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105-469: Airbus SE ( / ˈ ɛər b ʌ s / AIR -buss ; French: [ɛʁbys] ; German: [ˈɛːɐ̯bʊs] ; Spanish: [ˈejɾβus] ) is a European aerospace corporation. The company's primary business is the design and manufacturing of commercial aircraft but it also has separate defence and space and helicopter divisions. Airbus has long been the world's leading helicopter manufacturer and, in 2019, also emerged as

210-399: A convergent-divergent nozzle is needed on high-speed aircraft. The engine thrust is highest if the static pressure of the gas reaches the ambient value as it leaves the nozzle. This only happens if the nozzle exit area is the correct value for the nozzle pressure ratio (npr). Since the npr changes with engine thrust setting and flight speed this is seldom the case. Also at supersonic speeds

315-680: A rotating air compressor powered by a turbine , with the leftover power providing thrust through the propelling nozzle —this process is known as the Brayton thermodynamic cycle . Jet aircraft use such engines for long-distance travel. Early jet aircraft used turbojet engines that were relatively inefficient for subsonic flight. Most modern subsonic jet aircraft use more complex high-bypass turbofan engines . They give higher speed and greater fuel efficiency than piston and propeller aeroengines over long distances. A few air-breathing engines made for high-speed applications (ramjets and scramjets ) use

420-408: A compressor ( axial , centrifugal , or both), mixing fuel with the compressed air, burning the mixture in the combustor , and then passing the hot, high pressure air through a turbine and a nozzle . The compressor is powered by the turbine, which extracts energy from the expanding gas passing through it. The engine converts internal energy in the fuel to increased momentum of the gas flowing through

525-404: A font similar to Helvetica Black . The logo colours were reflected in the standard Airbus aircraft livery in each period. The EADS logo between 2000 and 2010 combined the logos of the merged companies, DaimlerChrysler Aerospace AG (a four-ray star) and Aérospatiale-Matra (a curved arrow), after which these elements were removed and a new font with 3D shading was chosen. This font was retained in

630-427: A higher priority than fuel efficiency, fans tend to be smaller or absent. Because of these distinctions, turbofan engine designs are often categorized as low-bypass or high-bypass , depending upon the amount of air which bypasses the core of the engine. Low-bypass turbofans have a bypass ratio of around 2:1 or less. The term Advanced technology engine refers to the modern generation of jet engines. The principle

735-406: A jet of water. The mechanical arrangement may be a ducted propeller with nozzle, or a centrifugal compressor and nozzle. The pump-jet must be driven by a separate engine such as a Diesel or gas turbine . All jet engines are reaction engines that generate thrust by emitting a jet of fluid rearwards at relatively high speed. The forces on the inside of the engine needed to create this jet give

840-426: A large number of different types of jet engines, all of which achieve forward thrust from the principle of jet propulsion . Commonly aircraft are propelled by airbreathing jet engines. Most airbreathing jet engines that are in use are turbofan jet engines, which give good efficiency at speeds just below the speed of sound. A turbojet engine is a gas turbine engine that works by compressing air with an inlet and

945-592: A model range that parallels the commercial aircraft offered by the company. Following the entry of the 737-based Boeing Business Jet , Airbus joined the business jet market with the A319 Corporate Jet in 1997. Although the term Airbus Corporate Jet was initially used only for the A319CJ, it is now often used for all models, including VIP widebodies. As of December 2008, 121 corporate and private jets are operating, and 164 aircraft have been ordered. The company

1050-680: A more serious scientific discipline. Airmen like Otto Lilienthal , who introduced cambered airfoils in 1891, used gliders to analyze aerodynamic forces . The Wright brothers were interested in Lilienthal's work and read several of his publications. They also found inspiration in Octave Chanute , an airman and the author of Progress in Flying Machines (1894). It was the preliminary work of Cayley, Lilienthal, Chanute, and other early aerospace engineers that brought about

1155-657: A number of other plants in different European locations, reflecting its foundation as a consortium. For aircraft assembled in Europe, aircraft parts often move between the different factories and the assembly lines via the use of the Beluga and BelugaXL , a fleet modified aircraft capable of carrying entire sections of fuselage. For aircraft assembled in China and the United States, the parts needed to build an aircraft meet in

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1260-537: A part of the general safety of a system or a piece of equipment. It implies that the system or equipment can be operated properly and without causing any danger, risk, damage or injury. Functional safety is crucial in the aerospace industry, which allows no compromises or negligence. In this respect, supervisory bodies, such as the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA), regulate the aerospace market with strict certification standards. This

1365-451: A part. This certification guarantees that a part was repaired or overhauled to meet OEM specifications. Once a part is overhauled its value is determined from the supply and demand of the aerospace market. When an airline has an aircraft on the ground , the part that the airline requires to get the plane back into service becomes invaluable. This can drive the market for specific parts. There are several online marketplaces that assist with

1470-435: A particular engine design that if some bumps in a bypass duct are smoothed out the air will flow more smoothly giving a pressure loss reduction of x% and y% less fuel will be needed to get the take-off thrust, for example. This understanding comes under the engineering discipline Jet engine performance . How efficiency is affected by forward speed and by supplying energy to aircraft systems is mentioned later. The efficiency of

1575-759: A powerplant for the world's first jet- fighter aircraft , the Messerschmitt Me 262 (and later the world's first jet- bomber aircraft, the Arado Ar 234 ). A variety of reasons conspired to delay the engine's availability, causing the fighter to arrive too late to improve Germany's position in World War II , however this was the first jet engine to be used in service. Meanwhile, in Britain the Gloster E28/39 had its maiden flight on 15 May 1941 and

1680-519: A second production line. North America plays a crucial role for Airbus, both in terms of aircraft sales and suppliers. Of the approximately 5,300 Airbus jetliners sold worldwide, 2,000 are ordered by North American customers. These orders span Airbus' entire product line, from the compact A318 to the massive A380, accommodating 107 to 565 passengers. Notably, US contractors contribute significantly, supporting around 120,000 jobs and generating an estimated $ 5.5 billion in business. For instance, one variant of

1785-696: A single European location where they are loaded onto ships for the final journey to the assembly line. Airbus opened an assembly plant for the A320 family of aircraft in Tianjin , China in 2009. Airbus started constructing a $ 350 million component manufacturing plant in Harbin , China in July 2009, which now employs over 1,000 people. It was fully operational by early 2011, the 30,000 square metre plant manufactures composite parts and assembles composite work-packages for

1890-530: A strong thrust on the engine which pushes the craft forwards. Jet engines make their jet from propellant stored in tanks that are attached to the engine (as in a 'rocket') as well as in duct engines (those commonly used on aircraft) by ingesting an external fluid (very typically air) and expelling it at higher speed. A propelling nozzle produces a high velocity exhaust jet . Propelling nozzles turn internal and pressure energy into high velocity kinetic energy. The total pressure and temperature don't change through

1995-439: A substantial initial forward airspeed before it can function. Ramjets are considered the simplest type of air breathing jet engine because they have no moving parts in the engine proper, only in the accessories. Scramjets differ mainly in the fact that the air does not slow to subsonic speeds. Rather, they use supersonic combustion. They are efficient at even higher speed. Very few have been built or flown. The rocket engine uses

2100-421: A supersonic afterburning engine or 2200 K with afterburner lit. The pressure entering the nozzle may vary from 1.5 times the pressure outside the nozzle, for a single stage fan, to 30 times for the fastest manned aircraft at Mach 3+. Convergent nozzles are only able to accelerate the gas up to local sonic (Mach 1) conditions. To reach high flight speeds, even greater exhaust velocities are required, and so

2205-402: A test stand, sucks in fuel and generates thrust. How well it does this is judged by how much fuel it uses and what force is required to restrain it. This is a measure of its efficiency. If something deteriorates inside the engine (known as performance deterioration ) it will be less efficient and this will show when the fuel produces less thrust. If a change is made to an internal part which allows

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2310-461: A two-stage axial compressor feeding a single-sided centrifugal compressor . Practical axial compressors were made possible by ideas from A.A.Griffith in a seminal paper in 1926 ("An Aerodynamic Theory of Turbine Design"). Whittle would later concentrate on the simpler centrifugal compressor only. Whittle was unable to interest the government in his invention, and development continued at a slow pace. In Spain, pilot and engineer Virgilio Leret Ruiz

2415-609: A value of the stake at "approximately €2.0 billion." Lagardère was to reduce its holding by an identical amount. However, Caisse des Dépôts et Consignations , a unit of the French government, acquired 2.25 % of EADS. At issue, as a result, is the fact that the German and French shareholdings were now in imbalance. On 30 August 2006, shortly after the stock price decline caused by the A380 delivery delays, more than 5 % of EADS stock

2520-425: A variety of different fields including medicine, transportation, energy, consumer goods, public safety and more. NASA publishes an annual report called "Spinoffs", regarding many of the specific products and benefits to the aforementioned areas in an effort to highlight some of the ways funding is put to use. For example, in the most recent edition of this publication, "Spinoffs 2015", endoscopes are featured as one of

2625-714: A wide-body aircraft to compete with American-built airliners. EADS rebranded itself as Airbus SE in 2015. Reflecting its multinational origin, the company operates major offices and assembly plants in France , Germany , Spain , and the United Kingdom , along with more recent additions in Canada , China , and the United States . Airbus' headquarters are legally registered in Leiden , Netherlands, but daily management

2730-493: Is a type of reaction engine , discharging a fast-moving jet of heated gas (usually air) that generates thrust by jet propulsion . While this broad definition may include rocket , water jet , and hybrid propulsion, the term jet engine typically refers to an internal combustion air-breathing jet engine such as a turbojet , turbofan , ramjet , pulse jet , or scramjet . In general, jet engines are internal combustion engines . Air-breathing jet engines typically feature

2835-568: Is also a 10% owner of Dassault Aviation , which builds the Falcon family of smaller business jets. Airbus Defence and Space markets and either builds or modifies new aircraft for military use. Airbus became increasingly interested in developing and selling to the military aviation market in the late 1990s. It embarked on two main fields of development: aerial refuelling with the Airbus A310 MRTT (Multi-Role Tanker Transport) and later

2940-694: Is conducted from the company's main office located in Blagnac , France. The SE in its corporate name stands for Societas Europaea . The company is led by CEO Guillaume Faury and is a component of the EURO STOXX 50 stock market index . Since its inception in 2000, the company's shares have been listed on the Paris Stock Exchange , the Frankfurt Stock Exchange and the four regional Spanish stock exchanges (including

3045-507: Is documented in the story of Ottoman soldier Lagâri Hasan Çelebi , who reportedly achieved flight using a cone-shaped rocket in 1633. The earliest attempts at airbreathing jet engines were hybrid designs in which an external power source first compressed air, which was then mixed with fuel and burned for jet thrust. The Italian Caproni Campini N.1 , and the Japanese Tsu-11 engine intended to power Ohka kamikaze planes towards

3150-766: Is longer and wider than the fuselage used on the A300, A310, A330, and A340. A second narrow-body jet was added to the product list in 2018 when Airbus gained control of the Bombardier CSeries programme, and rebranded it as the A220. The jet offers five-abreast seating compared to the six-abreast seating on the A320. The company is also a 50% owner of the ATR joint venture which builds the ATR 42 and ATR 72 regional aircraft. Airbus Corporate Jets markets and modifies new aircraft for private and corporate customers. It has

3255-619: Is meant to reach and ensure the highest possible level of safety. The standards AS 9100 in America, EN 9100 on the European market or JISQ 9100 in Asia particularly address the aerospace and aviation industry. These are standards applying to the functional safety of aerospace vehicles. Some companies are therefore specialized in the certification, inspection verification and testing of the vehicles and spare parts to ensure and attest compliance with

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3360-443: Is that a turbine engine will function more efficiently if the various sets of turbines can revolve at their individual optimum speeds, instead of at the same speed. The true advanced technology engine has a triple spool, meaning that instead of having a single drive shaft, there are three, in order that the three sets of blades may revolve at different speeds. An interim state is a twin-spool engine, allowing only two different speeds for

3465-400: Is the propellant flow in kg/s, A e {\displaystyle A_{e}} is the cross-sectional area at the exit of the exhaust nozzle, and p {\displaystyle p} is the atmospheric pressure. Combined-cycle engines simultaneously use two or more different principles of jet propulsion. A water jet, or pump-jet, is a marine propulsion system that uses

3570-570: Is used for launching satellites, space exploration and crewed access, and permitted landing on the Moon in 1969. Rocket engines are used for high altitude flights, or anywhere where very high accelerations are needed since rocket engines themselves have a very high thrust-to-weight ratio . However, the high exhaust speed and the heavier, oxidizer-rich propellant results in far more propellant use than turbofans. Even so, at extremely high speeds they become energy-efficient. An approximate equation for

3675-552: The Airbus A330 MRTT , and tactical airlift with the Airbus A400M Atlas . The company has also continued to market and assemble some military aircraft previously offered by the companies that formed Airbus, notably CASA . The A310 and A330-based MRTT aircraft are conversions of civilian airliners. The aircraft are called multi-role tanker transports because, in addition to their aerial refuelling capability,

3780-820: The Airbus C295 , a smaller tactical transport aircraft, that was designed and initially manufactured by the Spanish aerospace company CASA . The company is also a 50% owner of the ArianeGroup joint venture which builds the Ariane 5 space launch vehicle, a 46% owner of the Eurofighter joint venture which builds the Typhoon fighter jet, a 42.5% owner of the Panavia Aircraft joint venture which built

3885-709: The Bolsa de Madrid ). The current company is the product of consolidation in the European aerospace industry, tracing back to the formation of the Airbus Industrie GIE consortium in 1970. In 2000, the European Aeronautic Defence and Space Company (EADS) NV was established. In addition to other subsidiaries pertaining to security and space activities, EADS owned 100% of the pre-existing Eurocopter SA , established in 1992, as well as 80% of Airbus Industrie GIE. In 2001, Airbus Industrie GIE

3990-1173: The Canadian Space Agency in Canada, Indian Space Research Organisation in India, Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency in Japan, Roscosmos State Corporation for Space Activities in Russia, China National Space Administration in China, SUPARCO in Pakistan, Iranian Space Agency in Iran, and Korea Aerospace Research Institute in South Korea. Along with these public space programs, many companies produce technical tools and components such as spacecraft and satellites . Some known companies involved in space programs include Boeing , Cobham , Airbus , SpaceX , Lockheed Martin , RTX Corporation , MDA and Northrop Grumman . These companies are also involved in other areas of aerospace, such as

4095-852: The Gloster Meteor finally entered service with the RAF in July 1944. These were powered by turbojet engines from Power Jets Ltd., set up by Frank Whittle. The first two operational turbojet aircraft, the Messerschmitt Me 262 and then the Gloster Meteor entered service within three months of each other in 1944; the Me 262 in April and the Gloster Meteor in July. The Meteor only saw around 15 aircraft enter World War II action, while up to 1400 Me 262 were produced, with 300 entering combat, delivering

4200-764: The National Aerospace Laboratories and the Indian Space Research Organisation are headquartered. The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) launched India's first Moon orbiter, Chandrayaan-1 , in October 2008. In Russia, large aerospace companies like Oboronprom and the United Aircraft Building Corporation (encompassing Mikoyan , Sukhoi , Ilyushin , Tupolev , Yakovlev , and Irkut which includes Beriev ) are among

4305-821: The Tiger attack helicopter, along with militarized versions of the H125, H135, H145, H160, H175, H215, and H225. The company is also a 62.5% owner of the NHIndustries joint venture, which builds the NH90 military utility helicopter. Revenues by division, as of 2023: Commercial aircraft generated 74% of total revenue for the Airbus group in 2018 and 72% in 2023. The key trends for Airbus Commercial Aircraft (excluding Defence, Space and Helicopters) are as of each financial year ending December 31: The division Airbus Defence and Space

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4410-722: The Tornado fighter jet, a 37.5% owner of the MBDA joint venture which builds missiles, and a 10% owner of Dassault Aviation which builds the Rafale fighter jet, and previously, the Mirage 2000 fighter. Airbus Helicopters markets and builds new rotorcraft for civilian and military use. The division was founded formed in 1992 as the Eurocopter Group, through the merger of the helicopter divisions of Aérospatiale and DASA (two of

4515-500: The aeolipile , a device described by Hero of Alexandria in 1st-century Egypt . This device directed steam power through two nozzles to cause a sphere to spin rapidly on its axis. It was seen as a curiosity. Meanwhile, practical applications of the turbine can be seen in the water wheel and the windmill . Historians have further traced the theoretical origin of the principles of jet engines to traditional Chinese firework and rocket propulsion systems. Such devices' use for flight

4620-664: The gasoline -fuelled HeS 3 of 5 kN (1,100 lbf), which was fitted to Heinkel's simple and compact He 178 airframe and flown by Erich Warsitz in the early morning of August 27, 1939, from Rostock -Marienehe aerodrome , an impressively short time for development. The He 178 was the world's first jet plane. Heinkel applied for a US patent covering the Aircraft Power Plant by Hans Joachim Pabst von Ohain on May 31, 1939; patent number US2256198, with M Hahn referenced as inventor. Von Ohain's design, an axial-flow engine, as opposed to Whittle's centrifugal flow engine,

4725-402: The ram effect of the vehicle's speed instead of a mechanical compressor. The thrust of a typical jetliner engine went from 5,000 lbf (22 kN) ( de Havilland Ghost turbojet) in the 1950s to 115,000 lbf (510 kN) ( General Electric GE90 turbofan) in the 1990s, and their reliability went from 40 in-flight shutdowns per 100,000 engine flight hours to less than 1 per 100,000 in

4830-537: The 1950s, the jet engine was almost universal in combat aircraft, with the exception of cargo, liaison and other specialty types. By this point, some of the British designs were already cleared for civilian use, and had appeared on early models like the de Havilland Comet and Avro Canada Jetliner . By the 1960s, all large civilian aircraft were also jet powered, leaving the piston engine in low-cost niche roles such as cargo flights. The efficiency of turbojet engines

4935-667: The A320, making it easier to train crew. The success led Airbus to introduce a lengthened version, the A321 in 1993, along with the shorter A319 in 1995 and the even shorter A318 in 2002. In 2016, Airbus re-engineered the narrow-body family, in a programme called the A320neo ( new engine option). The wide-body programme led to the introduction of the four-engine A340 in 1991 and the twinjet A330 in 1992. At that time, Airbus wanted to offer four-engined jet aircraft to allow for longer transatlantic and transpacific flights. However, during

5040-645: The A350 XWB, A320 families and future Airbus programmes. Harbin Aircraft Industry Group Corporation, Hafei Aviation Industry Company Ltd, AviChina Industry & Technology and other Chinese partners hold an 80% stake in the plant while Airbus controls the remaining 20%. In 2022, the Tianjin plant finished upgrading works to allow for production of A321. In 2023, the Tianjin final assembly plant started construction to be expanded with

5145-825: The A380 boasts 51% American content in terms of work share value. Plans for a Mobile, Alabama aircraft assembly plant were unveiled by Airbus CEO Fabrice Brégier from the Mobile Convention Centre on 2 July 2012. The plans include a $ 600 million factory at the Mobile Aeroplex at Brookley for the assembly of the A220 , A319, A320 and A321 aircraft. It could employ up to 1,000 full-time workers when operational. Construction began on 8 April 2013, and became operable by 2015, producing up to 50 aircraft per year by 2017. The key trends of Airbus SE are (as of each financial year ending December 31): In October 2005

5250-651: The British Ministry of Defence warned European politicians to stop, as it saw it, interfering in the corporate governance of EADS. The former UK Defence Procurement Minister Lord Drayson hinted that the UK government, a major customer for EADS, may withhold future contracts. "As a key customer, we see it as important for EADS to move in a direction that is free from political interference." On 4 April 2006, DaimlerChrysler announced its intention to reduce its shareholding from 30 % to 22.5 %. The company placed

5355-521: The British embassy in Madrid a few years later by his wife, Carlota O'Neill , upon her release from prison. In 1935, Hans von Ohain started work on a similar design to Whittle's in Germany, both compressor and turbine being radial, on opposite sides of the same disc, initially unaware of Whittle's work. Von Ohain's first device was strictly experimental and could run only under external power, but he

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5460-553: The European Union, aerospace companies such as Airbus SE , Safran , Thales , Dassault Aviation , Leonardo and Saab AB account for a large share of the global aerospace industry and research effort, with the European Space Agency as one of the largest consumers of aerospace technology and products. In India, Bangalore is a major center of the aerospace industry, where Hindustan Aeronautics Limited ,

5565-534: The Pratt & Whitney J57 and J75 models. There is also a derivative of the P&;W JT8D low-bypass turbofan that creates up to 35,000 horsepower (HP) . Jet engines are also sometimes developed into, or share certain components such as engine cores, with turboshaft and turboprop engines, which are forms of gas turbine engines that are typically used to power helicopters and some propeller-driven aircraft. There are

5670-468: The Swedish Air Force—especially in support of its position as a neutral country. (See Saab AB .) Other European countries either team up in making fighters (such as the Panavia Tornado and the Eurofighter Typhoon ), or else to import them from the United States. Pakistan has a developing aerospace engineering industry. The National Engineering and Scientific Commission , Khan Research Laboratories and Pakistan Aeronautical Complex are among

5775-466: The United States and Europe to fill these needs. However Canada still manufactures some military aircraft although they are generally not combat capable. Another notable example was the late 1950s development of the Avro Canada CF-105 Arrow , a supersonic fighter-interceptor whose 1959 cancellation was considered highly controversial. France has continued to make its own warplanes for its air force and navy, and Sweden continues to make its own warplanes for

5880-429: The United States. However, the UK has a very active aerospace sector, with major companies such as BAE Systems , supplying fully assembled aircraft, aircraft components, sub-assemblies and sub-systems to other manufacturers, both in Europe and all over the world. Canada has formerly manufactured some of its own designs for jet warplanes, etc. (e.g. the CF-100 fighter), but for some decades, it has relied on imports from

5985-424: The air density is too low for a lifting body to generate meaningful lift force without exceeding orbital velocity. In most industrial countries, the aerospace industry is a cooperation of the public and private sectors. For example, several states have a civilian space program funded by the government , such as National Aeronautics and Space Administration in the United States, European Space Agency in Europe,

6090-400: The air/combustion gases to flow more smoothly the engine will be more efficient and use less fuel. A standard definition is used to assess how different things change engine efficiency and also to allow comparisons to be made between different engines. This definition is called specific fuel consumption , or how much fuel is needed to produce one unit of thrust. For example, it will be known for

6195-399: The aircraft can also be configured for troop transport, medevac, and cargo transportation. The A400M Atlas is a four-engine, turboprop-powered tactical transport aircraft. The A400M is sized between the American-made C-130 and the C-17 transports, and while it can carry heavier loads than the C-130, its turboprop engines allow it to retain the ability to use rough landing strips. The A400M

6300-405: The aircraft's development, new rules extended twinjet operations to 120 minutes in 1986, and 180 minutes in 1989. Although the new rules hurt sales of the A340, they greatly benefited the A330 . Production of the A340 ended in 2011, while the A330 would be re-engineered as the A330neo ( new engine option ) in 2018. The world's largest passenger airliner was introduced by Airbus in 2005; the A380

6405-405: The appropriate regulations. Spinoffs refer to any technology that is a direct result of coding or products created by NASA and redesigned for an alternate purpose. These technological advancements are one of the primary results of the aerospace industry, with $ 5.2 billion worth of revenue generated by spinoff technology, including computers and cellular devices. These spinoffs have applications in

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6510-423: The capability to design and manufacture both armed and unarmed unmanned aerial vehicles . In the People's Republic of China, Beijing , Xi'an , Chengdu , Shanghai , Shenyang and Nanchang are major research and manufacture centers of the aerospace industry. China has developed an extensive capability to design, test and produce military aircraft, missiles and space vehicles. Despite the cancellation in 1983 of

6615-488: The commodity selling of aircraft parts. In the aerospace and defense industry, much consolidation occurred at the end of the 20th century and in the early 21st century. Between 1988 and 2011, more than 6,068 mergers and acquisitions with a total known value of US$ 678 billion were announced worldwide. The largest transactions have been: Multiple technologies and innovations are used in aerospace, many of them pioneered around World War II : Functional safety relates to

6720-407: The company 4.8 billion euros in lost earnings in 2010, EADS shares, traded on the Paris arm of Euronext, were suspended after they surpassed the 10 % loss limit. Trading resumed later in the day with the one-day loss holding at 7 %. Aerospace The beginning of space and the ending of the air are proposed as 100km (62mi) above the ground according to the physical explanation that

6825-426: The construction of aircraft. Modern aerospace began with Engineer George Cayley in 1799. Cayley proposed an aircraft with a "fixed wing and a horizontal and vertical tail," defining characteristics of the modern aeroplane. The 19th century saw the creation of the Aeronautical Society of Great Britain (1866), the American Rocketry Society, and the Institute of Aeronautical Sciences , all of which made aeronautics

6930-496: The divergent area is less than required to give complete internal expansion to ambient pressure as a trade-off with external body drag. Whitford gives the F-16 as an example. Other underexpanded examples were the XB-70 and SR-71. The nozzle size, together with the area of the turbine nozzles, determines the operating pressure of the compressor. This overview highlights where energy losses occur in complete jet aircraft powerplants or engine installations. A jet engine at rest, as on

7035-405: The end of World War II were unsuccessful. Even before the start of World War II, engineers were beginning to realize that engines driving propellers were approaching limits due to issues related to propeller efficiency, which declined as blade tips approached the speed of sound . If aircraft performance were to increase beyond such a barrier, a different propulsion mechanism was necessary. This

7140-425: The engine is controlled primarily by the operating conditions inside the engine which are the pressure produced by the compressor and the temperature of the combustion gases at the first set of rotating turbine blades. The pressure is the highest air pressure in the engine. The turbine rotor temperature is not the highest in the engine but is the highest at which energy transfer takes place ( higher temperatures occur in

7245-650: The engine, producing thrust. All the air entering the compressor is passed through the combustor, and turbine, unlike the turbofan engine described below. Turbofans differ from turbojets in that they have an additional fan at the front of the engine, which accelerates air in a duct bypassing the core gas turbine engine. Turbofans are the dominant engine type for medium and long-range airliners . Turbofans are usually more efficient than turbojets at subsonic speeds, but at high speeds their large frontal area generates more drag . Therefore, in supersonic flight, and in military and other aircraft where other considerations have

7350-399: The experimental Shanghai Y-10 , China is still developing its civil aerospace industry. The aircraft parts industry was born out of the sale of second-hand or used aircraft parts from the aerospace manufacture sector. Within the United States there is a specific process that parts brokers or resellers must follow. This includes leveraging a certified repair station to overhaul and "tag"

7455-535: The first crewed Moon landing. In April 1981, the Space Shuttle Columbia launched, the start of regular crewed access to orbital space. A sustained human presence in orbital space started with " Mir " in 1986 and is continued by the " International Space Station ". Space commercialization and space tourism are more recent features of aerospace. Aerospace manufacturing is a high-technology industry that produces "aircraft, guided missiles, space vehicles, aircraft engines, propulsion units, and related parts". Most of

7560-414: The first ground attacks and air combat victories of jet planes. Following the end of the war the German jet aircraft and jet engines were extensively studied by the victorious allies and contributed to work on early Soviet and US jet fighters. The legacy of the axial-flow engine is seen in the fact that practically all jet engines on fixed-wing aircraft have had some inspiration from this design. By

7665-666: The first powered sustained flight at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina on December 17, 1903, by the Wright brothers. War and science fiction inspired scientists and engineers like Konstantin Tsiolkovsky and Wernher von Braun to achieve flight beyond the atmosphere. World War II inspired Wernher von Braun to create the V1 and V2 rockets. The launch of Sputnik 1 in October 1957 started the Space Age , and on July 20, 1969 Apollo 11 achieved

7770-712: The form of rocket engines they power model rocketry , spaceflight , and military missiles . Jet engines have propelled high speed cars, particularly drag racers , with the all-time record held by a rocket car . A turbofan powered car, ThrustSSC , currently holds the land speed record . Jet engine designs are frequently modified for non-aircraft applications, as industrial gas turbines or marine powerplants . These are used in electrical power generation, for powering water, natural gas, or oil pumps, and providing propulsion for ships and locomotives. Industrial gas turbines can create up to 50,000 shaft horsepower. Many of these engines are derived from older military turbojets such as

7875-426: The founding companies of Airbus). Airbus Helicopters is the foremost player in the turbine helicopter industry both in terms of revenues and deliveries. The division's civilian products include the single engine H125 and H130 , the light twin engine H135 and H145 , the medium twin engine H155 and H160 , the super medium twin engine H175 , and the heavy twin engine H215 and H225 . Military products include

7980-1092: The industrial sector with fresh workers, apprenticeship programs like the Aerospace Joint Apprenticeship Council (AJAC) collaborate with community colleges and aerospace firms in Washington state. Important locations of the civilian aerospace industry worldwide include Washington state ( Boeing ), California ( Boeing , Lockheed Martin , etc.) and Montreal, Quebec , Canada ( Bombardier , Pratt & Whitney Canada ) in North America ; Toulouse , France ( Airbus SE ) and Hamburg , Germany ( Airbus SE ) in Europe ; as well as São José dos Campos , Brazil ( Embraer ), Querétaro , Mexico (Bombardier Aerospace, General Electric Aviation) and Mexicali , Mexico (United Technologies Corporation, Gulfstream Aerospace ) in Latin America . In

8085-609: The industry is geared toward governmental work. For each original equipment manufacturer (OEM), the US government has assigned a Commercial and Government Entity (CAGE) code . These codes help to identify each manufacturer, repair facilities, and other critical aftermarket vendors in the aerospace industry. In the United States, the Department of Defense and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) are

8190-458: The late 1990s. This, combined with greatly decreased fuel consumption, permitted routine transatlantic flight by twin-engined airliners by the turn of the century, where previously a similar journey would have required multiple fuel stops. The principle of the jet engine is not new; however, the technical advances necessary to make the idea work did not come to fruition until the 20th century. A rudimentary demonstration of jet power dates back to

8295-506: The logos of Airbus Group NV (2014–2015) and Airbus Group SE (2015–2017), then Airbus SE: The Airbus product line started with the A300 in 1972, the world's first wide-body , twinjet aircraft. The aircraft greatly benefited from the 1976 introduction of the ETOPS 90 rule, which allowed twinjet aircraft to operate up to 90 minutes (increased from 60 minutes) away from the nearest airport. Under

8400-413: The major global players in this industry. The historic Soviet Union was also the home of a major aerospace industry. The United Kingdom formerly attempted to maintain its own large aerospace industry, making its own airliners and warplanes, but it has largely turned its lot over to cooperative efforts with continental companies, and it has turned into a large import customer, too, from countries such as

8505-497: The medical derivations of aerospace achievement. This device enables more precise and subsequently cost-effective neurosurgery by reducing complications through a minimally invasive procedure that abbreviates hospitalization. "These NASA technologies are not only giving companies and entrepreneurs a competitive edge in their own industries, but are also helping to shape budding industries, such as commercial lunar landers ," said Daniel Lockney. Jet engine A jet engine

8610-394: The net thrust of a rocket engine is: Where F N {\displaystyle F_{N}} is the net thrust, I sp,vac {\displaystyle I_{\text{sp,vac}}} is the specific impulse , g 0 {\displaystyle g_{0}} is a standard gravity , m ˙ {\displaystyle {\dot {m}}}

8715-688: The new rule, the A300 was able to operate over the North Atlantic , the Bay of Bengal , and the Indian Ocean more efficiently than the trijets and four-engined jet aircraft offered by competitors. They then went on to make the Airbus A310 which is also a wide-body aircraft. Airbus had identified a demand for an aircraft smaller than the Airbus A300 , the first twin-jet wide-body. It

8820-404: The nozzle but their static values drop as the gas speeds up. The velocity of the air entering the nozzle is low, about Mach 0.4, a prerequisite for minimizing pressure losses in the duct leading to the nozzle. The temperature entering the nozzle may be as low as sea level ambient for a fan nozzle in the cold air at cruise altitudes. It may be as high as the 1000 Kelvin exhaust gas temperature for

8925-544: The premier organizations involved in research and development in this sector. Pakistan has the capability of designing and manufacturing guided rockets, missiles and space vehicles. The city of Kamra is home to the Pakistan Aeronautical Complex which contains several factories. This facility is responsible for manufacturing the MFI-17 , MFI-395 , K-8 and JF-17 Thunder aircraft. Pakistan also has

9030-424: The same basic physical principles of thrust as a form of reaction engine , but is distinct from the jet engine in that it does not require atmospheric air to provide oxygen; the rocket carries all components of the reaction mass. However some definitions treat it as a form of jet propulsion . Because rockets do not breathe air, this allows them to operate at arbitrary altitudes and in space. This type of engine

9135-539: The state of the art in compressors. Alan Arnold Griffith published An Aerodynamic Theory of Turbine Design in 1926 leading to experimental work at the RAE . In 1928, RAF College Cranwell cadet Frank Whittle formally submitted his ideas for a turbojet to his superiors. In October 1929, he developed his ideas further. On 16 January 1930, in England, Whittle submitted his first patent (granted in 1932). The patent showed

9240-432: The turbines. Ram compression jet engines are airbreathing engines similar to gas turbine engines in so far as they both use the Brayton cycle . Gas turbine and ram compression engines differ, however, in how they compress the incoming airflow. Whereas gas turbine engines use axial or centrifugal compressors to compress incoming air, ram engines rely only on air compressed in the inlet or diffuser. A ram engine thus requires

9345-639: The two largest consumers of aerospace technology and products. Others include the very large airline industry. The aerospace industry employed 472,000 wage and salary workers in 2006. Most of those jobs were in Washington state and in California, with Missouri , New York and Texas also being important. The leading aerospace manufacturers in the U.S. are Boeing , United Technologies Corporation , SpaceX , Northrop Grumman and Lockheed Martin . As talented American employees age and retire, these manufacturers face an expanding labor shortfall. In order to supply

9450-664: The world's biggest manufacturer of airliners. The company was incorporated as the European Aeronautic Defence and Space Company ( EADS ) in the year 2000 through the merger of the French Aérospatiale - Matra , the German DASA and Spanish CASA . The new entity subsequently acquired full ownership of its subsidiary, Airbus Industrie GIE , a joint venture of European aerospace companies originally incorporated in 1970 to develop and produce

9555-572: Was a four-engine aircraft with two full-length passenger seating decks. Intended to challenge the dominance of the Boeing 747 in the long-haul market, the A380 was ultimately a money-losing venture for Airbus due to large development costs and limited sales, and production ended in January 2022. The A350 , a wide-body, twinjet aircraft was introduced in 2013. The A350 was the first Airbus aircraft made largely from carbon-fiber-reinforced polymers . It

9660-411: Was a partner in the Eurofighter consortium as well as in the missile systems provider MBDA . Airbus Helicopters , formerly known as Eurocopter, is a helicopter manufacturing and support company. The 10 largest shareholder of Airbus in early 2024 were: The corporate management of Airbus is: Airbus has several final assembly lines for different models and markets. These are: Airbus, however, has

9765-604: Was able to demonstrate the basic concept. Ohain was then introduced to Ernst Heinkel , one of the larger aircraft industrialists of the day, who immediately saw the promise of the design. Heinkel had recently purchased the Hirth engine company, and Ohain and his master machinist Max Hahn were set up there as a new division of the Hirth company. They had their first HeS 1 centrifugal engine running by September 1937. Unlike Whittle's design, Ohain used hydrogen as fuel, supplied under external pressure. Their subsequent designs culminated in

9870-406: Was built in 1903 by Norwegian engineer Ægidius Elling . Such engines did not reach manufacture due to issues of safety, reliability, weight and, especially, sustained operation. The first patent for using a gas turbine to power an aircraft was filed in 1921 by Maxime Guillaume . His engine was an axial-flow turbojet, but was never constructed, as it would have required considerable advances over

9975-589: Was developed for European NATO members, Belgium, France, Germany, Luxembourg, Spain, Turkey, and the UK, as an alternative to relying on foreign aircraft. During development, the A400M programme faced delays and cost overruns; with customer nations stepping in offer additional subsidies. The first aircraft was delivered to the French Air Force in 2013, and by 2023, more than 100 aircraft had been built. The Defence and Space division also market and assembles

10080-578: Was eventually adopted by most manufacturers by the 1950s. Austrian Anselm Franz of Junkers ' engine division ( Junkers Motoren or "Jumo") introduced the axial-flow compressor in their jet engine. Jumo was assigned the next engine number in the RLM 109-0xx numbering sequence for gas turbine aircraft powerplants, "004", and the result was the Jumo 004 engine. After many lesser technical difficulties were solved, mass production of this engine started in 1944 as

10185-666: Was formed in January 2014 as part of the group restructuring from the former EADS divisions Airbus Military , Astrium , and Cassidian (composed of Cassidian Electronics – develops and manufactures sensors, radars, avionics and electronic warfare systems for military and security applications, Cassidian Air Systems – develops manned and unmanned aerial systems (UAVs), mission avionics, electronic defence and warning systems and Cassidian Systems – provides global security systems such as command & control, lead system integration, TETRA and TETRAPOL communication systems for public safety, industry, transportation and defence. This line of business

10290-417: Was given its present name in April 2017. Aérospatiale (est. 1970) Matra (est. 1937) Daimler-Benz (aerospace unit) (est. 1926) Dornier Flugzeugwerke (est. 1922) Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm (MBB) (est. 1968) CASA (Construcciones Aeronáuticas SA) (est. 1923) The logos of Airbus Industrie GIE and Airbus SAS displayed a stylised turbine symbol, redolent of a jet engine , and

10395-593: Was granted a patent for a jet engine design in March 1935. Republican president Manuel Azaña arranged for initial construction at the Hispano-Suiza aircraft factory in Madrid in 1936, but Leret was executed months later by Francoist Moroccan troops after unsuccessfully defending his seaplane base on the first days of the Spanish Civil War . His plans, hidden from Francoists, were secretly given to

10500-514: Was manufactured from 1981-1998. Building on its success with the A300, Airbus worked to develop a narrow-body aircraft along with additional wide-body aircraft based on the A300. The narrow-body efforts led to the launch of the A320 in 1987, which was and continues to be a major commercial success. The A320 was the first commercial jet to use a digital fly-by-wire control system. All Airbus aircraft developed since then have cockpit systems similar to

10605-572: Was reorganised as Airbus SAS , a simplified joint-stock company . In 2006, EADS acquired BAE Systems ' remaining 20% of Airbus. EADS NV was renamed Airbus Group NV and SE in 2014 and 2015, respectively. Due to the dominance of the Airbus SAS division within Airbus Group SE, the executive committees of the parent and subsidiary companies were aligned in January 2017, but the companies were kept as separate legal entities. The holding company

10710-489: Was reportedly purchased by the Russian state-owned Vneshtorgbank , bringing its share to nearly 6 %. In December 2007, Vneshtorgbank sold EADS shares to another state-controlled bank, Vnesheconombank . EADS shares were to be delivered by Vneshekonombank to the charter capital of JSC United Aircraft Corporation in 2008. On 3 October 2006, shortly after EADS admitted further delays in the Airbus 380 programme would cost

10815-427: Was still rather worse than piston engines, but by the 1970s, with the advent of high-bypass turbofan jet engines (an innovation not foreseen by the early commentators such as Edgar Buckingham , at high speeds and high altitudes that seemed absurd to them), fuel efficiency was about the same as the best piston and propeller engines. Jet engines power jet aircraft , cruise missiles and unmanned aerial vehicles . In

10920-406: Was the first one in the world to begin field tests with TETRA Enhanced Data Service (TEDS). The Airbus Military division, which manufactured tanker, transport and mission aircraft; Airbus Helicopters , the world's largest helicopter supplier; Astrium , provided systems for aerial, land, naval and civilian security applications including Ariane , Galileo and Cassidian . Through Cassidian, EADS

11025-409: Was the motivation behind the development of the gas turbine engine, the most common form of jet engine. The key to a practical jet engine was the gas turbine , extracting power from the engine itself to drive the compressor . The gas turbine was not a new idea: the patent for a stationary turbine was granted to John Barber in England in 1791. The first gas turbine to successfully run self-sustaining

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