social relations and transform them into communist relations" in the preamble. The people's democratic state was implemented in Eastern Europe after World War II. It can be defined as a state and society in which feudal vestiges have been liquidated and where the system of private ownership exists, but
28080-411: The second reading of the relevant articles, every special permanent committee can express its opinion on any specific issue that falls within its competence. If the bill passes the committee stage, it is sent to the plenary for debate. During the plenary session, MPs vote for the draft law or law proposal to become law ( Νόμος , Nomos ) in three stages: first in principle, where the bill's main theme
28260-536: The similarity in name with the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet , the two Presidia were very different in power and function. The term presidium is currently used in the Democratic People's Republic of Korea ( Presidium of the Supreme People's Assembly ) and in the People's Republic of China ( Presidium of the National People's Congress , Standing Committee of the National People's Congress ;
28440-400: The socialist state is the last repressive state since the next stage of development is that of pure communism , a classless and stateless society. Friedrich Engels commented on the state, writing: "State interference in social relations, becomes, in one domain after another, superfluous, and then dies out of itself; the government of persons is replaced by the administration of things, and by
28620-451: The socialist state was necessary "in order to defend, to secure, and to develop relationships and arrangements advantageous to the workers, and to annihilate completely capitalism and its remnants." Ideology permeates these states. According to scholar Peter Tang, "[t]he supreme test of whether a Communist Party-state remains revolutionarily dedicated or degenerates into a revisionist or counterrevolutionary system lies in its attitude toward
28800-406: The speaker a formal request. Voting takes place after the debate has finished with each MP expressing his preference by stating "yes", "no", or "present". In such cases, for the bill to pass, an absolute majority (50% plus one) is required provided that at least 120 MPs (two-fifths) vote in favour. Once the bill is passed, it is sent to the president of the republic to promulgate and publish in
28980-408: The state to oppress other classes and form a class dictatorship. However, the goal of the communist state is to abolish that state. The Soviet Russia Constitution of 1918 stated: "The principal object of the Constitution of the R.S.F.S.R., which is adapted to the present transition period, consists in the establishment of a dictatorship of the urban and rural proletariat and the poorest peasantry, in
29160-407: The state-owned enterprises in the field of industry, transport, and credit eclipse it. In the words of Eugene Varga , "the state itself and its apparatus of violence serve the interests, not of the monopolistic bourgeoisie, but of the toilers of town and country." Soviet philosopher N. P. Farberov stated: "People's democracy in the people's republics is a democracy of the toiling classes, headed by
29340-426: The term socialist republic into its name during this period; it had become a people's republic in 1948, but the country had not used that term in its official name. Albania used both terms in its official name from 1976 to 1991. The concept of the national-democratic state tried to theorize how a state could develop socialism by bypassing the capitalist mode of production . While Vladimir Lenin first articulated
29520-408: The theory of non-capitalist development, the novelty of this concept was applying it to the progressive elements of the national liberation movements in the Third World . The term national-democratic state was introduced shortly after the death of Stalin , who believed colonies to be mere lackeys of Western imperialism and that the socialist movement had few prospects there. The countries where
29700-420: The total number of MPs (120 votes). If the issue relates to foreign affairs or national defense, the absolute majority of all MPs (151 votes) is required. Parliament decides on the deadline for the submission of the committees' report. Investigation committees are vested with all the powers of the investigating authorities and the public prosecutor. Should parliament decide to opt for a preliminary investigation,
29880-529: The unitary legislatures often have a similar structure to the parliaments in liberal republics , with two significant differences. First, the deputies elected to these unitary legislatures are not expected to represent the interests of any particular constituency but rather the long-term interests of the people as a whole; and second, against Karl Marx 's advice, the unitary legislatures of communist states are not in permanent session. Instead, they convene once or several times yearly in sessions that usually last only
30060-521: The universal laws governing human history towards communism. In Foundations of Leninism (1924), Joseph Stalin wrote that "the proletariat [working class] needs the Party first of all as its General Staff, which it must have for the successful seizure of power. [...] But the proletariat needs the Party not only to achieve the [class] dictatorship; it needs it still more to maintain the [class] dictatorship." The current Constitution of Vietnam states in Article 4 that "[t]he Communist Party of Vietnam ,
30240-519: The universal truths of Marxism–Leninism and reject other notions of socialism such as African socialism . The socialist-oriented states had seven defining features, namely, they were revolutionary democracies, had a revolutionary-democratic party, class dictatorship, defense of the socialist-oriented states, had organs of socialisation, initiated socialist construction, and the type of socialist-oriented state (either national-democratic or people's democratic). The political goal of revolutionary democracy
30420-503: The vanguard of the Vietnamese working class, simultaneously the vanguard of the toiling people and of the Vietnamese nation, the faithful representative of the interests of the working class, the toiling people, and the whole nation, acting upon the Marxist–Leninist doctrine and Ho Chi Minh 's thought, is the leading force of the state and society." In a similar form, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) describes itself as "the vanguard of
30600-479: The vote, a bonus is distributed : The party list coming first with at least 25% of the votes would receive 20 extra seats, with one more seat for every half percentage point above 25%, to a maximum of 50 extra seats at 40% (or more) of the votes. Once this bonus has been attributed, the proportional distribution begins for the remaining seats, which can range from 250 if one party gathered at least 40%, to 300 if no party reached 25%. This 2020 law has been in effect since
30780-478: The working class, a broad and full democracy for the overwhelming majority of the people, that is, a socialist democracy in its character and its trend. In this sense, we call it popular." The people's republican state is a socialist state with a republican constitution. Although the term initially became associated with populist movements in the 19th century, such as the German Völkisch movement and
30960-498: The world are in China , Cuba , Laos , Vietnam , and North Korea (DPRK) . These communist states often do not claim to have achieved socialism or communism in their countries but to be building and working toward the establishment of socialism in their countries. The preamble to the Socialist Republic of Vietnam's Constitution states that Vietnam only entered a transition stage between capitalism and socialism after
31140-534: Was Czechoslovakia, where it had a president and not a collective head of state. Another exception was in Bulgaria, where the State Council was empowered to instruct the Council of Ministers. In every communist state, the judicial and procuratorial bodies are organs of the legislature. For instance, China's Supreme People's Court is the "legislative organ of governance that manages the judicial system in
31320-538: Was constitutionally powerful, it lacked enforcement powers, it was often ignored, and it failed to defend the constitution during the coup against Mikhail Gorbachev . The Chinese leadership has argued against establishing any corresponding constitutional supervisory committee due to their association with the failed communist states of Europe. None of the surviving communist states (China, Cuba, Laos, and Vietnam) have experimented with constitutional supervision committees or constitutional supervision of any kind outside
31500-401: Was established in 1843, after the 3 September Revolution , which forced King Otto to grant a constitution . The constitution of 1844 established a semi-constitutional monarchy under the decisive power of the monarch, who exercised legislative power jointly with the elected house of representatives and the appointed senate. It also established the ministers' accountability vis-à-vis the acts of
31680-467: Was introduced in all communist states. The Supreme Soviet convened twice a year, usually for two or three days each, making it one of the world's first frequently-convened legislatures during its existence. The same meeting frequency was the norm in the Eastern Bloc countries and modern-day China. China's legislature, the National People's Congress (NPC), is modelled on the Soviet one. As with
31860-586: Was responsible for formulating defence policies. The party leader was ex officio the Chairman of the Council of Defense. Below the Council of Defense, there was the Main Military Council which was responsible for the strategic direction and leadership of the Soviet armed forces. The working organ of the Council of Defense was the General Staff tasked with analysing military and political situations as they developed. The party controlled
32040-680: Was the state ideology of the Soviet Union , the Comintern after its Bolshevisation , and the communist states within the Comecon , the Eastern Bloc , and the Warsaw Pact . After the peak of Marxism–Leninism, when many communist states were established, the Revolutions of 1989 brought down most of the communist states; however, Communism remained the official ideology of the ruling parties of China , Cuba , Laos , Vietnam , and to
32220-434: Was the first to experiment with constitutional supervision when it established a Constitutional Committee in 1965. It was elected by the legislature, and leading jurists sat on the committee, but it was only empowered to advise the legislature. Keith Hand has commented that "[i]t was not an effective institution in practice", being unable to prevent Nicolae Ceausescu 's emasculation of Romania's Great National Assembly after
32400-435: Was the restoration of the principle of popular sovereignty . In 1911, a revision of the constitution resulted in stronger human rights , the reinforcement of the rule of law and the modernization of institutions, among them the parliament. With regard to the protection of individual rights the most noteworthy amendments to the constitution of 1864 were a more effective protection of individual security, equality in taxation,
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