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131-638: On July 1, 1954, the Western Development Division (WDD) of the United States Air Force was established, under the command of Brig Gen Bernard A. Schriever . WDD was responsible for the development of the intercontinental ballistic missile . The Ramo-Wooldridge Corporation (RW) was identified as the civilian organization responsible for systems engineering for the ICBM program. Their Space Technology Laboratories (STL)

262-589: A Scout X-2 rocket in 1962, however the other four launch attempts failed. Further DMSP Block I launches were conducted on the Thor-Agena and Thor-Burner boosters. The Thor-Burner also launched the DMSP Block II and DMSP Block III satellites, which provided weather reconnaissance during the Vietnam War . The Block 4 satellites first launched in 1966. The Army Signal Corps' project SCORE, launched by

393-541: A Thor-Agena booster, with Discoverer 1 becoming the first satellite to enter a polar orbit and Discoverer 2 was the first to have three-axis stabilization . In 1960, Discoverer 13 was the first to return a capsule when it crashed into the Pacific Ocean and Discoverer 14 marked the first successful return of film when it was recovered in-air by a 6593d Test Squadron Fairchild JC-119 Flying Boxcar . The Satellite and Missile Observation Program (SAMOS),

524-534: A Titan IIIC and the development and launch of the Advanced Vela satellites on Titan IIICs in 1967, 1969, and 1970. Three Defense Meteorological Support Program Block 5A, Block 5B, Block 5C, and Block 5D-1 satellites were also launched in the 1970s. Although not an Air Force program, the Navy's Transit satellite system was the world's first satellite navigation constellation and started development in 1958. It

655-878: A brigadier general, is the Space Systems Command operations director and range acquisitions lead. Air Force Research Laboratory space units, such as the Space Vehicles Directorate, Space Electro-Optical Division, Rocket Propulsion Division, and Space Systems Technology Division, administratively report to Space Systems Command, while remaining under the aligned under Air Force Research Labs. The Air Force Life Cycle Management Center 's Strategic Warning and Surveillance Systems Division, responsible for ground-based radars, missile warning, space domain awareness, missile defense systems, and shared early warning capabilities, transferred to Space Systems Command. Space Systems Command also provides support to

786-466: A constellation of 20 satellites in synchronous inclined orbits. The Navy's Timation program instead envisioned a constellation of 21 to 27 satellites in medium altitude orbits. In 1973, Deputy Secretary of Defense William P. Clements directed the two programs merge into the Space and Missile Systems Organization's Global Positioning System , which used Program 621B's signal structure and frequencies and

917-619: A high-altitude nuclear detection system to ensure compliance with the Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty . The Atomic Energy Commission flew test detectors on Space Systems Division Discoverer satellites and the first Vela satellites were launched on an Atlas-Agena on 16 October 1963. The Space Systems Division also began development on the Defense Meteorological Support Program (DMSP). The DMSP Block 1 satellites were launched on

1048-517: A key role in spacecraft operations, acquisition planning, strategic planning, acquisition management, and risk assessment for operational, near-term and future NOAA satellite programs. The company also maintains the Center for Orbital and Reentry Debris Studies (CORDS). The group is unique in that it is the only one that systematically tests fallen space debris in its laboratory, The size and shape of debris along with melting that occurs during reentry

1179-551: A non-profit institution. Congress wanted the establishment of an organization, free from conflict of interest, to aid the Air Force in "applying the full resources of modern science and technology to the problem of achieving those continuing advances in ballistic missiles and military space systems." On June 3, 1960, Aerospace was established under the laws of the State of California as a nonprofit corporation. On June 25, 1960, at

1310-560: A press conference held at the U.S. Air Force Ballistic Missile Division headquarters in El Segundo, California, Lt. Gen. Bernard A. Schriever announced the "formation of a new nonprofit organization, The Aerospace Corporation, to serve the Air Force in the scientific and technical planning and management of missile-space programs." Among the earliest projects it supported were the Dyna-Soar orbital spaceplane , Project Mercury , and

1441-635: A rocket which had originally been built as an Atlas-F was conducted on 23 June 1981. Atlas E/F was used to launch the Block I series of GPS satellites from 1978 to 1985. The last refurbished Atlas-F vehicle was launched from Vandenberg AFB in 1995 carrying a satellite for the Defense Meteorological Satellite Program. The first stage of the Atlas III discontinued the use of three engines and 1.5 staging in favor of

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1572-660: A satellite or space-based weapon from Johnston Atoll . The system was declared operational in 1964 and turned over to Aerospace Defense Command , however it was put on standby in 1970 and shut down in 1975. Program 437 also include the Program 437AP configuration, which give it the capability to inspect satellites. The Space Systems Division also managed the Space Test Program , known as the Space Experiments Support Program until 1971, for

1703-586: A single Russian-built Energomash RD-180 engine, while retaining the stage's balloon tank construction. The Atlas III continued to use the Centaur upper stage, available with single or dual RL10 engines. The Atlas V, currently in service, was developed by Lockheed Martin as part of the US Air Force Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle (EELV) program. The first was launched on August 21, 2002. In 2006, operation

1834-616: A third of the way to the Moon, it was world's first deep space probe and provided information on the extent of the Van Allen radiation belts . On 1 April 1961, Air Research and Development Command was reorganized as Air Force Systems Command . Space and missile programs had grown to the point where the Air Force Ballistic Missile Division was split on 1 April 1961, with space systems being organized under

1965-641: Is Aerospace's core science and engineering organization, providing cross-program technical support to a variety of military, civil, commercial, and corporate projects. Consisting of nearly half of the company's technical force, the group is made up of six specialty organizations: Laboratory Operations, Communications and Networking Division, Computers and Software Division, Electronics and Sensors Division, Systems Engineering Division, Vehicle Systems Division. Members of ETG assess and evaluate existing and new space technologies, investigate and resolve anomalies, and conduct research and development. The National Systems Group

2096-527: Is a Space Force lieutenant general, while the deputy command is a Space Force major general and is also responsible for space launch. In addition to Space and Missile Systems Center units realigning, the 61st Air Base Group was redesignated the Los Angeles Garrison . Space Systems Command also gained Space Launch Delta 30 and Space Launch Delta 45 , which they had given up to Air Force Space Command in 1990. The commander of Space Launch Delta 45,

2227-516: Is a division of The Aerospace Corporation that supports both developing and operational civil space systems for NASA , the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), as well as addressing difficult systems engineering problems in the military, civil, and commercial applications. Commercially, the group supports satellite owner-operators, spacecraft manufacturers, insurance companies, and space-consulting and legal firms. It plays

2358-505: Is analyzed with sophisticated computer software in an effort to reconstruct its fall. Information learned during analysis is used to help satellite developers "design for demise" or ensure that debris burns up more completely during reentry. The team received the 1992 NASA Group Achievement Award for their work on understanding the breakup characteristics of the Space Shuttle external tank . The Center for Space Policy and Strategy

2489-621: Is called the Common Core Booster (CCB), which continues to use the Energomash RD-180 introduced in the Atlas III, but employs a rigid framework instead of balloon tanks. The rigid fuselage is heavier, but easier to handle and transport, eliminating the need for constant internal pressure. Up to five Aerojet Rocketdyne strap-on solid rocket boosters can be used to augment first stage thrust. The upper stage remains

2620-579: Is placed upon the life cycle for systems—as space programs are designed, acquired, and fielded. The Space Systems Group also includes Space Launch Operations which supports Air Force and NRO launch programs by monitoring and collecting data from national security launches. It is responsible for conducting the Aerospace independent launch readiness verification process for legacy and EELV launches. This group focuses on lessons learned, data, and best practices sharing among launch programs. The Civil Systems Group

2751-557: Is responsible for systems engineering and integrations support for NRO space programs. Through methods such as technical and engineering analyses, concept design studies, and direct on-site support, they provide planning, development, and deployment services for reconnaissance space systems. NSG's focus is to apply a systems engineering approach to national intelligence programs to provide objective technical recommendations and solutions. The Defense Systems Group provides customer support to all national-security space programs. Activities within

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2882-560: The 6555th Aerospace Test Group and realigned under its 6595th Aerospace Test Wing at Vandenberg Air Force Base. The 6595th Aerospace Test Wing was then realigned under SAMSO's new Space and Missile Test Center (SAMTEC), which oversaw launches at both Vandenberg Air Force Base and Cape Canaveral Space Force Station and operated the Western Test Range . In 1977, it gained the Eastern Test Range . On 1 August 1971,

3013-631: The Agena Target Vehicles used during the Gemini program . Beginning in 1960, the Agena upper stage , powered by hypergolic propellant , was used extensively on Atlas launch vehicles. The United States Air Force , NRO and CIA used them to launch SIGINT satellites. NASA used them in the Ranger program to obtain the first close-up images of the surface of the Moon and for Mariner 2 ,

3144-575: The Air Force Satellite Control Facility was inactivated, with its functions being replaced by Air Force Space Command's wings. The Space and Missile Test Organization was inactivated on 1 October 1989, and on 1 October 1990 the Eastern Space and Missile Center and Western Space and Missile Center were transferred to Air Force Space Command's 9th Space Division , making it responsible for space launch. However,

3275-702: The Air Force Satellite Control Network (AFSCN) and the Consolidated Space Operations Center at Schriever Air Force Base in Colorado. During this same time period, the company also provided systems engineering and integration for launch vehicles, including the Atlas , Titan II , Titan IV , and Delta II . In the 1990s, Aerospace participated in the planning and development of system requirements for

3406-704: The BE-4 LOX / methane engine to replace the RD-180 on the new Vulcan rocket . The new stage and engine first flew in 2024. In December 2014, legislation to prevent the award of further military launch contracts to vehicles that use Russian-made engines was approved by the US Congress . The bill allows ULA to continue to use the 29 RD-180 engines already on order at the time. In September 2021, ULA announced that Atlas V will be retired after they fulfill their remaining launch contracts, and that all remaining RD-180s for

3537-674: The Centaur , powered by a single or dual Aerojet Rocketdyne RL10 engines. In 2014, US Congress passed legislation restricting the purchase and use of the Russian-supplied RD-180 engine used on the first stage booster of the Atlas V. Formal study contracts were issued in June 2014 to a number of US rocket engine suppliers. In September 2014, ULA announced that it had entered into a partnership with Blue Origin to develop

3668-804: The Cold War . ARPA assigned the Air Force Ballistic Missile Division responsibility for three probes to be launched with the Thor-Able, the Army Ballistic Missile Agency two probes to be launched with the Juno II , and the Naval Ordnance Test Station to provide the imaging system. Pioneer 0 , Pioneer 1 , and Pioneer 2 were the Air Force Ballistic Missile Division's lunar probes. While Pioneer 0 and Pioneer 2 suffered launch failures and Pioneer 1 only traveled

3799-773: The Defense Satellite Communications System (DSCS), and the Defense Support Program (DSP). During the 1970s, Aerospace began performing advanced space program analysis and program studies for NASA 's development of the Space Transportation System (STS), more commonly known as the Space Shuttle . Aerospace also began tests on airborne UHF terminals for the Air Force Satellite Communications System, AFSATCOM. In

3930-879: The Department of Defense . Aerospace has been involved in the analysis of concept designs for the Space Tracking and Surveillance System (SSTS). Aerospace plays an integral role in the development of the Advanced Extremely High Frequency (AEHF) program that will replace the Milstar system. Another system that Aerospace was supporting is the Transformational Satellite Communications System MILSATCOM architecture to link military and reconnaissance communication networks. However, it

4061-754: The Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle (EELV) program, the next generation of launch vehicles. They continued to provide launch vehicle systems engineering for the Atlas II , Delta III , and Titan IV B. Satellite program support included Wideband Gapfiller, Space Based Laser, the Ultrahigh-Frequency Follow-On program, and the Global Broadcast Service. Throughout the second half of the 90s, the corporation conducted independent assessments for

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4192-1201: The Global Positioning Systems Directorate , the Launch and Range Systems Wing becoming the Launch Enterprise Directorate , the MILSATCOM Wing becoming the Military Satellite Communications Directorate , the Space Superiority Systems Wing becoming the Space Superiority Systems Directorate , the SIBRS Wing becoming the Infrared Space Systems Directorate , the Space Development and Test Wing becoming

4323-663: The International Space Station , provided technical support for the Cassini spacecraft, and supported the acquisition of the Space-Based Infrared System (SBIRS) satellite constellation. Most recently, The Aerospace Corporation provided further technical assistance to EELV programs including the Atlas V and Delta IV , and supported planning for Space Radar to provide global persistent intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance to

4454-568: The LGM-30 Minuteman ICBM, which was the first Air Force ballistic missile to use solid fuel rather than liquid fuel. The first Minuteman I was launched by the Air Force Ballistic Missile Division on 1 February 1962 and turned over to Strategic Air Command on 11 September 1962. By 1965, the Minuteman I had replaced the Atlas and Titan I ICBMs. The Space Systems Division, still located at Los Angeles Air Force Station , carried on

4585-1060: The Military Satellite Communications Systems Wing which replaced the MILSATCOM Joint System Program Office (JPO), the Launch and Range Systems Wing , which replaced the Launch and Ranges JPO, the Global Positioning Systems Wing , which replaced the Navstar GPS JPO, the Space-Based Infrared Systems Wing , which replaced the SBIRS System Program Office (SPO), the Space Superiority Systems Wing ,

4716-960: The Phillips Laboratory and its three sub-laboratories were directly incorporated into it. On 15 March 1989, the Space Division reassumed its historical name of the Space Systems Division and the Ballistic Missile Office also was renamed the Ballistic Systems Division. Due to cutbacks in the ballistic missile program due to the end of the Cold War, the Ballistic Systems Division was renamed the Ballistic Missile Organization and realigned under

4847-444: The SM-65 Atlas . The Atlas intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) program was initiated in the late 1950s under the Convair Division of General Dynamics . Atlas was a liquid propellant rocket burning RP-1 kerosene fuel with liquid oxygen in three engines configured in an unusual "stage-and-a-half" or "parallel staging" design: two outboard booster engines were jettisoned along with supporting structures during ascent, while

4978-559: The Solwind research satellite. The program was terminated in 1988 due to budgetary and congressional restrictions. Starting in 1983, the Department of Defense announced the Strategic Defense Initiative to provide missile defense, with the Space Division responsible for its space-based and Air Force components. In 1987, the Strategic Defense Initiative Organization selected the Space Division's Boost Surveillance and Tracking System , Space Surveillance and Tracking System , and Space-Based Interceptor for demonstration. Immediately following

5109-442: The Space Development and Test Wing at Kirtland Air Force Base, which included the former SMC Detachment 12, the 61st Air Base Wing , which replaced the 61st Air Base Group, the Satellite Control and Network Systems Group, which replaced the Air Force Satellite Control Network SPO, the Space Logistics Group, which replaced the SMC Logistics Support Squadron, and the Defense Meteorological Satellite Program Systems Group, which replaced

5240-445: The Space Rapid Capabilities Office and Space Development Agency (to be transferred in 2022), which are direct reporting units to the Chief of Space Operations . One 8 December 2023, SSC stood up the first two provisional System Deltas (SYDs) in an activation and assumption of command ceremony at the Los Angeles Air Force Base. Atlas rocket Atlas is a family of US missiles and space launch vehicles that originated with

5371-419: The Strategic Defense Initiative , launching its first satellite in 2011. Since the 1970s, proposals were made to merge the military and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 's (NOAA) weather satellites. In 1994, President Clinton directed that the programs eventually be merged. In 1995, the Air Force, NASA, and NOAA started the National Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System which

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5502-419: The Surveyor program lunar lander spacecraft and most of the Mars-bound Mariner program spacecraft with Atlas-Centaur launch vehicles. Following retirement as an ICBM, the Atlas-E, along with the Atlas-F , was refurbished for orbital launches. The last Atlas E/F spacecraft launch was conducted on 24 March 1995, using a rocket which had originally been built as an Atlas-E. The last Atlas E/F launch to use

5633-541: The Titan IIIB and provided NASA with Titan II GLVs for Project Gemini and developed the Agena target vehicle . In 1963, the Space Systems Division initiated the Defense Support Program , which was intended to succeed where MIDAS failed and create an orbital constellation of infrared missile warning sensors. It also continued developing the Vela nuclear detonation detection satellites. The Vela satellite network came out of an Air Force Ballistic Missile Division– Atomic Energy Commission –NASA agreement in 1960 to develop

5764-444: The medium earth orbits of Timation. The Space and Missile Systems Organization also led the development of the Defense Satellite Communications System Phase II (DSCS II). DSCS II had increased communications capacity, greater transmission strength, and longer lifetimes. As well, they also had steerable antennas. The first developmental contract was issued in 1969 and the first launch to geosynchronous orbit occurred in 1971, with

5895-420: The 6592nd Support Group for Los Angeles Air Force Station was redesignated the 6592nd Air Base Group. On 1 October 1979, the Space and Missile Systems Organization was redesignated as the Space Division and split off its ballistic missile functions into the Ballistic Missile Office due to growth in both mission areas. Starting in 1982, the Ballistic Missile Office assisted Strategic Air Command in deactivating

6026-419: The Air Force Joseph V. Charyk . The Missile Defense Alarm System (MIDAS) was the third program derived from WS 117L and focused on providing missile warning of ICBMs using infrared sensors. Initial plans called for a constellation of eight spacecraft in polar orbits to monitor the Soviet Union, however due to early satellite failures it remained a test program until 1968. To control these satellites, in 1958

6157-567: The Air Force Affordable Responsive Spacelift (ARES) launch system demonstration program. The Aerospace Corporation, as the FFRDC for national security space, primarily supports the Space and Missile Systems Center of the Air Force Space Command, as well as the National Reconnaissance Office . Their 50-year history working side by side with these organizations has made Aerospace the national memory and data repository for launch and satellite systems. They provide scientific and engineering support for launch, space, and related ground systems that serve

6288-419: The Air Force Ballistic Missile Division established an interim satellite control facility at Lockheed Missile and Space Division . On 6 April 1959, the 6594th Test Wing was established to operate the facility and on 1 March 1960 it transferred operations to Sunnyvale Air Force Station in California. It also established a global Air Force Satellite Control Network . On 1 November 1959, the 6592nd Support Group

6419-459: The Air Force Ballistic Missile Division in 1958, was the world's first communications satellite but intended as a proof of concept. The Army Signal Corps followed by launching Courier 1B on an Air Force Ballistic Missile Division Thor-Ablestar in 1960, but it failed after 17 days in orbit. The Space Systems Division began development on the Initial Defense Communications Satellite Program (IDCSP) in 1962, launching constellations from 1966 to 1968.

6550-436: The Air Force Ballistic Missile Division's development of the Titan III space launch vehicle, which was initiated in 1961 and first flow on 1 September 1964. The Titan IIIA consisted of a modified Titan II ballistic missile with a Transtage upper stage. The Titan IIIC was first launched from Cape Canaveral Space Force Station on 18 June 1965 and used two large solid rocket booster. The Space Systems Division also developed

6681-424: The Air Force Ballistic Missile Division's space and missile responsibilities were split. As such, the Space Systems Division ( SSD ) was established on 20 Mar 1961 and organized (activated) on 1 Apr 1961. In 1967, the Space Systems Division was reorganized as the Space and Missile Systems Organization ( SAMSO ), absorbing the Ballistic Systems Division's mission. In 1979, the Space and Missile Systems Organization

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6812-513: The Air Force a near monopoly on military space development, with the exception of reconnaissance programs, which were passed to the National Reconnaissance Office in 1961. The Weapon System 117L program, initially intending to perform a variety of task under different sub-systems, was broken into three different programs in 1959. The Discoverer Program , better known as Corona, was a photographic reconnaissance satellite that ejected film for recovery in-atmosphere. The Discoverers were launched using

6943-511: The Air Force and the National Reconnaissance Office to "determine the necessity of an EELV heavy-lift variant, including development of an Atlas V Heavy", and to "resolve the RD-180 issue, including coproduction, stockpile , or U.S. development of an RD-180 replacement." The lifting capability of the Atlas V HLV was to be roughly equivalent to the Delta IV Heavy . The latter utilizes RS-68 engines developed and produced domestically by Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne . After December 2006, with

7074-420: The Air Force control over its strategic forces. SAMSO also managed the acquisition and launch of Skynet 1 , which was launched on behalf of the Royal Air Force in 1969 and 1970. SAMSO also assisted the United Kingdom with the development of Skynet 2, which launched in 1974 and was turned over to the Royal Air Force in 1975. SAMSO also acquired and launched the NATO II and NATO III satellites. DSCS II, Skynet, and

7205-418: The Air Force's ballistic missile program. The Western Development Division's first program was the Convair SM-65 Atlas intercontinental ballistic missile , however by 1955 it initiated development of the Martin HGM-25A Titan I ICBM and Douglas PGM-17 Thor intermediate range ballistic missile . On 10 October 1955, the Western Development Division gained responsibility for spacecraft development when

7336-538: The Atlas-Centaur and some refurbished ICBMs. The launch rate of Atlases decreased in the 1980s due to the advent of the Space Shuttle , but Atlas launches continued until 2004, when the last "classic" Atlas with balloon tanks and the jettisonable booster section launched a comsat for the Air Force. Atlas boosters were also used for the last four crewed Project Mercury missions, the first United States crewed space program. On February 20, 1962, it launched Friendship 7 , which made three Earth orbits carrying John Glenn ,

7467-406: The DMSP SPO. On 31 March 2008, the Missile Defense Systems Group was activated. However, in response to the lead of Air Force Materiel Command, on 10 November 2010 the wings and groups redesignated as directorates and divisions as part of an Air Force acquisitions wide effort. This resulted in the 61st Air Base Wing being inactivated and replaced with the 61st Air Base Group, the GPS Wing becoming

7598-449: The Defense Department since it began in 1965. In 1965, Space Systems Division replaced the 6594th Aerospace Test Wing with the Air Force Satellite Control Facility . Space launches were also conducted by the Space Systems Division, with the 6595th Aerospace Test Wing responsible for Vandenberg Air Force Base launches and the 6555th Aerospace Test Wing responsible for launches from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station . On 1 July 1967,

7729-426: The Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle program, using its Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy boosters. In 2019, in part due to SpaceX's success with reusable rockets, the program's name was changed to National Security Space Launch . In 1994, the Space and Missile Systems Center had started the Space-Based Infrared System (SBIRS) program to replace the Defense Support Program . SBIRS was built upon technology tested for

7860-463: The IDCSP, also known as the Defense Satellite Communications Program Phase I (DSCS I) once operational, transmitted both voice and images to support the United States during the Vietnam War. Although almost all crewed spacecraft programs went to NASA after its creation in 1958, the Air Force retained the Boeing X-20 Dyna-Soar program under the Wright Air Development Center , with the Titan IIIC initially intended as its booster. The program, however,

7991-409: The Minuteman III, which more penetration aids to counter anti-ballistic missile defense systems and could be equipped with three multiple independently targetable reentry vehicles . The Titan III space launch vehicle family was also expanded to include the Titan IIID and Titan IIIE , which were used to support NASA's launch of the Viking program in 1976. The Space and Missile Systems Organization

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8122-543: The NATO satellites were designed to be compatible with each other. During the 1970s, the Space and Missile Systems Organization began a follow-on ASAT program to Program 437 that did not use nuclear warheads. The first, Project Spike, used a two-staged missile launched from a Convair F-106 Delta Dart . Project Spike did not enter development, however it served as a proof of concept for the Air-launched ASAT , which entered development in 1976. In 1970, SAMSO's 6555th Aerospace Test Wing at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station became

8253-432: The Peacekeeper rail-mobile on trains, but with the end of the Cold War those plans were canceled by President George H. W. Bush in 1991. The Ballistic Missile Office also started development on the MGM-134 Midgetman ICBM in 1986, also known as the Small ICBM, which would be held in road-mobile launchers. Its first test flight occurred in 1991 from Vandenberg Air Force Base to a target in the Kwajalein Missile Range , but

8384-401: The SMC 2.0 reorganization, which instead established the Development Corps, which was responsible for innovation and prototyping, a Production Corps, an Enterprise Corps, which conducted support for products and launch, and an Atlas Corps which provided personnel management. When the United States Space Force was established as an independent service on 20 December 2019, Air Force Space Command

8515-567: The Soviet Union, the Eisenhower administration attempted to centralize all military and civil space programs in the Advanced Research Projects Agency , however responsibility was returned to the military services in September 1959. The U.S. Army was designated as the lead service for communication satellites , the U.S. Navy for navigation satellites , and the U.S. Air Force for reconnaissance and surveillance satellites and space launch vehicles . This split arrangement lasted until March 1961, when Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara assigned

8646-456: The Space Commission came out with its report on national security space. A major recommendation was realigning the Space and Missile Systems Center from Air Force Materiel Command to Air Force Space Command to consolidate management of space programs to one major command. This occurred on 1 October 2001. On 1 August 2006, the Space and Missile Systems Center reorganized itself along a traditional Air Force wing and group construct. These included

8777-454: The Space Development and Test Directorate to form the Advanced Systems and Development Directorate. The Range and Network Systems Division was eventually stood up to replace the functions of the Satellite Control and Network Systems Division and in 2015 the Defense Weather Systems Directorate and Infrared Space Systems Directorate were combined into the Remote Sensing Systems Directorate . In 2019, these directorates were all replaced as part of

8908-469: The Space Development and Test Directorate, the Space Logistics Group becoming the Space Logistics Directorate, the DMSP Group becoming the Defense Weather Systems Directorate, the Missile Defense Systems Group becoming the Missile Defense Systems Division, and the Satellite Control and Network Systems Group becoming the Satellite Control and Network Systems Division In 2014, the Space and Missile Systems Center combined its Developmental Planning Directorate and

9039-407: The Space Division did gain responsibility for some research and development functions, gaining the Air Force Space Technology Center at Kirtland Air Force Base in October 1982. The Air Force Space Technology Center consisted of the Air Force Weapons Laboratory , Air Force Geophysics Laboratory, and Air Force Rocket Propulsion Laboratory . In 1990, the Air Force Space Technology Center was renamed

9170-403: The Space Systems Division and Ballistic Systems Division were remerged, forming the Space and Missile Systems Office (SAMSO). This remerger was prompted by economic reasons and SAMSO was located as Los Angeles Air Force Station. SAMSO did not start any new ballistic missile programs, but did oversee the replacement of the Minuteman I with the Minuteman II, which had improved range and guidance, and

9301-619: The Space Systems Division and missile programs under the Ballistic Systems Division. The Ballistic Systems Division, which moved to Norton Air Force Base , continued the work of the Air Force Ballistic Missile Division on second-generation ballistic missiles. The first major missile system it worked on was the LGM-25C Titan II ICBM, which was an improvement over the LGM-25A Titan I. It featured storable propellent, an all-inertial guidance system, and could be launched from undergrounds missile silos . The first Titan IIs came on alert with Strategic Air Command in June 1963. It also began development of

9432-399: The Space Systems Division on 5 May 1990. As part of the Air Force's restructuring in the early 1990s, Air Force Systems Command merged with Air Force Logistics Command to form Air Force Materiel Command on 1 July 1992. As part of this merger, the Space Systems Division was redesignated as the Space and Missile Systems Center on the same date. On 1 October 1993, the 6592nd Air Base Group

9563-459: The Space and Missile Systems Center built the Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle program and awarded the first contracts in 1995. One went to McDonnell Douglas for the Delta IV and Delta IV Heavy , while the other went to Lockheed Martin for the Atlas V . In 2006, the two launch providers merged to form United Launch Alliance . In 2016, SpaceX was awarded its first military launch under

9694-479: The Space and Missile Systems Center have broadened responsibility for all Department of Defense launches, from acquisition to deliver of spacecraft on-orbit. In August 1994, President Bill Clinton signed a National Transportation Space Policy, assigning responsibility for expendable launch vehicles to the Defense Department and directed it to develop improved variants of current vehicles. In response,

9825-573: The Space and Missile Systems Center name. In July 2021, President Biden nominated Deputy Director of the National Reconnaissance Office Maj Gen Michael Guetlein to lead Space Systems Command. He was confirmed with a promotion to lieutenant general on 29 July 2021 which became effective on 13 August 2021. On 13 August 2021, the Space and Missile Systems Center was redesignated as Space Systems Command on 13 August 2021. The commander

9956-601: The Space and Missile Systems Center started development on the Wideband Global SATCOM system to replace the Defense Satellite Communications System and the Advanced Extremely High Frequency to replace Milstar. The Brilliant Pebbles space-based anti-missile interceptor was transferred to the Space and Missile Systems Center in 1993 from the Ballistic Missile Defense Organization , but was terminated in 1994. In 2001,

10087-704: The United States and the Soviet Union and its successor, the Russian Federation, dramatically reduced the amount of nuclear warheads in each superpower's arsenal. This resulted in the U.S. Air Force reducing the amount of Minuteman missiles, reconfiguring its missiles to have only one warhead, and scrapping the Pershing missiles. Due to the dramatic reduction in ballistic missiles, the Space and Missile Systems Center's Ballistic Missile Organization

10218-523: The United States' space launch ranges . The Western Development Division ( WDD ) was established on 1 April 1954 under Air Research and Development Command to manage the U.S. Air Force's ballistic missile program. It assumed responsibility for spacecraft development in 1955 and was renamed the Air Force Ballistic Missile Division ( AFBMD ) in 1957. As part of Air Research and Development Command's transformation,

10349-679: The Weapon System 117L satellite, intended to conduct reconnaissance and missile warning, was transferred from the Wright Air Development Center . On 1 June 1957, the Western Development Division was renamed the Air Force Ballistic Missile Division. On 20 September 1957, the Air Force Ballistic Missile Division conducted the first launch of a Thor missile from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station , Florida and on 17 December 1957, also performed

10480-416: The center sustainer engine, propellant tanks and other structural elements remained connected through propellant depletion and engine shutdown. The Atlas name was originally proposed by Karel Bossart and his design team working at Convair on project MX-1593. Using the name of a mighty Titan from Greek mythology reflected the missile's place as the biggest and most powerful at the time. It also reflected

10611-637: The core of the United States' space launch fleet. Following its 1958 establishment, NASA immediately began using the Thor for space launches and in 1959 developed the Thor-Delta . The Atlas was adopted by NASA in 1959 and Project Mercury used the Atlas LV-3B for its orbital flights, with the Army's Mercury-Redstone Launch Vehicle used only for sub-orbital flights. Following the launch of Sputnik 1 by

10742-624: The development of thermonuclear weapons . In the early 1950s, the Soviet Union was outpacing the United States in ballistic missile development, leading Trevor Gardner to charter the Teapot Committee to determine why the United States was struggling. As a direct result of the Committee's recommendation, Air Research and Development Command established the Western Development Division at Los Angeles Air Force Station under Brigadier General Bernard Schriever on 1 July 1954 to manage

10873-568: The establishment of the Space Division on 1 October 1979, the Space and Missile Test Center was redesignated as the Space and Missile Test Organization, comprising the Eastern Space and Missile Center at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station and the Western Space and Missile Center at Vandenberg Air Force Base. On 1 September 1982, Air Force Space Command was activated as the Air Force's first major command for space and on 1 October 1987

11004-653: The first Defense Meteorological Support Program Block 5D-2s and started the procurement process for DMSP Block 5D-3s, as well as starting the deployment of the Global Positioning System constellation. It also continued the Defense Satellite Communications System Phase III deployment, launching the first in 1982 and the full constellation was completed in 1993. The Military Strategic and Tactical Relay , or Milstar, strategic satellite communication program

11135-575: The first United States astronaut to orbit the Earth. Identical Atlas boosters successfully launched three more crewed Mercury orbital missions from 1962 to 1963. Atlas saw the beginnings of its "workhorse" status during the Mercury-Atlas missions, which resulted in Lt. Col. John H. Glenn Jr. becoming the first American to orbit the Earth in 1962. Atlas was also used throughout the mid-1960s to launch

11266-731: The first launch of an Atlas missile. By 1960, the PGM-17 Thor IRBM was deployed to the United Kingdom and turned over to Strategic Air Command and the Royal Air Force . The SM-65 Atlas ICBM was turned over SAC by the end of 1962. In 1960, the HGM-25A Titan I ICBM made its first flight and was turned over to Strategic Air Command in 1962, completing the deployment of the first-generation ballistic missiles. These first-generation ballistic missiles also served as

11397-552: The first spacecraft to fly by another planet. Each of the Agena target vehicles used for the later space rendezvous practice missions of Gemini was launched on an Atlas rocket. The Atlas-Centaur was an expendable launch system derived from the SM-65D Atlas missile. Launches were conducted from two pads of the Launch Complex 36 at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station , Florida. The Atlas' engines were upgraded and

11528-460: The first voice relay satellite, and the first human-made object in space easily visible to the naked eye due to the large, mirror-polished stainless steel tank. This was the first flight in what would be a long career for the Atlas as a satellite launcher. Atlas D missile-derived SLV-3s were used for orbital launches with the RM-81 Agena and Centaur upper stages. The modified Atlas LV-3B

11659-599: The foundation for the first-generation of space launch vehicles . The first space launch vehicle developed by the Air Force Ballistic Missile Division was the Thor-Able , which used a Thor IRBM as the first stage and a Vanguard -derived Able . Its first launch was on 11 October 1958. The first satellite launched by the Air Force Ballistic Missile Division was the Army Signal Corps SCORE using an Atlas B . The Thor and Atlas rocket families would form

11790-808: The full constellation being formed in 1979. SAMSO also operationalized the Lincoln Experimental Satellites and Tactical Communications Satellite, building the Fleet Satellite Communications System (FLTSATCOM). Although the FLTSATCOM program was owned by the Navy, SAMSO managed the satellite acquisition, which started in 1971. It also managed the Air Force Satellite Communications system which became operational in 1978 and relied on transponders on FLTSATCOM and enabled

11921-532: The group include requirements analysis, cross-mission planning and architecture development, strategic awareness planning, cross-program engineering, and systems acquisition development. The Defense Systems Group works with the Space Force and industry partners to develop military satellites and advanced national-security satellite systems. It oversees four major spacecraft and space system areas: communications, surveillance, weather, and navigation. Much emphasis

12052-466: The man-rating of the Atlas (rocket) intercontinental ballistic missile . The Aerospace Corporation provided general systems engineering and technical direction for the Titan II missile, first tested in 1962, which became the launch vehicle for Project Gemini . Other notable projects of the 1960s include the advanced ballistic re-entry system (ABRES), the Air Force's Manned Orbiting Laboratory (MOL),

12183-529: The merger of Boeing and Lockheed-Martin space operations into United Launch Alliance , the Atlas V program gained access to the tooling and processes for 5.4 m diameter stages used on Delta IV . A 5.4 m diameter stage could have conceivably accepted dual RD-180 engines. The resulting conceptual heavy-lift vehicle was called "Atlas Phase 2" or "PH2" in the 2009 Augustine Report . An Atlas V PH2-Heavy (three 5 m stages in parallel; six RD-180s) along with Shuttle-derived , Ares V and Ares V Lite, were considered as

12314-616: The mid-70s Aerospace assumed general systems engineering and integration responsibility for the Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP). Beginning in 1973, a program office was established to assist the Air Force in the creation of the Global Positioning System (GPS). In recognition of their GPS collaboration, Aerospace shared the 1992 Robert J. Collier Trophy , the nation's highest award for aeronautical achievement, "for

12445-636: The most significant development for safe and efficient navigation and surveillance of air and spacecraft since the introduction of radio navigation 50 years ago." Throughout the 1980s, Aerospace supported the Inertial Upper Stage (IUS), the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), the Milstar and DSCS satellite communication systems, and antisatellite (ASAT) programs. They provided planning, design, and evaluation for

12576-724: The national interest. The Department of Defense has identified five core competencies for the Aerospace FFRDC: launch certification, system-of-systems engineering, systems development and acquisition, process implementation, and technology application. Aerospace also manages support to programs for NASA and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), as well as other civil and some commercial space customers. The Aerospace Corporation sponsors several annual conferences and workshops including planetary defense, space systems engineering, space power, and spacecraft thermal control . The Engineering and Technology Group

12707-487: The need to have a diverse fleet of space launch vehicles. The Titan IV had its first launch in 1989 and could use either the Inertial Upper Stage or an upgraded Centaur stage. It also began the development of two new medium launch vehicles, with the Delta II intended to launch the Global Positioning System and the Atlas II intended to launch the Defense Satellite Communications System . The Space Division launched

12838-592: The original Atlas. The Atlas-Centaur was evolved into the Atlas II , various models of which were launched 63 times between 1991 and 2004. There were only six launches of the succeeding Atlas III , all between 2000 and 2005. The Atlas V is still in service, with launches planned into the mid 2020s. More than 300 Atlas launches have been conducted from Cape Canaveral Space Force Station in Florida and 285 from Vandenberg Space Force Base in California. The Atlas

12969-500: The parent company of Convair, the Atlas Corporation . The missiles saw only brief ICBM service, and the last squadron was taken off operational alert in 1965. However, from 1962 to 1963 Atlas boosters launched the first four US astronauts to orbit the Earth (in contrast to the preceding two Redstone suborbital launches). The Atlas-Agena and Atlas-Centaur satellite launch vehicles were also derived directly from

13100-571: The program only had a single test flight, OPS 0855 , before being canceled in 1969. The Space Systems Division also was responsible for anti-satellite weapons development. The first United States ASAT system was the Army's Nike Zeus missiles located at Kwajalein Missile Range and declared operational in 1963, but shut down in 1964 by the Defense Department, which favored the Air Force's ASAT efforts. The Space Systems Division's Program 437 used Thor boosters and nuclear warheads to destroy

13231-551: The recommendations of the Space Commission, in 2001 it was reassigned to Air Force Space Command , remaining attached through its redesignation as Space Operations Command in October 2020. On 22 April 2021, it transferred from a U.S. Air Force unit to a U.S. Space Force unit and was reassigned from Space Operations Command to Headquarters United States Space Force. On 13 August 2021, the Space and Missile Systems Center

13362-616: The remaining Titan II missiles and placing them into storage for possible conversion into space launch vehicles. Under the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks , both the United States and Soviet Union were limited in the number of missiles they could deploy. This shifted the focus to quality. In 1973, the Space and Missile Systems Organization started the MX program, which looked at traditionally silo-based, ground-mobile, and air-launched ballistic missile options. In 1982, it

13493-585: The remaining rockets have been delivered. Prior to the April 2015 announcement of the Vulcan launch vehicle , during the first decade since ULA was formed from Lockheed Martin and Boeing, there were a number of proposals and concept studies of future launch vehicles. None were subsequently funded for full-up development. Two of those concepts were the Atlas V Heavy and the Atlas Phase 2 . The Atlas V Heavy

13624-645: The shuttle. The Space Division had been developing the Titan 34D as a backup in the event that there were any issues with the Shuttle program and after two launch failures in 1985 and 1986 suspended Titan 34 Launches, they resumed in 1987, restoring the only launch alternative to the Space Shuttle for large payloads. The Titan IV had already started development in 1985, but the Challenger disaster reinforced

13755-494: The structure reinforced for the large upper stage, along with elongated propellant tanks. The first launch attempt of an Atlas-Centaur in May 1962 failed, the rocket exploding after take-off. Footage of this was shown in the penultimate shot of the 1982 art film Koyaanisqatsi , directed by Godfrey Reggio . Beginning in 1963, the liquid hydrogen -fueled Centaur upper stage was also used on dozens of Atlas launches. NASA launched

13886-451: The tanks when devoid of propellants. The Atlas booster was unusual in its use of "balloon" tanks. The rockets were made from very thin stainless steel that offered minimal or no rigid support. It was pressure in the tanks that gave the rigidity required for space flight. In order to save weight they were not painted and needed a specially designed oil to prevent rust. This was the original use of WD-40 water displacement oil. The SM-65 Atlas

14017-707: Was a ULA concept proposal that would have used three Common Core Booster (CCB) stages strapped together to provide the capability necessary to lift 25 tonne payload to low Earth orbit . ULA stated that approximately 95% of the hardware required for the Atlas HLV had already been flown on the Atlas V single-core vehicles. A 2006 report, prepared by RAND Corporation for the Office of the Secretary of Defense , stated that Lockheed Martin had decided not to develop an Atlas V heavy-lift vehicle (HLV). The report recommended for

14148-638: Was also the Department of Defense lead for the Space Transportation System , which would be developed into the Space Shuttle . As part of its contribution, it built a Space Shuttle launch and recovery site at Vandenberg Air Force Base for polar launches and also developed the Inertial Upper Stage . The Space and Missile Systems Organization also oversaw the first launch of the Defense Support Program in 1970 on

14279-625: Was canceled in 1963 when it was determined that the Blue Gemini program would better satisfy its objectives. However, Defense Secretary Robert McNamara announced the Manned Orbiting Laboratory program, which was assigned to the Space Systems Division by General Bernard Schriever. Douglas Aircraft Company was responsible for the spacecraft, and the Space Systems Division was developing the Titan IIIM booster. However,

14410-501: Was canceled in 1987, while the Consolidated Space Operations Center gradually came online in 1989 and was fully transferred to Air Force Space Command in 1993. The Space Division also continued the air-launched ASAT program that SAMSO started in 1976, culminating in the development of the ASM-135 ASAT . Its first test was on 21 January 1984 and on 13 September 1985, it was launched from a McDonnell Douglas F-15A Eagle to destroy

14541-578: Was canceled in 1992 due to the end of the Cold War. The Space Division continued the Space and Missile Systems Organization's military development of the Space Shuttle alongside NASA, however in 1986 the Space Shuttle Challenger exploded during launch, forcing NASA to suspend all launches until 1988. Not only did it suspend the development of Shuttle launch and recovery facilities at Vandenberg Air Force Base, but also delayed all military payloads that were scheduled to be launched on

14672-460: Was canceled per the recommendations of Defense Secretary Robert M. Gates due to DoD budgetary constraints. Aerospace remains a significant partner in the continuing evolution of the GPS system. Aerospace has been playing a leading role in the planning and acquisition of Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration . In 2005, Aerospace supported

14803-672: Was established to manage Los Angeles Air Force Station . The first space missions launched by the Air Force Ballistic Missile Division were not military, the but scientific Pioneer lunar probes . First directed by the Advanced Research Projects Agency, they were later turned over to NASA. The Thor-Able rocket was specifically developed by the Air Force Ballistic Missile Agency for these lunar missions, which aimed to enhance scientific knowledge and American global prestige during

14934-476: Was first launched on an Air Force Ballistic Missile Division booster in 1960 and achieved initial operational capability in 1964 and full operational capability in 1968. Transit used three operational satellites to enable users on ships and submarines to calculate their location in two dimensions and continued to operate until 1996. The Navy and Air Force both began follow on programs, with the Space and Missile Systems Organization developing Project 621B , envisioning

15065-458: Was intended as a heavier counterpart to Discoverer and used the Atlas-Agena booster. SAMOS was intended to collect photographic and electromagnetic reconnaissance data, but instead of returning film capsules to earth, SAMOS would electronically transmit the data to ground stations. However, the technology for electro-optical film readout was not mature and it was canceled by Undersecretary of

15196-668: Was intended to replace the Defense Metrological Support Program and be operated by NOAA, but the program collapsed due to cost overruns in 2010 and a full merging of the programs has not occurred. A second Defense Department-only effort, the Defense Weather Satellite System , was canceled by Congress in 2012. The Global Positioning System constellation became fully completed in 1994 and achieved initial operational capability in 1995. Milstar had its first launch in 1995 and

15327-641: Was merged with other Air Force laboratories to form the Air Force Research Laboratory and Kirtland Air Force Base and its 377th Air Base Wing was transferred to the Air Armament Center on 1 October 1998. The remaining space functions at Kirtland AFB, including test and evaluation, launch of experimental payloads, and Space Shuttle Operations were consolidated into Detachment 12 which activated on 29 June 2001. The START I treaty of 1991 and START II treaty of 1993 between

15458-650: Was named the LGM-118 Peacekeeper ICBM by President Ronald Reagan and was capable of launching ten reentry vehicles at different targets more than 6,000 miles away. In 1983, the Peacekeeper had its first test launch from Vandenberg Air Force Base to a target in the Kwajalein Missile Range and the first went on alert with Strategic Air Command in 1986, being fully deployed in 1988. The permanent basing construct including making

15589-716: Was officially inactivated in September 1993. The Space and Missile Systems Center followed up on the Space Division's development of the Delta II and Atlas II space launch vehicles, procuring launches using the upgraded Atlas III , which used the Russian RD-180 engine. Following six launch failures from April 1998 to May 1999 the Department of Defense started the Launch Broad Area Review, releasing its report in November 1999 and recommending that

15720-493: Was originally established in 2000 as a Center of Excellence for civil, commercial, and national space policy. In 2016, the Center was expanded. Western Development Division Space Systems Command ( SSC ) is the United States Space Force 's space development , acquisition , launch , and logistics field command . It is headquartered at Los Angeles Air Force Base , California , and manages

15851-439: Was redesignated as United States Space Force, but functionally remained a major command within the Air Force. The Space and Missile Systems Center remained a part of United States Space Force as it was redesignated as Space Operations Command , until it was reassigned to Headquarters Space Force on 22 April 2021 and officially transferred from the U.S. Air Force center to a U.S. Space Force field command, although it continued to use

15982-485: Was redesignated the 655th Air Base Squadron as part of an Air Force-wide restructuring of support groups. In January 1993, Kirtland Air Force Base and the 377th Air Base Wing were directly assigned to the Space and Missile Systems Center and the 61st Air Base Group at Los Angeles Air Force Base was activated on 1 October 1994, replacing the 655th Air Base Squadron. On 8 April 1997, the Philips Laboratory

16113-691: Was renamed Space Systems Command and became a full U.S. Space Force field command. The United States' ballistic missile program was started by the United States Army Air Forces immediately after the end of the Second World War , with the German Army 's employment of the V-2 rocket demonstrating its viability. However, initial efforts to combine ballistic missiles and nuclear weapons was technologically infeasible until

16244-622: Was renamed the Space Division and divested itself of ballistic missile development. In 1989, the Space Division returned to its historic name of the Space Systems Division and regained its ballistic missile development role in 1990. With the merger of Air Force Systems Command and Air Force Logistics Command in 1992, the Space Systems Division was redesignated the Space and Missile Systems Center ( SMC ). In response to

16375-623: Was responsible for all missile tasks. Despite early successes, there was criticism from both government and industry on the role RW played as a system engineer, in particular, that RW held a privileged position with the Air Force. In 1958 RW merged with Thompson Products to become TRW and the Space Technology Laboratories became an independent subsidiary of TRW, but concerns regarding conflicts of interest persisted. In September 1959, United States Congress issued House Report 1121 which recommended that STL be converted into

16506-535: Was started in 1982. The Space Division initiated the largest change to the Air Force Satellite Control Network since its inception, with Secretary of Defense Harold Brown authorizing the construction of a Consolidated Space Operations Center at Falcon Air Force Base in 1979. It was intended to comprise two parts, a Satellite Operations Complex to replace Onizuka Air Force Base and a Shuttle Operations and Planning Center to replace Johnson Space Center for military missions. The Shuttle Operation and Planning Center

16637-533: Was transferred to United Launch Alliance (ULA), a joint venture between Lockheed Martin and Boeing . Lockheed Martin continued to market the Atlas V to commercial customers until September 2021, when it announced that the rocket will be retired after fulfilling the remaining 29 launch contracts. Atlas V is built in Decatur, Alabama , and maintains two launch sites: Space Launch Complex 41 at Cape Canaveral Space Force Station and Space Launch Complex 3-E at Vandenberg Space Force Base . The Atlas V's first stage

16768-399: Was used as a first stage for satellite launch vehicles for half a century. Many were eventually converted to orbital launch vehicles after they were removed from service as missiles. Missiles converted into Atlas E/F "space boosters" were used to launch the early "Block I" GPS satellites . Early Atlas rockets were also built specifically for non-military uses. On 18 December 1958, an Atlas

16899-482: Was used as an expendable launch system , with both the Agena and Centaur upper stages, for the Mariner space probes used to explore Mercury , Venus , and Mars (1962–1973); and to launch ten of the Mercury program missions (1962–1963). The first successful test launch of an SM-65 Atlas missile was on 17 December 1957. Approximately 350 Atlas missiles were built. The Atlas boosters would collapse under their own weight if not kept pressurized with nitrogen gas in

17030-451: Was used for the orbital element of Project Mercury , launching four crewed Mercury spacecraft into low Earth orbit . Atlas D launches were conducted from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, at Launch Complexes 11, 12, 13 and 14, and Vandenberg AFB Launch Complex 576 . Two suborbital stage and a half vehicles were used during Project FIRE as sounding rockets . By 1979, Atlas space launcher variants had been whittled down to just

17161-443: Was used to launch the Signal Communication by Orbiting Relay Equipment ( SCORE ) satellite, which was "the first prototype of a communications satellite , and the first test of any satellite for direct practical applications." The communications payload was placed into low Earth orbit on Atlas serial number 10B without an upper stage. Atlas 10B/SCORE, at 8,750 lb (3,970 kg) was the heaviest artificial object then in orbit,

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